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 PROCEEDINGS OF
THE 2017 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
MODELING, SIMULATION & VISUALIZATION METHODS

Editors
Hamid R. Arabnia
Leonidas Deligiannidis, Fernando G. Tinetti

Associate Editors
Ashu M. G. Solo, Jane You

CSCE’17
July 17-20, 2017
Las Vegas Nevada, USA
americancse.org

©
CSREA Press
This volume contains papers presented at The 2017 International Conference on Modeling,
Simulation & Visualization Methods (MSV'17). Their inclusion in this publication does not
necessarily constitute endorsements by editors or by the publisher.

Copyright and Reprint Permission

Copying without a fee is permitted provided that the copies are not made or distributed for direct
commercial advantage, and credit to source is given. Abstracting is permitted with credit to the
source. Please contact the publisher for other copying, reprint, or republication permission.

©
Copyright 2017 CSREA Press
ISBN: 1-60132-465-0
Printed in the United States of America
 Foreword
It gives us great pleasure to introduce this collection of papers to be presented at the 2017 International
Conference on Modeling, Simulation and Visualization Methods (MSV’17), July 17-20, 2017, at Monte
Carlo Resort, Las Vegas, USA.

An important mission of the World Congress in Computer Science, Computer Engineering, and Applied
Computing, CSCE (a federated congress to which this conference is affiliated with) includes "Providing a
unique platform for a diverse community of constituents composed of scholars, researchers, developers,
educators, and practitioners. The Congress makes concerted effort to reach out to participants affiliated
with diverse entities (such as: universities, institutions, corporations, government agencies, and research
centers/labs) from all over the world. The congress also attempts to connect participants from institutions
that have teaching as their main mission with those who are affiliated with institutions that have research
as their main mission. The congress uses a quota system to achieve its institution and geography diversity
objectives." By any definition of diversity, this congress is among the most diverse scientific meeting in
USA. We are proud to report that this federated congress has authors and participants from 64 different
nations representing variety of personal and scientific experiences that arise from differences in culture and
values. As can be seen (see below), the program committee of this conference as well as the program
committee of all other tracks of the federated congress are as diverse as its authors and participants.

The program committee would like to thank all those who submitted papers for consideration. About 65%
of the submissions were from outside the United States. Each submitted paper was peer-reviewed by two
experts in the field for originality, significance, clarity, impact, and soundness. In cases of contradictory
recommendations, a member of the conference program committee was charged to make the final decision;
often, this involved seeking help from additional referees. In addition, papers whose authors included a
member of the conference program committee were evaluated using the double-blinded review process.
One exception to the above evaluation process was for papers that were submitted directly to
chairs/organizers of pre-approved sessions/workshops; in these cases, the chairs/organizers were
responsible for the evaluation of such submissions. The overall paper acceptance rate for regular papers
was 25%; 19% of the remaining papers were accepted as poster papers (at the time of this writing, we had
not yet received the acceptance rate for a couple of individual tracks.)

We are very grateful to the many colleagues who offered their services in organizing the conference. In
particular, we would like to thank the members of Program Committee of MSV’17, members of the
congress Steering Committee, and members of the committees of federated congress tracks that have topics
within the scope of MSV. Many individuals listed below, will be requested after the conference to provide
their expertise and services for selecting papers for publication (extended versions) in journal special
issues as well as for publication in a set of research books (to be prepared for publishers including:
Springer, Elsevier, BMC journals, and others).

• Prof. Nizar Al-Holou (Congress Steering Committee); Professor and Chair, Electrical and Computer
Engineering Department; Vice Chair, IEEE/SEM-Computer Chapter; University of Detroit Mercy, Detroit,
Michigan, USA
• Prof. Hamid R. Arabnia (Congress Steering Committee); Graduate Program Director (PhD, MS, MAMS);
The University of Georgia, USA; Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Supercomputing (Springer);Fellow, Center of
Excellence in Terrorism, Resilience, Intelligence & Organized Crime Research (CENTRIC).
• Prof. Dr. Juan-Vicente Capella-Hernandez; Universitat Politecnica de Valencia (UPV), Department of
Computer Engineering (DISCA), Valencia, Spain
• Prof. Juan Jose Martinez Castillo; Director, The Acantelys Alan Turing Nikola Tesla Research Group and
GIPEB, Universidad Nacional Abierta, Venezuela
• Prof. Kevin Daimi (Congress Steering Committee); Director, Computer Science and Software Engineering
Programs, Department of Mathematics, Computer Science and Software Engineering, University of Detroit
Mercy, Detroit, Michigan, USA
• Prof. Zhangisina Gulnur Davletzhanovna (IPCV); Vice-rector of the Science, Central-Asian University,
Kazakhstan, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan; Vice President of International Academy of Informatization,
Kazskhstan, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan
 • Prof. Leonidas Deligiannidis (Congress Steering Committee); Department of Computer Information Systems,
Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; Visiting Professor, MIT, USA
• Prof. Mary Mehrnoosh Eshaghian-Wilner (Congress Steering Committee); Professor of Engineering
Practice, University of Southern California, California, USA; Adjunct Professor, Electrical Engineering,
University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles (UCLA), California, USA
• Prof. Byung-Gyu Kim (Congress Steering Committee); Multimedia Processing Communications
Lab.(MPCL), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, SunMoon
University, South Korea
• Prof. Dr. Guoming Lai; Computer Science and Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
• Prof. Hyo Jong Lee (IPCV); Director, Center for Advanced Image and Information Technology, Division of
Computer Science and Engineering, Chonbuk National University, South Korea
• Dr. Muhammad Naufal Bin Mansor; Faculty of Engineering Technology, Department of Electrical,
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Perlis, Malaysia
• Dr. Andrew Marsh (Congress Steering Committee); CEO, HoIP Telecom Ltd (Healthcare over Internet
Protocol), UK; Secretary General of World Academy of BioMedical Sciences and Technologies (WABT) a
UNESCO NGO, The United Nations
• Prof. Aree Ali Mohammed; Head, Computer Science Department, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region,
Iraq
• Dr. Ali Mostafaeipour; Industrial Engineering Department, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
• Prof. Dr., Eng. Robert Ehimen Okonigene (Congress Steering Committee); Department of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Ambrose Alli University, Edo State,
Nigeria
• Prof. James J. (Jong Hyuk) Park (Congress Steering Committee); Department of Computer Science and
Engineering (DCSE), SeoulTech, Korea; President, FTRA, EiC, HCIS Springer, JoC, IJITCC; Head of
DCSE, SeoulTech, Korea
• Prof. Dr. R. Ponalagusamy; Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology, India
• Dr. Xuewei Qi; Research Faculty & PI, Center for Environmental Research and Technology, University of
California, Riverside, California, USA
• Dr. Akash Singh (Congress Steering Committee); IBM Corporation, Sacramento, California, USA;
Chartered Scientist, Science Council, UK; Fellow, British Computer Society; Member, Senior IEEE, AACR,
AAAS, and AAAI; IBM Corporation, USA
• Ashu M. G. Solo (Publicity), Fellow of British Computer Society, Principal/R&D Engineer, Maverick
Technologies America Inc.
• Prof. Dr. Ir. Sim Kok Swee; Fellow, IEM; Senior Member, IEEE; Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia
• Prof. Fernando G. Tinetti (Congress Steering Committee); School of CS, Universidad Nacional de La Plata,
La Plata, Argentina; Co-editor, Journal of Computer Science and Technology (JCS&T).
• Dr. Haoxiang Harry Wang (CSCE); Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA; Founder and Director,
GoPerception Laboratory, New York, USA
• Prof. Shiuh-Jeng Wang (Congress Steering Committee); Director of Information Cryptology and
Construction Laboratory (ICCL) and Director of Chinese Cryptology and Information Security Association
(CCISA); Department of Information Management, Central Police University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Guest Ed.,
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications.
• Prof. Layne T. Watson (Congress Steering Committee); Fellow of IEEE; Fellow of The National Institute of
Aerospace; Professor of Computer Science, Mathematics, and Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
• Prof. Jane You (Congress Steering Committee); Associate Head, Department of Computing, The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

We would like to extend our appreciation to the referees, the members of the program committees of
individual sessions, tracks, and workshops; their names do not appear in this document; they are listed on
the web sites of individual tracks.

As Sponsors-at-large, partners, and/or organizers each of the followings (separated by semicolons)

provided help for at least one track of the Congress: Computer Science Research, Education, and
Applications Press (CSREA); US Chapter of World Academy of Science; American Council on Science &
Education & Federated Research Council (http://www.americancse.org/); HoIP, Health Without
Boundaries, Healthcare over Internet Protocol, UK (http://www.hoip.eu); HoIP Telecom, UK
(http://www.hoip-telecom.co.uk); and WABT, Human Health Medicine, UNESCO NGOs, Paris, France
(http://www.thewabt.com/ ). In addition, a number of university faculty members and their staff (names
appear on the cover of the set of proceedings), several publishers of computer science and computer
engineering books and journals, chapters and/or task forces of computer science associations/organizations
from 3 regions, and developers of high-performance machines and systems provided significant help in
organizing the conference as well as providing some resources. We are grateful to them all.

We express our gratitude to keynote, invited, and individual conference/tracks and tutorial speakers - the
list of speakers appears on the conference web site. We would also like to thank the followings: UCMSS
(Universal Conference Management Systems & Support, California, USA) for managing all aspects of the
conference; Dr. Tim Field of APC for coordinating and managing the printing of the proceedings; and the
staff of Monte Carlo Resort (Convention department) at Las Vegas for the professional service they
provided. Last but not least, we would like to thank the Co-Editors of MSV’17: Prof. Hamid R. Arabnia,
Prof. Leonidas Deligiannidis, and Prof. Fernando G. Tinetti.

We present the proceedings of MSV’17.

Steering Committee, 2017

http://americancse.org/
 Contents
SESSION: SIMULATION, TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS

Generating Strongly Connected Random Graphs 3

Peter Maurer

Simulating Virtual Memory Allocations using SPEC Tools in Microsoft Hyper-V Clouds 7
John M. Medellin, Lokesh Budhi

Autonomously Battery Charging Tires For EVs Using Piezoelectric Phenomenon 13

Muhammad Kamran, Raziq Yaqub, Azzam ul Asar

Traffic Re-Direction Simulation During a Road Disaster/Collapse on Toll Road 408 in Florida 19
Craig Tidwell

SESSION: MODELING, VISUALIZATION AND NOVEL APPLICATIONS

Performance Enhancement and Prediction Model of Concurrent Thread Execution in JVM 29
Khondker Shajadul Hasan

A Stochastic Method for Structural Degradation Modeling 36

Peter Sawka, Sara Boyle, Jeremy Mange

Increased Realism in Modeling and Simulation for Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, and 42
Immersive Environments
Jeffrey Wallace, Sara Kambouris

A Toolbox versus a Tool - A Design Approach 49

Hans-Peter Bischof

Generating Shapes and Colors using Cell Developmental Mechanism 55

Sezin Hwang, Moon-Ryul Jun

Modeling Business Processes: Events and Compliance Rules 61

Sabah Al-Fedaghi

Constructing a Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model by a Fuzzy Data Shifter 68

Horng-Lin Shieh, Ying-Kuei Yang

SESSION: NOVEL ALGORITHMS AND APPLICATIONS + IMAGING SCIENCE

+ SIGNAL ENHANCEMENT AND WIRELESS INFRASTRUCTURES
Estimating Cost of Smart Community Wireless Platforms 75
Sakir Yucel
Detection of Ultra High Frequency Narrow Band Signal Using Nonuniform Sampling 82
Sung-won Park, Raksha Kestur

Smart Community Wireless Platforms 87

Sakir Yucel

Sketch Based Image Retrieval System Based on Block Histogram Matching 94

Kathy Khaing, Sai Maung Maung Zaw, Nyein Aye

Smart City Wireless Platforms for Smart Cities 100

Sakir Yucel

Measuring Benefits, Drawbacks and Risks of Smart Community Wireless Platforms 107
Sakir Yucel

Magnetic Resonance Image Applied to 3-Dimensional Printing Utilizing Various Oils 114
Tyler Hartwig, Zeyu Huang, Sara Martinson, Ritchie Cai, Jeffrey Olafsen, Keith Schubert

SESSION: POSTER PAPERS

The Lithium-ion Battery Cell Analysis using Electrochemical-Thermal Coupled Model 121
Dongchan Lee, Keon-uk Kim, Chang-wan Kim

Renfred-Okonigene Children Protection System Network: Where Is My Baby? 123

Dorcas Okonigene, Robert Okonigene, Clement Ojieabu
Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 1

SESSION
SIMULATION, TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS

Chair(s)
TBA

ISBN: 1-60132-465-0, CSREA Press ©

2 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

ISBN: 1-60132-465-0, CSREA Press ©

Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 3

Generating Strongly Connected Random Graphs

Peter M. Maurer
Dept. of Computer Science
Baylor University
Waco, Texas 76798

Abstract – The algorithm presented here is capable of generating only if a spanning tree exists. Algorithm 1 adds Vertex 0 to the
strongly connected graphs in a single pass that requires O(n) time. spanning tree, and then adds the remaining vertices by selecting a
The method is to create a spanning tree that is a directed acyclic random vertex from the partial spanning tree as the parent of the new
graph, and adding a minimal number of edges to make the vertex.
spanning tree strongly connected. This is done in a way that is
completely general. Once the strongly connected spanning tree is 1. Add Vertex 0 to the tree.
created, additional edges can be added to the tree to create an 2. For each vertex, i, 1 through k  1
arbitrary strongly connected graph. a. select a vertex j at random from the existing tree
1 Introduction vertices
One important problem in many types of simulation is creating b. Add an edge between i and j.
random data for input to the simulation. Over the years, our need for c. Add vertex i to the tree.
such data in the simulation of gate-level circuits has led us to create a Algorithm 1. Creating the Spanning Tree.
package for creating many different types of random data [1,2].
Despite its utility, this package has become dated. It was originally When the graph is directed, simply creating a spanning tree is
intended to generate random data files for input to a simulation insufficient because the resultant graph must be strongly connected.
program. Recently, we have begun a project to upgrade this package The spanning tree is still necessary, because there must be a path from
with new features to make it more useful for modern types of programs Vertex 0 to every other vertex. When creating a spanning tree for a
that do not depend heavily on file-based input, and to generate types directed graph, the first step is to modify step 2 of Algorithm 1 so that
of data that are more suitable to modern programs than character the new edge proceeds from the tree vertex to the new vertex. This
strings and simple binary values. insures that there is a path from Vertex 0 to every other vertex. The
One major focus of this activity (there are many) is the generation resultant tree is a directed acyclic graph with the root of the tree as the
of random graphs. Graphs can be used to model many real-world only source. The sinks are the leaves of the tree.
phenomena. There are too many applications to mention individually, There are several straightforward methods for making the
but see [3] for an example. One new feature of our package is the spanning tree strongly connected. When adding a tree vertex, we could
creation of graph-generation subroutines that can be incorporated into add two edges, one from the tree vertex to the new vertex, and another
existing software. The graphs are generated internally as adjacency in the opposite direction. This would make the tree strongly connected,
lists and passed, as pointers, to the simulation software. but there would be no way to generate certain types of graphs such as
Graph specifications are simple, typically one line, but permit the the simple cycle of Figure 1. Another method is to add an edge from
specification of many different types of random graphs. The most each leaf vertex to the root vertex. This is perhaps more general, but
common models are the edged-oriented models, the Gilbert model [4] graphs such as that pictured in Figure 2 would be impossible to
and the Erdős–Rényi model [5]. The vertex-oriented models, power- generate.
law [6] and degree-sequence [7] models are also fairly common. This
paper will focus on the edge-oriented models. The Gilbert model
assigns a probability of p to the existence of any edge, and the Erdős–
Rényi model assigns equal probability to all graphs with M edges.
For the Gilbert model we generate k vertices and add each edge from
the complete graph with probability p . For the Erdős–Rényi model,
we sort all edges into random order and choose the first M edges from
the sorted list. (The parameters k, i, and M are specified by the user.)
Figure 1. A Simple Cycle.
The power-law and degree-sequence models are also available in our
package, but these are beyond the scope of this paper.
Parameters can be used to specify that the graph is directed, or
that the graph must be connected, or both. Creating a connected non-
directed graph is relatively simple. We generate a spanning tree using
Algorithm 1, and then apply either the Gilbert or the Erdős–Rényi
model to the remaining edges. The purpose of Algorithm 1 is to create
a spanning tree for the graph. A non-directed graph is connected if and

ISBN: 1-60132-465-0, CSREA Press ©

4 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

1. Function call DFS(i)

2. Set StartTime[i] to GlobalStartTime. // vertex i is first seen
3. Increment GlobalStartTime by 1.
4. For each vertex
j adjacent to vertex i
a. If StartTime[j] is equal to 1 Call DFS(j) // back
up to i
Figure 2. Impossible for Leaf-to-Root. 5. // backing up from i
Algorithm 2, basic DFS.
It is necessary to be able to generate any strongly connected graph
on k vertices. Some attempts have been made to do so using the To detect strongly components, the basic DFS algorithm must be
rejection method [8]. (The rejection method repeatedly generates modified in three places. First, we add an array of size n named Low.
directed graphs at random, and rejects those that are not strongly After a vertex has been completely processed, it Low[i] will contain
connected.) However, the rejection method works well only if the the smallest start time of any vertex that can be reached by following
probability of rejection is small. When a sparse strongly connected zero or more tree edges from Vertex i, followed by one back edge or
graph is required, the rejection method is not suitable. cross edge. The following is added after step 2.
Creation of the spanning tree is clearly the starting point for such
a procedure, since it must exist. Furthermore, Algorithm 1 is able to 2.5. Set Low[i] equal to StartTime[i].
generate any spanning tree, up to isomorphism. The next step must be
to add additional edges to the graph to make it strongly connected. This step indicates that, initially, the lowest reachable start time
Furthermore, this should be done in a way that is certain to succeed is the start time of the current vertex. To step 4a we add Low[i] =
and adds only a minimal number of edges to the tree. (The Leaf-to- min(Low[i],Low[j]). If it is possible to get further back than the current
Root method generates the absolute minimum number of edges, but is value of Low[i] by using tree edges, the new minimal start time
not suitable because it is not able to generate all strongly connected recorded.
graphs.) The following step is added after step 4a:
To meet the needs of our generation software, we use a modified
version of the Tarjan strongly connected component algorithm [9]. The b. else if j is not already in a SCC, Low[i] =
Tarjan algorithm is capable of identifying any strongly connected min(Low[i],StartTime[j])
graph by performing a single depth first search. The forward edges of
the depth first search define a tree which is equivalent to our initial If the edge (i,j) is a cross edge or a back edge, and it is further
spanning tree. To detect a strongly connected graph, the Tarjan back than we have been able to get previously, its start time is
algorithm identifies a minimal set of back and cross edges to insure recorded. The only problem that arises is when (i,j) is a cross edge to
that the initial spanning tree strongly connected. Rather than detecting a strongly connected component that has already been identified. Such
such edges (which do not exist in the initial spanning tree) we modify edges must be ignored. A status-array is normally used to keep track
the algorithm to insert such edges where required. We do this in such of such vertices.
a way that any suitable set of back or cross edge can be generated. Finally, Step 5 is added to identify strongly connected
Once the tree has been made strongly connected the Gilbert or Erdős– components. If Low[i] is equal to StartTime[i], then there is no back
Rényi model can be applied to the remaining edges. edge or cross edge that provides a path from Vertex i to its parent.
2 The Tarjan Algorithm Therefore, Vertex i is in a different strongly connected component than
To understand our method of inserting edges into the tree it is its parent.
necessary to understand the principles of the Tarjan algorithm. The
mechanism is based on depth first search with computed start times. 5. If Low[i] is equal to StartTime[i] Identify a new SCC.
Algorithm 2 shows the basic depth first search algorithm with the
modification points that are used to detect strongly connected Tarjan’s algorithm also includes a stacking mechanism to identify
components. Start time is an integer in the range [0, n  1] where n is the vertices belonging to a particular strongly connected component,
but because our aim is to create a single strongly connected
the number of vertices in the graph. The start time of vertex i is a
component, we will not consider this mechanism further. The same is
sequential number indicating the order in which vertex i was first seen
true for the mechanism that tags vertices that have already been
by the depth first search algorithm. In Algorithm 2, each element of assigned to a strongly connected component. The full Tarjan algorithm
the StartTime array (which is of size n) is initialized to 1 , and is given in Algorithm 3.
GlobalStartTime is initialized to zero. Both are global variables.

ISBN: 1-60132-465-0, CSREA Press ©

Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 5

1. Function call DFS(i)

2. Set StartTime[i] to GlobalStartTime. // vertex i is first seen 2.5 Set IST[StartTime[i]] to i
3. Set Low[i] equal to StartTime[i]
4. Increment GlobalStartTime by 1. In Step 6c, v and w correspond to IST[x] and IST[y], respectively.
5. For each vertex
j adjacent to vertex i Step 6e negates the Low[i] equals StartTime[i] condition, since Vertex
i is now in the same strongly connected component as its parent. The
a. If StartTime[j] is equal to 1 Call DFS(j), Low[i] addition of the new edge may make the Low value for some of the
= min(Low[i],Low[j]) other vertices in the tree rooted at Vertex i incorrect, but since these
b. Else if
j is not already in a SCC, Low[i] =
values will not be accessed after backing up from Vertex i, they do not
min(Low[i],StartTime[j]) need to be changed.
6. If Low[i] equals StartTime[i] Identify a new SCC Once Algorithm 4 has been run, the Gilbert or Erdős–Rényi
Algorithm 3. The Full Tarjan Algorithm. models can be applied to add additional edges to the graph. The graphs
created by Algorithms 1 and 4 are strongly connected and contain no
3 The modified Tarjan algorithm
more than 2n  2 edges. Algorithm 1 adds n  1 edges. Algorithm 4
Our primary modification to the Tarjan algorithm is in Step 6,
can add at most one edge per vertex, and cannot add an edge to Vertex
which identifies new strongly connected components. We wish to
0. Algorithm 4 can add edges in any possible way to make the tree
prevent this detection from taking place. In Step 6, the algorithm is
strongly connected. When combined with the Gilbert or Erdős–Rényi
backing up from Vertex i . All vertices with start times greater than or
models any strongly connected graph can be generated. Both
equal to StartTime[ i ] are in the subtree rooted at Vertex i . All
Algorithm 1 and Algorithm 4 are O(n). The Gilbert or Erdős–Rényi
vertices, j , that have start times less than i must meet one of the n2
models
n 2  n are both worst-case O( ) because they must consider all
following three conditions.
2 potential edges.
1. Vertex j is an ancestor of Vertex i in the DFS tree.
2. Vertex j has already been assigned to a strongly connected Although Algorithms 1 and 4 can generate any strongly
connected tree up to isomorphism, there are many isomorphs that will
component.
never be generated. For example, Algorithm 1 always adds an edge
3. Vertex j and Vertex i have a common ancestor k , and k
from Vertex 0 to Vertex 1. If this is a problem, it can be solved by a
is reachable from j . random relabeling of the vertices after the graph is generated.
4 Experimental Results
Ignoring condition 2, it is clear that in Step 6, that Vertex i will
We ran several experiments to verify the effectiveness of our
be in the same strongly connected component as its parent if and only
algorithm. The first experiment was to generate 10,000 5-vertex
if there is an edge from a vertex v with a start time greater than or
graphs, using the Gilbert model with p  0 , to verify that the examples
equal to StartTime[ i ] to a vertex w with a start time less than
of Figures 1 and 2 could be generated. The algorithm generated both
StartTime[ i ]. We modify Step 6 to insert such an edge when Low[i] is
these examples, along with many others. Figure 3 contains a sample of
equal to StartTime[i]. Doing this also insures that condition 2 can never
the generated graphs.
occur. Our modified algorithm is given in Algorithm 4.

1. Function call DFS(i)

2. Set StartTime[i] to GlobalStartTime. // vertex i is first seen
3. Set Low[i] equal to StartTime[i]
4. Increment GlobalStartTime by 1.
5. For each vertex
j adjacent to vertex i
a. If StartTime[j] is equal to 1 Call DFS(j), Low[i]
= min(Low[i],Low[j])
b. Low[i] = min(Low[i],StartTime[j])
6. If Low[i] equals StartTime[i]
a. Set x to a random integer in the range Figure 3. Some Sample Graphs.
[StartTime[i],GlobalStartTime]
b. Set y to a random integer in the range Figure 3 demonstrates the essentially random nature of the
[0,StartTime[i]-1] generation process. Despite the fact that there is always an edge
c. Identify the vertices v and w that correspond to the between Vertex 0 and Vertex 1, the structure of the graphs is obviously
start times x and y. quite random, and they are obviously all strongly connected. This
d. Add an edge from v to w. experiment was run using the Gilbert model with edge probability set
e. Set Low[i] equal to y. to zero. This was done to show the structure of the strongly connected
Algorithm 4. The Modified Tarjan Algorithm. tree.
Four other experiments were run to determine the performance of
Step 6c requires the inversion of the function that assigns start the algorithm. The hardware was an Intel 3.40 Ghz core I7-2600 with
times to vertices. This is done in constant time by using an Inverse 4 cores and 8GB of memory, running Linux Red Hat version 3.10. A
Start Time (IST) array and the following step following Step 2.

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6 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

single core was used to run the experiments. The Linux time command We have not yet addressed the vertex-oriented models, power-
was used to obtain the timings. Algorithm 4 was implemented law and degree-sequence. Because each vertex has both an in-degree
iteratively rather than recursively for increased performance. The and an out-degree, it is not clear how to apply these models to directed
results of the experiments are given in Figure 4. The first experiment graphs. It is necessary that the total of the in-degrees equal the total of
generated one million five-vertex graphs to show the performance of the out-degrees. One model is to insist that the two degrees be identical
the algorithm with small graphs. Because the time to generate a small for each vertex. Another model is to use the same set of degrees, but
graph is tiny, it was necessary to generate a large number of graphs so randomly distribute them over the vertices. It is also not clear whether
that the execution time would be measurable. the degree distributions should include the strongly connected tree
The other three experiments were designed to show performance edges, or whether these edges should be considered separately. For
with large graphs. A single graph was generated because the time to some degree distributions, it is not clear that a strongly connected
generate such a graph is measurable. The Gilbert model was used for graph even exists. We are currently working on these problems.
all four experiments (each edge having the same probability.) For the
6 References
first experiment, we set the edge probability to .5, but it was necessary
1. Maurer, P., “Generating Test Data with Enhanced Context-Free
to set the edge probability to zero for the other three experiments due
Grammars,” IEEE Software, Vol. 7, No. 4, July 1990, pp. 50-55.
to memory requirements. If the edge probability were set to .5 for the
2. Maurer, P., “The Design and Implementation of a Grammar-
one million vertex graph, half a terabyte of RAM (at least) would be
Based Data Generator,” Software Practice and Experience, Vol.
required to store the graph.
22, No. 3, March 1992, pp. 223-244.
3. Calvert, K., Doar, M., Zegura, E., “Modeling Internet topology,”
Experiment User time
IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 1997, pp.
1,000,000 5-vertex graphs Gilbert p  .5 3.8 seconds
160-163.
One 1,000,000-vertex graph, Gilbert p  0 .577 seconds 4. Gilbert, E., (1959). “Random Graphs” Annals of Mathematical
One 10,000,000-vertex graph Gilbert p  0 7.3 seconds Statistics. Vol. 30, No. 4 1959, pp. 1141–1144.
One 100,000,000-vertex graph Gilbert p  0 59.3 seconds 5. Erdős, P.; Rényi, A., “On Random Graphs. I,” Publicationes
Figure 4. Experimental Results. Mathematicae, Vol. 6, 1959, pp. 290–297.
6. Aiello, W., Chung, F., Lu, L., “A Random Graph Model for
We speculate that it would take about 10 minutes to generate a Power Law Graphs,” Experimental Mathematics Vol. 10, No. 1,
one billion vertex graph, but 8GB of memory is insufficient to generate 2001, pp. 53-66.
a graph of this size. 7. Chatterjee, S., Diaconis, P., Sly, A., “Random Graphs with a
Given Degree Sequence,” The Annals of Applied Probability,
5 Conclusion Vol. 21, No. 4, 2011, pp. 1400–1435.
The algorithm presented here is simple, easy to implement, and 8. Devroye, L, Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation,
very fast. It can generate any strongly connected graph when used in Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986.
conjunction with the Gilbert or Erdős–Rényi models, and possible 9. Tarjan, R., “Depth-first search and linear graph algorithms,”
node-relabeling. The algorithm should prove to be a useful tool for the SIAM Journal on Computing, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1972, pp. 146–160,
generation of strongly connected graphs in most contexts.

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Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 7

Simulating Virtual Memory Allocations Using SPEC Tools in

Microsoft Hyper-V Clouds
John M. Medellin*, Lokesh Budhi
Associate Professor and Graduate Assistant at the Master of Science in Information Systems
University of Mary-Hardin Baylor
Belton, TX 76513-2599, USA

Abstract— Private Clouds are gaining in popularity with I. INTRODUCTION

small to medium sized businesses. By implementing a
virtualized architecture, a company can gain strategic Clouds are used by many people and organizations today
advantage through higher utilization of their technology to gain a variety of advantages. There are many vendors and
assets. One of the first steps in determining if the virtualized open sources for cloud software and an equal number of
architecture will make sense is to estimate the amount of techniques for evaluating them. We can mix and match
resources required to actually create a private cloud. products that take advantage of our particular situation and
A risky approach is to take the applications that are the application workload profiles we are targeting. Each
executing and try to run them on a cloud. This option could candidate architecture performs and enhances certain types of
turn out to be costly since key legacy applications are tightly applications (referred to as “workloads”). The final selection
coupled and in order to run the experiment one might need will probably be based on the types of projected applications
to move the entire system over (build the entire Cloud and and their workload profiles [10]. Once we select the target
port them). A second approach could be to model key parts Cloud tools they will also have to be tuned as far as memory
of the system and test them with empirical models. This allocations to deliver the expected results.
could also be costly and risky if key characteristics are Many studies have been published on the impact of
erroneously estimated or omitted. Perhaps a better resource virtualization and workload characteristics on Cloud
approach could be to use an industry simulation that can architectures. Clouds essentially contain Virtual Machines
predict the usage patterns of similar systems and be and are managed by a central authority called a Virtual
configured to resemble workloads in production today. Machine Manager or a “Hypervisor”. Hypervisors can be
This paper executes simulations both on bare secured from traditional vendors (e.g., Microsoft Hyper-V)
metal and within the Microsoft Cloud Stack (Windows 10, or on open source like the OpenStack project [9]. Hypervisors
Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows Hyper-V 2016) are configured to either interact with the hardware directly
using the industry standard SPECjbb2015 simulation (Type 1) or through a Host Operating system (Type 2) [3]. A
environment. We focus on measurement of incremental typical implementation in smaller installations is the
memory allocation and report throughput differences from Microsoft Hyper-V, a type 2 architecture that runs on top of
two bare metal architectures (Windows 10 and Windows Windows Server 2012 R2 and manages virtual machines that
Server 2012 R2) to the target private cloud architecture. can have Windows 10 or other guest operating systems. The
Our work begins by allocating 8GB to each environment applications themselves execute inside the virtual machines
and increases that variable to 10GB and 12GB. Significant on the guest operating systems.
performance gains are gained by increasing memory A key strategy for measuring the performance of certain
allocation in the virtual machine. architecture attributes is the selection of an industry-standard
We believe the contribution of this work is to simulation tool that will lend credibility to the results (e.g. it
demonstrate how industrial strength simulation tools can be resembles what is to be measured). Simulation suites for
applied to real world scenarios without having to completely measurement of a variety of attributes are provided by the
build-out the architectures considered. This should be Standards Performance Evaluation Corporation “SPEC”;
particularly useful to small companies that are www.spec.org. SPEC is a non-profit organization that was
contemplating private cloud implementations. created by a consortia of major technology providers who
Keywords— Hypervisors, Workload Simulation, have agreed on a set of principles to be used in building
Retail Applications, SPEC Corporation, Microsoft benchmarking tools. SPECjbb2015 is a simulated transaction
Windows 10, Microsoft Windows Server 2012 R2, generator that can provide for very complex scenarios in a
Microsoft Hyper-V 2016 retail grocery store. The system provides a set of simulation
tools that can be applied to build a scalable model to resemble
reality. When used to simulate Cloud performance, the tool
will deliver compute transaction workloads (impacts on the

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8 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

CPU/memory) that are executed in bare metal or on Virtual also referred to as the “hypervisor” [3]. All policies regarding
Machines (VMs). The functionality injects a series of allocation and usage of physical infrastructure resources are
standard transactions into a set of application processes that controlled by the hypervisor. Hypervisors are assisted by
drive simulation through java applications provided. These other tools and agents in order to deliver a fully functional
transactions are progressively injected into the applications Cloud Management Platform (CMP) [5].
until the system gets saturated and can no longer provide
A. Hypervisor Architecture Throughput
sufficient throughput to keep up with the load being input
(inputs exceed outputs). In their review of open source hypervisors; Freet, Agrawal,
The fundamental objectives of this research are to first Walker and Badr [5] detail out the general characteristics that
simulate the incremental overhead added by virtualization give advantages of some over others. For example, their study
from bare metal to the Hyper-V environment and second to includes adoption reviews on Eucalyptus, OpenStack,
add more memory to determine the effects on overcoming the CloudStack, OpenNebula, Nimbus and Proxmox and
virtualization penalty. We use the SPECjbb2015 to simulate presents a conclusion that OpenStack and CloudStack have
on bare metal using the Windows 10 operating system and over 30 times more messages in discussion forums that some
the Windows Server 2012 R2 allocating 8GB in each case. of their other competitors (meaning they are more top of mind
Next, we virtualize that environment in a VM on Hyper-V, in the development community). They proceed to review the
allocate the same amount of memory and execute the architecture fit within three commercial offerings (Xen,
simulation. In a second experiment, we increase the allocated KVM, Virtual Box and ESX/VMware) in relation to the
memory to 10GB and 12 GB and report the throughput requirements for data center virtualization and infrastructure
statistics. The business applicability of the approach is provision. In that study, various types of workloads are
discussed at the end of the document. simulated through each candidate hypervisor and the
In our analysis, we first present related work that has been throughput for each is reported. We have adopted a similar
done and how we have adapted some of those methods/results throughput reporting in our methodology.
in our research. Next, we create a series of experiments which Vardhan Reddy and Rajamani [15] further study the
simulate the impact of virtualization as follows: incremental overhead added by 4 different hypervisors. Their
work includes measurement of the residual CPU, memory,
• The SPECjbb2015 is executed on bare metal under the I/O (read/write) and network (send/receive) with focused
Windows 10 and the Windows Server 2012 R2 workloads for Citrix XenServer, VMWare ESXi, Linux
Operating Systems. Next, we virtualize the simulation (Ubuntu) KVM and Microsoft Hyper-V. They conclude that
under Windows Server 2012 R2 Network OS with the the Hyper-V overall performance is very close to the winning
Hyper-V 2016 Hypervisor and Windows 10 guest VMWare. Their results are useful as another data point for
operating system. All three of these have 8GB of our work (the work was done on a slightly older version than
Memory allocated. The results are reported in ours). In our opinion, the Microsoft architecture has
SPECjbb2015 throughput transaction totals. continued to evolve in areas such as swap-file performance
and such stack would perform at least as well as their findings
• The simulations above are repeated except under indicate in similar tests. Their calculations on a 32GB cloud
varied memory allocation at 10GB and 12GB. The indicate that there is a 30% overhead on RAM at that level.
corresponding increase throughput totals is reported. Our experiments begin at 8GB memory allocation and they
increment by 2 GB in successive trials until the system
This research aims to demonstrate the usage of standard performance can be linearly approximated based on the
simulation tools in order to determine potential alternatives increments.
in Cloud resources without having to build the specific In yet a further diagnostic approach, Ye et. al. [16] propose
environments. The approach used could be scaled to other a very innovative method and system for measuring usage of
Cloud architectures than the one presented. resources along the stack. They segment their findings into
impacts on hardware (indicating cache optimization should
II. RELATED WORK be attempted), hypervisor (the overhead from the hypervisor
itself) and finally from the virtual machines themselves (the
Virtualized environments date back a few decades. A key workload profile). The Virt-B system reports the results from
objective of virtualization was to keep the CPU busy while these layers as various workloads are being processed. This
memory variables were being fetched from slower work not only quantifies the impacts on performance but
components in the computer [12]. With the advent of fully further diagnoses the parts of the stack that might have
logically defined architectures in software (“software- significant bearing on the issue.
defined systems”) we are now able to abstract the physical
components into specifications resident in configuration B. Virtualization Overhead Optimization
files. The key software agent that manages and provisions the Virtualization of a platform’s resources can result in
resources in a modern cloud is the Virtual Machine Monitor significant incremental requirements compared to bare metal

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Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 9

architectures. There are however, a set of tools and parameters (one of the parameters for optimization of CPU
techniques that can help optimize those results in a virtualized performance).
environment. Oi and Nakajima [8] explored the effects of
C. Application Workload Research
performance loads on the Xen. They determined that the
performance of Xen could be enhanced in a virtualized Based on the research referenced, there is a significant
environment by adjusting cache sizes in some applications in impact on utilization of CPU from the overhead generated by
addition to incremental memory. Virtualized-Xen and bare- the hypervisor. Further the impact is based on the type of
metal Linux were compared for throughput performance in application that is operating in the virtualized environment.
different cache and memory optimization techniques. In most NasiriGerdeh, Hosseini, RahimiZadeh and AnaLoui [7]
circumstances, it is a combination of both that will drive measured throughput degradation on Web applications using
throughput gains in a virtual environment. In their work, they the Faban suite (a web-based workload generator). They
conclude that by varying configuration elements, a more simulated the behavior of heavy transactional Web
effective use of resources can be achieved. The applications that tend to be very network intensive. Their
benchmarking system used was SPECjbb2001 and the effects work also measured the effect on memory, disk i/o and CPU.
of Network Interface Cards (NIC) were isolated so the They concluded that a disproportionate difference exists in
workload could be measured in memory usage and CPU resources due to the translation of domain addresses.
throughput. Our team has adopted the SPEC performance This work further confirms that the principal resource
suite as a workload simulator to determine the effects on difference is the CPU utilization even when workloads may
memory allocations (another attribute) rather than in network be more i/o bound (the penalties associated where in finding
throughput. addresses; a CPU task, not access to the actual addresses in
Another relevant study is Jabry, Liu, Zhu and the Web environment; an i/o task). We incorporate this
Panneerselvam [1]; hypervisor overhead impact is studied on research by focusing on actual compute resource utilization
the following resources: disk i/o, CPU, memory and VMM rather than network or disk access. The SPECjbb2015 suite
(hypervisor memory usage). The study predicts the usage of is focused on exhausting the compute resources rather than
resources by the hypervisor in taking total resource usage and the disk (i/o) or network resources.
subtracting individual component loads and until only a San Wariya, Nair and Shiwani [11] focused their research
residual is left (presumably the hypervisor load). Those tests on benchmarking three hypervisors; Windows Hyper-V,
were conducted with VMware, Virtual Box (Oracle VMWare/ESXi and Citrix Xen in three cloud games; 3D
Corporation) and Windows Virtual PC (Microsoft). Their Mark 11, Unigine Heaven and Halo. The objectives of their
work benchmarked a standard load in each hypervisor study are to identify which hypervisor was better from a
environment and used IOzone to quantify load on disk i/o, cloud gaming workload perspective. The three performed
RAMSpeed to quantify the impact on memory and differently in each category but were mostly lead by the
UnixBench, to indicate the effect on CPU. Their work VMWare product. For our purposes however, the HALO
concludes that the hypervisor is considerably higher on CPU benchmark (number of frames per second) is probably the
rather than the other components of the architecture. Each most predictive of workloads that are CPU bound. In this
suite of simulations focused on impacting a separate part of category, Hyper-V performed 7% ahead of VMWare and
the architecture and demonstrated how different workloads 57% ahead of Citrix Xen. This was another reason for
impact the choice of hypervisor. It points to the Microsoft selection of Hyper-V as the hypervisor for our test suite.
stack being more balanced due to its integration with the D. The SPEC Benchmarking Suite
other components included in that specific Cloud architecture
The SPECjbb2015 constitutes a workload benchmarking
(MS Windows). We selected the Microsoft stack in our
simulation so as to provide for greater integration between simulation for a Supermarket Chain. The model can be
the components and being able to evaluate the environment extended to include several supermarkets and several central
offices in a variety of virtual machine settings. The tool set
as a “whole offering” from a single vendor. Further, tightness
can be configured in a variety of business transaction settings
of coupling between the units would allow for study of the
so that different business patterns can be simulated (e.g., web
simulation as a whole without the need to study the effects of
sales versus physical store sales). The system is owned and
separate vendor “noise”.
licensed by spec.org Error! Reference source not found.
Chen, Patel, Shen and Zhou [2] studied virtualization
which is a consortium of major IT companies that have
overhead across multiple VMs running under Xen in cloud
agreed on a set of principles to guide the performance
environments. They also found that the larger resource usage
benchmarking process.
was attributable to the CPU. They also propose a series of
The system progressively injects transaction loads into the
equations that are remarkably accurate in predicting the
lateral scaling of workloads on all components based on the environment until saturation is reached. A sample output of
observed results of the application under study. We provide a these results is seen in Figure 3. In that graphic the system
begins to stress at around the 5,200 java Operations Per
graphical analysis of throughput under several memory
Second (jOPS) with a range of 5K (median tolerance) to 50K

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10 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

(max tolerance). The system reaches saturation (min a) Bare metal with Windows 10
tolerance) at around 6,700 jOPS and 60K. We report our b) Bare metal with Windows Server 2012 R2
results using the total transactions up to saturation. Figure 4 c) Virtual Machine: Windows Server 2012 R2 NOS /
is a graphic representation of the architecture of the system.
Hyper-V/ Windows 10 Guest OS
Figure 3: Sample SPECjbb2015 Benchmark Output The simulation was run for a typical store sales only
www.spec.org company with 90% store sales and 10% online sales. This is
typical of smaller stores that have not adapted to the online
grocery demands of consumers and are experimenting with
their own private clouds.
B. Application Architecture Patterns
The application patterns were analyzed by deriving use
cases and preparing activity diagrams from the code for the
application workload being simulated.
i. Use Case Analysis
Use cases are a functional decomposition tool that
illustrate the process interactions between actors in
applications [13]. The processes that we have selected in the
SPECjbb2015 suite are fairly standard and follow similar
patterns. The use case diagram for the store sales architecture
is similar to this one (www.UML-diagrams.org), the
“adornments” in the graphic describe the usage of artifacts.
Figure 4: SPECjbb2015 Architecture
www.spec.org Figure 5: Store Use Case Diagram

The inventory on-hand function at the physical store is

susceptible to over-booked demand and out-of-stock
The SPECjbb products have been in existence since the conditions (where demand for an article exceeds supply). If
late 1990s and are useful because of their industry the system detects an out-of-stock condition, it will proceed
acceptance. For example, Karlsson, Moore, Hagersten and to cancel and back out the transaction. This process is
Wood [6] used an earlier version (SPECjbb2001) and another memory intensive since it has to place the order items back
application benchmark (ECPerf) to differentiate effects of into inventory and invalidate the order itself (see the error
cache misses between different types of applications. exception in the UML activity diagram below).
III. EXPERIMENT DESIGN ii. UML Activity Diagrams
UML activity diagrams are a useful tool for analyzing the
As discussed above, experiments were designed where the flow of logic through processes [13]. The following diagram
same application (SPECjbb2015) was installed on: was created from the code in the application.

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Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 11

Figure 6: Store UML Activity Diagram • Hewlett-Packard Envy 15t

Instore
Activity • Intel i6700 quad-core processor
• 16G RAM
start

Txi Sends SM an
InStorePurchaseRequest

Select a Random
• 1TB Hybrid SSD
Customer
• 4GB NVIDIA GTX 950M chip
Retrieve Customers
Previous Purchase History

IV. EXPERIMENT RESULTS

Reserve Specific
Quantity Of Each Calculate Total price
Add the Available
Discounts and Figure 8 reports the total transaction throughput achieved
Product Coupouns
under the different memory allocations in each environment.
Figure 9 reports the percentage increase, using the 8GB results
as the base for each environment. This is done to stress the
Max Products
Many Products to
Available
be Replenished

Proceed to Check
Customer Basket Validation
incremental impact of each increase on the original base
measurements.
Throw an Exception
out

STOP

Generate Reciept
Figure 8: Throughput in the Experimental Systems
Customer has Customer doesn't
enough Credit have enough Credit 100%
Check Customer's Credit
90%
Transaction Fails 80%
70%
60%
50%
Move the Purchased Debit the cost of Each Send Suppliers a
40%
Items from Store Item from Customer's Request, If any item runs 30%
Inventory Account out from store
20%
10%
0%
10GB 12GB
Win 10 2% 2%
Send Receipt back
to HQ Win 2012 20% 7%
Win Hyp-V 95% 79%
Percent Throughput Improvement, 8GB Constant Base

Stop

The above indicates there were marginal increases in

C. Bare Metal Implementations throughput on bare metal versus significant increases with
Two bare metal SPECjbb2015 implementations were increase in memory on the virtual machine.
used in the experiments; one on Windows 10 and one on Figure 9: Percentage Gain in Throughput for the
Windows Server 2012 R2. The allocations were 8GB, 10GB Experimental Systems
and 12GB of memory (total of 6 bare metal simulations). 250%

D. Virtualization Hypervisor Architecture 200%

150%
The third environment used MS Windows 10, Server 2012 100%

R2 and Hyper-V [4]. The SPECjbb2015 software was 50%

compiled inside the virtual machine (VM). A full physical 0%

10GB 12GB
CPU, Network Interface Card (NIC) and all storage available Win 10 2% 2%
Win 2012 20% 7%
was allocated to the VM. RAM of 8GB, 10GB and 12GB was Win Hyp-V 195% 37%

allocated to the Virtual Machine. A diagram for this Percent Throughput Improvement, 8GB Constant Base

architecture is shown below, (ours has one VM).

The above emphasizes the gains throughput when
Figure 7: Virtualized Environment Architecture memory is increased in the virtual machine. Throughput
(www.microsoft.com) keeps increasing at significant rates (although begins to curb
with the second increase in memory to 12GB).

V. DISCUSSION & FUTURE PLANS

The objectives of this study are to isolate the impact of
additional memory allocation on a static workload. The
hypothesis that additional memory increases throughput in
virtualized environments. Part of this benefit is slowed as the
allocation progresses.

E. Infrastructure (Machine) Specifications A. Results Discussion

The infrastructure environment that the experiments were As systems are virtualized, they consume greater
executed on had the following specifications: resources due to “virtualization overhead”; they require
translation of the logical to the physical and back to the

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12 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

logical. Our study has illustrated how using a process of [2] L. Chen; S. Patel; H. Shen; Z. Zhou: “Profiling and
simulation, a small company may avoid the costly and risky Understaning Virtualization Overhead in Cloud”. 2015
44th International Conference on Parallel Processing. p.
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[4] A. Finn; M. Luescher; P. Lownds; D. Flynn: “Windows
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Technologies”. 9 International Conference on
Communications and Networking in China (2014). p.
606-611.

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Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 13

Autonomously Battery Charging Tires For EVs Using

Piezoelectric Phenomenon
Muhammad Kamran1, Dr. Raziq Yaqub2, Dr. Azzam ul Asar1
1
CECOS University, Peshawar, Pakistan, 2University of Tennessee, USA

Abstract:-This paper illustrates the use of piezoelectric (viii) Less expensive compared to its counterpart.
material to generate electricity in the Electric Vehicle (EV)
These features make them most suited to be employed in
tire. According to the proposed mechanism, the vehicle tires EV tires. However, proof of concept needs to be done, that
are embedded with layers of the Piezo-electric material requires collaboration with tires manufacturer.
along the periphery. Thus, when the EV is in motion,
electricity can be generated due to mechanical stress in that The rest of the paper is divided into the following
part of Piezo-electric material that is in contact with the sections. Section-2 describes the composition and structure
road surface. The results show that, with peripheral of the tire, section-3 explians our proposal on embedding
arrangement of Piezo-material inside the automobile tire, piezo-electric material in tire and harvesting energy from it.
we can generate electricity that can be stored in a battery to Section-4 calculates cost efficiency of the proposed
mechanism, Section-5 suggest future work, Section-6
run the EV for some extra miles of the total miles the EV is
concludes the paper, Section-7 lists some of the key
capable of on a single charge. The use of Polyvinylidene
references, and finally Section-8 titled as Annex, presents
fluoride (PVDF); a polymer based piezoelectric material is the detailed mathematical analysis.
considered due to its robust and favorable properties.
Due to the rising demand for generating energy in the
Keywords— Piezoelectricity, Polyvinylidene fluoride most efficient way; smart, intelligent and adaptive materials
(PVDF), Electrical power, Mechanical stress-to-electricity are being used and one such smart substance is the
conversion, Automobile tire. piezoelectric material. Piezoelectric substances produce
electric charge when mechanical stress is applied on its
surface.
1 Introduction
Piezoelectric materials are composed of various
Due to the rising demand for generating energy in the materials namely crystals, ceramics, polymers etc. Polymer-
most efficient way; smart, intelligent and adaptive materials based piezoelectric materials have served as the most
are being used and one such smart substance is the efficient material compared to ceramics and crystals for
piezoelectric material. Piezoelectric substances produce applications where elasticity is preferred. The most
electric charge when mechanical stress is applied on its commonly used polymer based piezoelectric material is
surface. Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF). PVDF is a transparent,
Piezoelectric materials are composed of various semi-crystalline, thermoplastic fluoroplastic. We have
materials namely crystals, ceramics, polymers etc. Polymer- employed PVDF as the piezo electric material in our work
based piezoelectric materials have served as the most based on the merits of PVDF as listed below [13]
efficient material compared to ceramics and crystals for
applications where elasticity is preferred. The most 2 Composition and Structure of the Tire
commonly used polymer based piezoelectric material is
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF). PVDF is a transparent, The most basic component in the tire is “rubber” which
semi-crystalline, thermoplastic fluoroplastic. We have may be ‘synthetic rubber’ or ‘natural rubber’. Other
employed PVDF as the piezo electric material in our work components that are present in the tire are fabric wire,
based on the merits of PVDF as listed below [13]: polymers, fillers, softeners, anti-degradents and curatives.
(i) Piezoelectricity obtained from PVDF is several times
greater than that obtained from quartz or ceramics. As polymers are the backbone of rubber compounds, it is
more appropriate to embed polymer piezoelectric material
(ii) PVDF materials are insoluble in water, resistant to within the structure of the tire as done in [1].
solvents, acids, bases, heat, and generate low smoke in case
of any fire accidents. Since the objective of using Piezoelectric material in [1]
(iii) Has low weight and low thermal conductivity. is sensing, it simply employs pallets of PVDF materials.
However, we embed PVDF material as a circular ring along
(iv) Highly resistant to chemical corrosion and heat the entire periphery of the tire to maximize electricity
variations, thus withstands exposure to harsh chemical and generation.
thermal conditions.
(v) Very good mechanical strength and toughness and has There are 3 main categories of tires such as Diagonal
high abrasion resistance. (bias) tire, belted bias tire and Radial tire. Radial tires are
most commonly used in the automobile industry; therefore,
(vi ) Low permeability to most gases and liquids.
this paper considers radial tire for mathematical analysis.
(vii) Unaffected by long-term exposure to ultraviolet However, it does not preclude other types.
radiation.

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14 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

3 Proposal on Embedding Piezoelectric the PVDF will be coming in contact with the road, and thus
will ensure constant generation of electricity as shown in
Material in Tires to Harvest Energy figure 1.
Figure 1 shows the overall concept of piezoelectric In this section, pressure exerted by the road on the
generation phenomenon in context to the proposed tire automobile tire is modeled and the amount of energy
scenario. harvested in this process is calculated. Since the section
involves mathematical variables, therefore for the
convenience of the readers, the terminology, abbreviations
Tire With Piezoelectric and units are provided in the form of a table below:
Piezoelectric Phenomenon
Material
TABLE I. NOMENCLATURE, SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Pa
ra- Parameter definition Unit
meter
A Area meter2
c Circumference centimeter
C Charge Coulomb
Road Surface
d Piezoelectric strain
coefficient or

Fig. 1. Overall Concept of Piezoelectric Generation in Proposed Tire.

D Diameter centimeter
F Force Newton
Figure 2 shows the cross-sectional area of the original
radial tire, where we proposed to have one layer of g Gravity meter/sec2
piezoelectric material, along the periphery of the tire, below
I Current Ampere
the rubber layer or any suitable place, the tire manufacturers
deem suitable. Having the PVDF material as a circular ring k Distance centimeter
along the entire periphery of the tire is considered to be
more efficient compared to having pallets of PVDF material m Mass of the car kilogram
embed within the tire. It is because when the tires will Pp Charge surface density Coulomb/m2
rotate, most portions of the PVDF will be coming in contact
with the road, and thus will ensure constant generation of p Power Watts
electricity. P Pressure Newton/m2
Electricity is generated in piezoelectric materials due to
t1 Time seconds
mechanical stress in that part of piezoelectric material that
is in contact with the road surface. Piezoelectricity is the T Pressure exerted on the Newton/met
direct result of the piezoelectric effect. The electricity so PVDF material er2
produced is fed to the car battery.
v Velocity/speed Miles/hour
V Voltage volts
W Width Centimeter
g Appropriate piezoelectric
coefficient for the axis of or
applied stress or strain

t Thickness of a ring µm

Modeling the System

The experiments performed by the Curie brothers
demonstrated that the Charge Surface Density is
proportional to the pressure exerted, and is given by [2]
Fig. 2 Piezoelectric Material as a Circular Ring in a radial tire

Having the PVDF material as a circular ring along the Pressure exerted by a car on the road can be given by,
entire periphery of the tire is more efficient compared to
having pallets of PVDF material embed within the tire.
When the tires will rotate at a high speed, most portions of

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Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 15

Where F is the force exerted on the tire and is equal to

the weight (F = mg, where m is the mass of the car and g is
the force of gravity and is 9.8 m/s2). And A is the tire
surface area in contact with the road.
The tire surface area A in contact with the road can be
calculated as
A = π x D x W x 0.1
Where 0.1 is due to the fact that 10% of the tire area is
in contact with the surface of the road [3].
Output voltage for the given stress or strain is given by
V0 = g3n x Xn x t
Where n = 1, 2 or 3 and Xn = T [7].
As we are considering n=1 i.e. (in the piezoelectric
material the electrical axis is always fixed as it is three in
this case and the mechanical axis is either one, two or
three), the value of g31 is specified in table 2. Moreover we Fig. 4 [15]
are considering force on tire due to weight along Y direction
as shown in figure. The component of weight acting in this
way is constant and 20% of total weight [14] [15]. Now if
the force is assumed to be acting axially then the area
should also be taken in the specified direction. So the V 0
will be modified as [7].

V0 = g31 × (Force/width × thickness) × thickness

= g31 × (Force/width)

Fig. 5. [15]

Result Calculation
If the mass of the car is 1500Kg (Because electric
vehicles have more weight due to their battery) then the
calculated force is 14700Newtons (3675N for each tire).
When the average diameter of the PVDF ring is considered
to be D = 0.5588 m (22 inch), width of a ring is 0.1651 m
(6.5 inch) and thickness of the ring is 110 micrometer [7].
Therefore, the Area (A) for the PVDF ring is 0.289 m2 and
the surface area when 10% of the tire is in contact with the
road surface is 28.9 × 10-3 m2.
From this value of force (F) and area (A) the pressure
(T) exerted on the PVDF material is 127162.63 N/m2.
Fig 3. [15]

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16 Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 |

TABLE II. TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF PVDF [7]

5 Future Work
Parameter Sy Valu Unit
We plan to do the following work in future: Followings
mbol e
tasks would be carried throughout the length of the project.
Thickness t 55 µm
(i) Produce simulations considering the tire industry
(micron, 10-6)
standards such as tread, the body with sidewalls, and
Piezoelectric d31 23 10-12 the beads (the rubber-covered, metal-wire that hold the
Strain Constant tire on the wheel)
(ii) Use Autodesk (It is already licensed to UT) sofware to
or
simulate the performance of design parameters such as
distribution of PVDF around the periphery of the tire.
(iii) Simulate the effects of different typs/concentrations of
PVDF compounds and different types of distribution of
Piezoelectric g31 216 10-3 PVDF around the periphery of the tire. And also using
Stress Constant different concentrations of PVDF in different parts of
or the tire.
(iv) Simulate the effects of different typs/concentrations of
rubber compounds and different types of distribution of
rubber around the periphery of the tire. And also using
different concentrations/ratios of rubber and PVDF in
According to above PVDF properties and equation the different parts of the tire.
charge surface density is 2.92 × 10-6 C/m2. (v) Analyze the effects of different stresses on the proosed
We know that the, tire design (emulating different weights, road
roughness, etc.), and discover design limitations.
Charge = Current x Time, (vi) Analyze the effect of different temperatures (eulating
and different hot/cold weathers). Also simulate the effects
of different sizes the tires come in.
Power = Current x Voltage
Assumption has been made in order to make It has to be ensured that simulations as well as timelines
calculations easier, that the amount of time taken to for simulations meet the expectations, through validation,
generate the electricity is one second, allowing the charge to and comparison with the specifications of standard tires
be equal to the current [3]. (non PVDF tires).
From all of the above equations and assumptions the
power generated is 2.81mW for 1 tire. We consider only
6 Conclusion
10% of the tire touches the road surface, so in one rotation Our work demonstrates a method of generating
10 times electricity is generated. In one rotation 28.1mW electricity using the PVDF material. Mathematical analysis
power is generated. proves that the EV can run extra 37 miles on a single charge
with a speed of the car is 60mph. Since the cost of PVDF
The US environment protection agency official range is and its implementation is not so expensive, a saving of
117 km (73 mile) with an energy consumption of 765 about $500 is expected over the life of the tire. Overall, the
kilojoules per kilometer or 34 KWh/100mile [6] [12]. proposed method is an excellent choice to generate power
According to this energy consumption our designed car can when the car is on move.
run extra 39 km because the power generated by four tires
of the car with any specified speed.
Acknowledgment
4 Cost Efficiency The 1st and 3rd authors would like to acknowledge the
technical support of Dr. Raziq Yaqub for his valuable
Cost of the tire after incorporating the PVDF ring inside
contribution extended during the course of this project and
the tire depends mainly on two factors, cost of the PVDF
and the cost for implementing the PVDF ring inside the tire. allowing to improve the mathematical model.
The PVDF ring cost is from $50 - $100 per Cubic Meter,
which depends on length, width and thickness of the ring References
[4]. [1] Jingang Yi, "A Piezo-Sensor-Based 'Smart Tire' System
for Mobile Robots and Vehicles",March 2007.
If we consider the cost of the PVDF to be used in four [2] Arnau, Antonio. “Fundamentals on Piezoelectricity.”
tires to be $50 including embedding process of PVDF Piezoelectric Tranducers and Applications. New York,
material inside the tire. The average life of all-season radial 2008. Print, pp.4.
tire advertised by the manufacturer is 50000 miles. Using [3] http://cosmos.ucdavis.edu/archives/2011/cluster2/Yau_
proposed technology, the EV can bring a cost saving worth Derek.pdf.
17500 additional miles. If the cost of electrical energy is [4] http://www.alibaba.com/product-
$0.04/mile, a saving of $525 can be achieved. gs/322181211/PVDF_Intalox_Saddle_Ring.html
[5] http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/car=
107844&GM.

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Int'l Conf. Modeling, Sim. and Vis. Methods | MSV'17 | 17

[6] http://www.autoblog.com/2009/08/01/2010-nissan-leaf- = ∏ × 0.5588 × 0.1651

electric-car-in-person-in-depth-and-u-s-b/
= 0.289 m2
[7] Measurement Specialities Inc. April 1999 “Piezo Film We assume that only 10% of the area is in contact with
Sensor Technical Manual”, P/N 1005663-1, Rev. B, pp.
3-4,28 the road surface. Therefore, the Area (A) is given by,
A = 28.9 × 10-3 m2
[8] West Coast Green Highway. Electric Highways
Project, 2010. Retrieved March 09, 2012, from To determine the Pressure
http://west
coastgreenhighway.com/electrichighways.htm

[9] Kris De Decker, May 3, 2010. “The status quo of If we consider the mass of the car to be 1500 kg, force
electric cars: better batteries, same range.” Low-tech can be calculated as follows:
magazine. Retrieved March 13, 2012 from Force = m × g
http://www.energybulletin.net/node/52736.
= 1500 × 9.8 = 14700 N
[10] http://www.tirerack.com/tires/tiretech/techpage.jsp?tec
hid=46 And
Force on one tire will be = 14700/4 =3675N
[11] http://www.tirerack.com/tires/tiretech/techpage.jsp?tec
hid=7. Therefore Pressure = 14700 / 28.9 × 10-3 = 127162.63
N / m2
[12] http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/Ch
apter06/Chapter6.html. To determine the charge surface density
The charge surface density is given by,
[13] http://www.openmusiclabs.com/wp/wp-
content/uploads/2011/11/piezo.pdf

[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_Leaf Where d is the piezoelectric strain coefficient and from

table 2, its value is given to be 23 × 10-12. Therefore,
[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinylidene_fluoride

[16] http://www.mate.tue.nl/mate/pdfs/8351.pdf = 23 × 10-12 × 127162.63

= 2.92 × 10-6 C/m2
[17] http://road-transport-
technology.org/Proceedings/2%20- To determine the output voltage
%20ISHVWD/Vol%201/TRUCK%20TIRE%20TYPE
S%20AND%20ROAD%20CONTACT%20PRESSUR In the previous section, we have briefly discussed the
ES%20-%20Yap%20.pdf equations for

[18] http://www.tzlee.com/blog/?m=201103 Output voltage which is given by,

V0 = g3n x Xn x t
Annex: Detailed Mathematical Analysis
In our work we consider n = 1 and the value of g31 and t
Calculating Patch Area of PVDF Ring is specified in table 2. Xn = (Force/width × thickness)
Contact patch (also called footprint) is the area in which Therefore, output voltage is,
the tire is in contact with the road surface). Different
V0 = g31 × (Force/width × thickness) × thickness
vehicles have different contact patch depending on tire’s
diameter and width. Tires diameter ranging from 8 to 26 = g31 × (Force/width)
which are given in detail in [8] [9]. For the sake of analysis
we considered a tire with the diameter of 22 inches and = 216 × 10-3 × (0.2×3675/0.1651)
width of 6.5. (I.e. the tire size of 185/55R15 commonly used = 961.6 V
for Passenger Electric Vehicles (EV)). We consider
incorporating PVDF ring inside the whole width of tire, so And 0.2 is the component of force that acts axially
that the tire continue to adhere with its original texture shown in figure-2c, as we are considering g31 mode so the
without scarifying its original purpose or violating its force should also be considered along the specified
specifications in terms of road resistance, air pressure, etc. direction.

To determine the Total Power

D = 0.5588 meters Total Power = Charge Surface Density x Output voltage
W = 0.1651 meters = 2.92 × 10-6 × 961.6 = 2.81 mW
Therefore, Area (A) is given by, We consider only 10% of the tire touches the road
surface, so in one rotation 10 times electricity is generated.
ATotal = ∏ × D × W In one rotation of one tire 28.1mW power is produced.

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 he, no doubt, who raised it to the position of colonia Flavia. The
town was destroyed by the Saracens, but some ruins of it are
still visible two miles north-west of the modern village of
Mondragone. The mineral springs which still rise here were
frequented in antiquity.

MASSIF, a French term, adopted in geology and physical

geography for a mountainous mass or group of connected heights,
whether isolated or forming part of a larger mountain system. A
“massif” is more or less clearly marked off by valleys.
 MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE (1663-1742), French bishop
and preacher, was born at Hyères on the 24th of June 1663, his father
being a royal notary of that town. At the age of eighteen he joined the
Congregation of the Oratory and taught for a time in the colleges of
his order at Pézenas, and Montbrison and at the Seminary of Vienne.
On the death of Henri de Villars, archbishop of Vienne, in 1693, he was
commissioned to deliver a funeral oration, and this was the beginning
of his fame. In obedience to Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris,
he left the Cistercian abbey of Sept-Fonds, to which he had retired,
and settled in Paris, where he was placed at the head of the famous
seminary of Saint Magloire. He soon gained a wide reputation as a
preacher and was selected to be the Advent preacher at the court of
Versailles in 1699. He was made bishop of Clermont in 1717, and two
years later was elected a member of the French Academy. The last
years of his life were spent in the faithful discharge of his episcopal
duties; his death took place at Clermont on the 18th of September
1742. Massillon enjoyed in the 18th century a reputation equal to that
of Bossuet and of Bourdaloue, and has been much praised by Voltaire,
D’Alembert and kindred spirits among the Encyclopaedists. His
popularity was probably due to the fact that in his sermons he lays
little stress on dogmatic questions, but treats generally of moral
subjects, in which the secrets of the human heart and the processes of
man’s reason are described with poetical feeling. He has usually been
contrasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having the
credit of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle
persuasiveness. Besides the Petit Carême, a sermon which he
delivered before the young king Louis XV. in 1718, his sermons on the
Prodigal Son, on the small number of the elect, on death, for
Christmas Day, and for the Fourth Sunday in Advent, may be perhaps
cited as his masterpieces. His funeral oration on Louis XIV. is only
noted now for the opening sentence: “Dieu seul est grand.” But in
truth Massillon is singularly free from inequality. His great literary
power, his reputation for benevolence, and his known toleration and
dislike of doctrinal disputes caused him to be much more favourably
regarded than most churchmen by the philosophes of the 18th
century.

The first edition of Massillon’s complete works was published by

his nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745-1748), and upon this,
in the absence of MSS., succeeding reprints were based. The best
modern edition is that of the Abbé Blampignon (Paris, 1865-1868,
4 vols.; new ed. 1886).

See Abbé Blampignon, Massillon, d’après des documents inédits

(Paris, 1879); and L’Épiscopat de Massitlon d’après des documents
inédits, suivi de sa correspondance (Paris, 1884); F. Brunetière
“L’Éloquence de Massillon” in Études critiques (Paris, 1882); Père
Ingold, L’Oratoire et le jansénisme au temps de Massitlon (Paris,
1880); and Louis Petit de Julleville’s Histoire de la langue et de la
littérature française, v. 372-385 (Paris, 1898).
 MASSILLON, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the
Tuscarawas river and the Ohio canal, 8 m. W. of Canton, and about 50
m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 11,944 (1693 foreign-born);
(1910), 13,879. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburg, Ft Wayne
& Chicago Division), the Baltimore & Ohio and the Wheeling & Lake
Erie railways. Massillon is built among hills in a part of the state noted
for its large production of coal and wheat and abounding in white
sandstone, iron ore and potter’s clay. The city has various
manufactures, including iron, engines, furnaces, reapers, threshers and
bottles. The total value of the factory products in 1905 was
$3,707,013, an increase of 34.8% over that of 1900. The first
settlement was made in 1825; in 1826 the town was laid out and
named in honour of Jean Baptiste Massillon; it was incorporated a
village in 1853, and became a city in 1868.

MASSIMO, or Massimi, a Roman princely family of great antiquity,

said to be descended from the ancient Maximi of republican Rome.
The name is first mentioned in 1012 in the person of Leo de Maximis,
and the family played a considerable part in the history of the city in
the middle ages. The brothers Pietro and Francesco Massimi acquired
fame by protecting and encouraging the German printer Ulrich Hahn,
who came to Rome in 1467. In the 16th century the Massimi were the
richest of the Roman nobles. A marquisate was conferred on them in
1544, and the lordship of Arsoli in 1574. To-day there are two
branches of the Massimi, viz. the Principi Massimo, descended from
Camillo Massimiliano (1770-1840), and the dukes of Rignano,
descended from Francesco Massimo (1773-1844). One of the sons of
the present Prince Camillo Carlo Alberto, Don Fabrizio, married
Princess Beatrice, daughter of Don Carlos of Bourbon (duke of
Madrid), the pretender to the Spanish throne. The Palazzo Massimo in
Rome was built by Baldassare Peruzzi by order of Pietro Massimo, on
the ruins of an earlier palace destroyed in the sack of Rome in 1527.

See F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1880);

A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868);
Almanach de Gotha; J. H. Douglas, The Principal Noble Families of
Rome (Rome, 1905).

MASSINGER, PHILIP (1583-1640), English dramatist, son of

Arthur Massinger or Messanger, was baptized at St Thomas’s,
Salisbury, on the 24th of November 1583. He apparently belonged to
an old Salisbury family, for the name occurs in the city records as early
as 1415. He is described in his matriculation entry at St Alban Hall,
Oxford (1602), as the son of a gentleman. His father, who had also
been educated at St Alban Hall, was a member of parliament, and was
attached to the household of Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke,
who recommended him in 1587 for the office of examiner in the court
of the marches. The 3rd earl of Pembroke, the William Herbert whose
name has been connected with Shakespeare’s sonnets, succeeded to
the title in 1601. It has been suggested that he supported the poet at
Oxford, but the significant omission of any reference to him in any of
Massinger’s prefaces points to the contrary. Massinger left Oxford
without a degree in 1606. His father had died in 1603, and he was
perhaps dependent on his own exertions. The lack of a degree and the
want of patronage from Lord Pembroke may both be explained on the
supposition that he had become a Roman Catholic. On leaving the
university he went to London to make his living as a dramatist, but his
name cannot be definitely affixed to any play until fifteen years later,
when The Virgin Martyr (ent. at Stationers’ Hall, Dec. 7, 1621)
appeared as the work of Massinger and Dekker. During these years he
worked in collaboration with other dramatists. A joint letter, from
Nathaniel Field, Robert Daborne and Philip Massinger, to Philip
Henslowe, begs for an immediate loan of five pounds to release them
from their “unfortunate extremitie,” the money to be taken from the
balance due for the “play of Mr Fletcher’s and ours.” A second
document shows that Massinger and Daborne owed Henslowe £3 on
the 4th of July 1615. The earlier note probably dates from 1613, and
from this time Massinger apparently worked regularly with John
Fletcher, although in editions of Beaumont and Fletcher’s works his co-
operation is usually unrecognized. Sir Aston Cokayne, Massinger’s
constant friend and patron, refers in explicit terms to this collaboration
in a sonnet addressed to Humphrey Moseley on the publication of his
folio edition of Beaumont and Fletcher (Small Poems of Divers Sorts,
1658), and in an epitaph on the two poets he says:—
 “Plays they did write together, were great friends,
And now one grave includes them in their ends.”

After Philip Henslowe’s death in 1616 Massinger and Fletcher began to

write for the King’s Men. Between 1623 and 1626 Massinger produced
unaided for the Lady Elizabeth’s Men then playing at the Cockpit three
pieces, The Parliament of Love, The Bondman and The Renegado.
With the exception of these plays and The Great Duke of Florence,
produced in 1627 by the Queen’s servants, Massinger continued to
write regularly for the King’s Men until his death. The tone of the
dedications of his later plays affords evidence of his continued poverty.
Thus in the preface to The Maid of Honour (1632) he wrote,
addressing Sir Francis Foljambe and Sir Thomas Bland: “I had not to
this time subsisted, but that I was supported by your frequent
courtesies and favours.” The prologue to The Guardian (licensed 1633)
refers to two unsuccessful plays and two years of silence, when the
author feared he had lost the popular favour. S. R. Gardiner, in an
essay on “The Political Element in Massinger” (Contemp. Review, Aug.
1876), maintained that Massinger’s dramas are before all else political,
that the events of his day were as openly criticized in his plays as
current politics are in the cartoons of Punch. It is probable that this
break in his production was owing to his free handling of public
matters. In 1631 Sir Henry Herbert, the master of the revels, refused
to license an unnamed play by Massinger because of “dangerous
matter as the deposing of Sebastian, King of Portugal,” calculated
presumably to endanger good relations between England and Spain.
There is little doubt that this was the same piece as Believe as You
List, in which time and place are changed, Antiochus being substituted
for Sebastian, and Rome for Spain. In the prologue Massinger ironically
apologizes for his ignorance of history, and professes that his accuracy
is at fault if his picture comes near “a late and sad example.” The
obvious “late and sad example” of a wandering prince could be no
other than Charles I.’s brother-in-law, the elector palatine. An allusion
to the same subject may be traced in The Maid of Honour. In another
play by Massinger, not extant, Charles I. is reported to have himself
struck out a passage put into the mouth of Don Pedro, king of Spain,
as “too insolent.” The poet seems to have adhered closely to the
politics of his patron, Philip Herbert, earl of Montgomery, and
afterwards 4th earl of Pembroke, who had leanings to democracy and
was a personal enemy of the duke of Buckingham. In The Bondman,
dealing with the history of Timoleon, Buckingham is satirized as Gisco.
The servility towards the Crown displayed in Beaumont and Fletcher’s
plays reflected the temper of the court of James I. The attitude of
Massinger’s heroes and heroines towards kings is very different.
Camiola’s remarks on the limitations of the royal prerogative (Maid of
Honour, act iv. sc. v.) could hardly be acceptable at court.

Massinger died suddenly at his house near the Globe theatre, and
was buried in the churchyard of St Saviour’s, Southwark, on the 18th
of March 1640. In the entry in the parish register he is described as a
“stranger,” which, however, implies nothing more than that he
belonged to another parish.

The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests upon

three of his plays, The Virgin Martyr (licensed 1620), The Renegado
(licensed 1624) and The Maid of Honour (c. 1621). The religious
sentiment is certainly such as would obviously best appeal to an
audience sympathetic to Roman Catholic doctrine. The Virgin Martyr, in
which Dekker probably had a large share, is really a miracle play,
dealing with the martyrdom of Dorothea in the time of Diocletian, and
the supernatural element is freely used. Little stress can be laid on this
performance as elucidating Massinger’s views. It is not entirely his
work, and the story is early Christian, not Roman Catholic. In The
Renegado, however, the action is dominated by the beneficent
influence of a Jesuit priest, Francisco, and the doctrine of baptismal
regeneration is enforced. In The Maid of Honour a complicated
situation is solved by the decision of the heroine, Camiola, to take the
veil. For this she is held up “to all posterity a fair example for noble
maids to imitate.” Among all Massinger’s heroines Camiola is
distinguished by genuine purity and heroism.

His plays have generally an obvious moral intention. He sets himself

to work out a series of ethical problems through a succession of
ingenious and effective plots. In the art of construction he has, indeed,
few rivals. But the virtue of his heroes and heroines is rather morbid
than natural, and often singularly divorced from common-sense. His
dramatis personae are in general types rather than living persons, and
their actions do not appear to spring inevitably from their characters,
but rather from the exigencies of the plot. The heroes are too good,
and the villains too wicked to be quite convincing. Moreover their
respective goodness and villainy are too often represented as
extraneous to themselves. This defect of characterization shows that
English drama had already begun to decline.

It seems doubtful whether Massinger was ever a popular playwright,

for the best qualities of his plays would appeal rather to politicians and
moralists than to the ordinary playgoer. He contributed, however, at
least one great and popular character to the English stage. Sir Giles
Overreach, in A New Way to Pay Old Debts, is a sort of commercial
Richard III., a compound of the lion and the fox, and the part provides
many opportunities for a great actor. He made another considerable
contribution to the comedy of manners in The City Madam. In
Massinger’s own judgment The Roman Actor was “the most perfect
birth of his Minerva.” It is a study of the tyrant Domitian, and of the
results of despotic rule on the despot himself and his court. Other
favourable examples of his grave and restrained art are The Duke of
Milan, The Bondman and The Great Duke of Florence.

Massinger was a student and follower of Shakespeare. The form of

his verse, especially in the number of run-on lines, approximates in
some respects to Shakespeare’s later manner. He is rhetorical and
picturesque, but rarely rises to extraordinary felicity. His verse is never
mean, but it sometimes comes perilously near to prose, and in dealing
with passionate situations it lacks fire and directness.

The plays attributed to Massinger alone are: The Duke of Milan,

a Tragedy (c. 1618, pr. 1623 and 1638); The Unnatural Combat, a
Tragedy (c. 1619, pr. 1639); The Bondman, an Antient Storie
(licensed 1623, pr. 1624); The Renegado, a Tragaecomedie (lic.
1624, pr. 1630); The Parliament of Love (lic. 1624; ascribed, no
doubt erroneously, in the Stationers’ Register, 1660, to W. Rowley;
first printed by Gifford from an imperfect MS. in 1805); A New Way
to Pay Old Debts, a Comoedie (c. 1625, pr. 1632); The Roman
Actor. A Tragaedie (lic. 1626, pr. 1629); The Maid of Honour
(dating perhaps from 1621, pr. 1632); The Picture, a
Tragecomedie (lic. 1629, pr. 1630); The Great Duke of Florence, a
Comicall Historie (lic. 1627, pr. 1635); The Emperor of the East, a
Tragaecomoedie (lic. and pr. 1631), founded on the story of
Theodosius the Younger; Believe as You List (rejected by the
censor in January, but licensed in May, 1631; pr. 1848-1849 for the
Percy Society); The City Madam, a Comedie (lic. 1632, pr. 1658),
which Mr Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama, i. 226), however,
considers to be a rifaciamento of an older play, probably by
Jonson; The Guardian (lic. 1633, pr. 1655); and The Bashful Lover
(lic. 1636, pr. 1655). A Very Woman, or The Prince of Tarent,
licensed in 1634 as the work of Massinger alone, is generally
referred to his collaboration with Fletcher. The “exquisite
temperance and justice” of this piece are, according to Swinburne,
foreign to Fletcher’s genius, and afford a striking example of
Massinger’s artistic skill and moderation.

Twelve plays of Massinger are said to be lost, but the titles of

some of these may be duplicates of those of existing plays. Five of
these lost plays were MSS. used by John Warburton’s cook for pie-
covers. The numerous plays in which Massinger’s co-operation
with John Fletcher is generally assumed are dealt with under
Beaumont and Fletcher. But it may be here noted that Mr R. Boyle
has constructed an ingenious case for the joint authorship by
Fletcher and Massinger of the two “Shakespearian” plays, Henry
VIII. and Two Noble Kinsmen (see the New Shakspere Society’s
Transactions, 1884 and 1882). Mr Boyle sees the touch of
Massinger in the first two acts of the Second Maiden’s Tragedy
(Lansdowne MS., lic. 1611), a play with which the names of
Fletcher and Tourneur are also associated by different critics. The
Fatall Dowry, a Tragedy (c. 1619, pr. 1632), which was adapted
without acknowledgment by Nicholas Rowe in his Fair Penitent,
was written in conjunction with Nathaniel Field; and The Virgin
Martir, a Tragedie (lic. 1620, pr. 1621), with Thomas Dekker.

Massinger’s independent works were collected by Coxeter (4

vols., 1759, revised edition with introduction by Thomas Davies,
1779), by J. Monck Mason (4 vols., 1779), by William Gifford (4
vols., 1805, 1813), by Hartley Coleridge (1840), by Lieut.-Colonel
Cunningham (1867), and selections by Mr Arthur Symons in the
Mermaid Series (1887-1889). Gifford’s remains the standard
edition, and formed the basis of Cunningham’s text. It contains
“An Essay on the Dramatic Writings of Massinger” by Dr John
Ferriar.
 Massinger has been the object of a good deal of criticism. A
metrical examination of the plays in which Massinger was
concerned is given in Englische Studien (Halle, v. 74, vii. 66, viii.
39, ix. 209 and x. 383), by Mr R. Boyle, who also contributed the
life of the poet in the Dictionary of National Biography. The
sources of his plays are dealt with by E. Koeppel in Quellen
Studien zu den Dramen Chapman’s, Massinger’s und Ford’s
(Strassburg, 1897). For detailed criticism, beside the introductions
to the editions quoted, see A. W. Ward, Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit.
(1899), iii. 1-47, and F. G. Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama
(1891), under Fletcher; a general estimate of Massinger, dealing
especially with his moral standpoint, is given in Sir Leslie Stephen’s
Hours in a Library (3rd series, 1879); Swinburne, in the Fortnightly
Review (July 1889), while acknowledging the justice of Sir L.
Stephen’s main strictures, found much to say in praise of the poet.

MASSINISSA (c. 238-149 b.c.), king of Massylian or eastern

Numidia. He was educated, like many of the Numidian chiefs, at
Carthage, learnt Latin and Greek, and was an accomplished as well as
a naturally clever man. Although his kingdom was nominally
independent of Carthage, it really stood to it in a relation of vassalage;
it was directly under Carthaginian influences, and was imbued to a
very considerable extent with Carthaginian civilization. It was to this
that Massinissa owed his fame and success; he was a barbarian at
heart, but he had a varnish of culture, and to this he added the craft
and cunning in which Carthaginian statesmen were supposed to excel.
While yet a young man (212) he forced his neighbour Syphax, prince
of western Numidia, who had recently entered into an alliance with
Rome, to fly to the Moors in the extreme west of Africa. Soon
afterwards he appeared in Spain, fighting for Carthage with a large
force of Numidian cavalry against the Romans under the two Scipios.
The defeat of the Carthaginian army in 206 led him to cast in his lot
with Rome. Scipio Africanus is said to have cultivated his friendship.
Massinissa now quitted Spain for a while for Africa, and was again
engaged in a war with Syphax in which he was decidedly worsted.
Scipio’s arrival in Africa in 204 gave him another chance, and no
sooner had he joined the Roman general than he crushed his old
enemy Syphax, and captured his capital Cirta (Constantine). Here
occurs the romantic story of Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian
Hasdrubal, who had been promised in marriage to Massinissa, but had
subsequently become the wife of Syphax. Massinissa, according to the
story, married Sophonisba immediately after his victory, but was
required by Scipio to dismiss her as a Carthaginian, and consequently
an enemy to Rome. To save her from such humiliation he sent her
poison, with which she destroyed herself. Massinissa was now
accepted as a loyal ally of Rome, and was confirmed by Scipio in the
possession of his kingdom. In the battle of Zama (202) (see Punic
Wars), he commanded the cavalry on Scipio’s right wing, and
materially assisted the Roman victory. For his services he received the
kingdom of Syphax, and thus under Roman protection he became
master of the whole of Numidia, and his dominions completely
enclosed the Carthaginian territories, now straitened and reduced at
the close of the Second Punic War. It would seem that he had thoughts
of annexing Carthage itself with the connivance of Rome. In a war
which soon followed he was successful; the remonstrances of Carthage
with Rome on the behaviour of her ally were answered by the
appointment of Scipio as arbitrator; but, as though intentionally on the
part of Rome, no definite settlement was arrived at, and thus the
relations between Massinissa and the Carthaginians continued
strained. Rome, it is certain, deliberately favoured her ally’s unjust
claims with the view of keeping Carthage weak, and Massinissa on his
part was cunning enough to retain the friendship of the Roman people
by helping them with liberal supplies in their wars against Perseus of
Macedon and Antiochus. As soon as Carthage seemed to be recovering
herself, and some of Massinissa’s partisans were driven from the city
into exile, his policy was to excite the fears of Rome, till at last in 149
war was declared—the Third Punic War, which ended in the final
overthrow of Carthage. The king took some part in the negotiations
which preceded the war, but died soon after its commencement in the
ninetieth year of his age and the sixtieth of his reign.

Massinissa was an able ruler and a decided benefactor to Numidia.

He converted a plundering tribe into a settled and civilized population,
and out of robbers and marauders made efficient and disciplined
soldiers. To his sons he bequeathed a well-stored treasury, a
formidable army, and even a fleet. Cirta (q.v.), his capital, became a
famous centre of Phoenician civilization. In fact Massinissa changed for
the better the whole aspect of a great part of northern Africa. He had
much of the Arab nature, was singularly temperate, and equal to any
amount of fatigue. His fidelity to Rome was merely that of temporary
expediency. He espoused now one side, and now the other, but on the
whole supported Rome, so that orators and historians could speak of
him as “a most faithful ally of the Roman people.”

See Livy xxiv. 49, xxviii. 11, 35, 42, xxix. 27, xxx. 3, 12, 28, 37,
xlii. 23, 29, xliii. 3; Polybius iii. 5, ix. 42, xiv. 1, xxxii. 2, xxxvii. 3;
Appian, Hisp. 37, Punica, 11, 27, 105; Justin xxxiii. 1; A. H. J.
Greenidge, Hist. of Rome (London, 1904).
 MASSON, DAVID (1822-1907), Scottish man of letters, was
born at Aberdeen on the 2nd of December 1822, and educated at the
grammar school there and at Marischal College. Intending to enter the
Church, he proceeded to Edinburgh University, where he studied
theology under Dr Chalmers, whose friendship he enjoyed until the
divine’s death in 1847. However, abandoning his project of the
ministry, he returned to his native city to undertake the editorship of
the Banner, a weekly paper devoted to the advocacy of Free Kirk
principles. After two years he resigned this post and went back to the
capital, bent upon pursuing a purely literary career. There he wrote a
great deal, contributing to Fraser’s Magazine, Dublin University
Magazine (in which appeared his essays on Chatterton) and other
periodicals. In 1847 he went to London, where he found wider scope
for his energy and knowledge. He was secretary (1851-1852) of the
“Society of the Friends of Italy.” In a famous interview with Mrs
Browning at Florence he contested her admiration for Napoleon III. He
had known De Quincey, whose biography he contributed in 1878 to the
“English Men of Letters” series, and he was an enthusiastic friend and
admirer of Carlyle. In 1852 he was appointed professor of English
literature at University College, London, in succession to A. H. Clough,
and from 1858 to 1865 he edited the newly established Macmillan’s
Magazine. In 1865 he was selected for the chair of rhetoric and English
literature at Edinburgh, and during the early years of his professorship
actively promoted the movement for the university education of
women. In 1879 he became editor of the Register of the Scottish Privy
Council, and in 1893 was appointed Historiographer Royal for Scotland.
Two years later he resigned his professorship. His magnum opus in his
Life of Milton in Connexion with the History of His Own Time in six
volumes, the first of which appeared in 1858 and the last in 1880. He
also edited the library edition of Milton’s Poetical Works (3 vols., 1874),
and De Quincey’s Collected Works (14 vols., 1889-1890). Among his
other publications are Essays, Biographical and Critical (1856, reprinted
with additions, 3 vols., 1874), British Novelists and their Styles (1859),
Drummond of Hawthornden (1873), Chatterton (1873) and Edinburgh
Sketches (1892). He died on the 6th of October 1907. A bust of
Masson was presented to the senate of the university of Edinburgh in
1897. Professor Masson had married Rosaline Orme. His son Orme
Masson became professor of chemistry in the university of Melbourne,
and his daughter Rosaline is known as a writer and novelist.

MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC (1847- ),

French historian, was born at Paris on the 8th of March 1847. His
father, Francis Masson, a solicitor, was killed on the 23rd of June 1848,
when major in the garde nationale. Young Masson was educated at the
college of Sainte Barbe, and at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, and then
travelled in Germany and in England; from 1869 to 1880 he was
librarian at the Foreign Office. At first he devoted himself to the history
of diplomacy, and published between 1877 and 1884 several volumes
connected with that subject. Later he published a number of more or
less curious memoirs illustrating the history of the Revolution and of
the empire. But he is best known for his books connected with
Napoleon. In Napoléon inconnu (1895), Masson, together with M.
Guido Biagi, brought out the unpublished writings (1786-1793) of the
future emperor. These were notes, extracts from historical,
philosophical and literary books, and personal reflections in which one
can watch the growth of the ideas later carried out by the emperor
with modifications necessitated by the force of circumstances and his
own genius. But this was only one in a remarkable series: Joséphine
de Beauharnais, 1763-1796 (1898); Joséphine, impératrice et reine
(1899); Joséphine répudiée 1809-1814 (1901); L’Impératrice Marie
Louise (1902); Napoléon et les femmes (1894); Napoléon et sa famille
(9 vols., 1897-1907); Napoléon et son fils (1904); and Autour de l’Île
d’Elbe (1908). These works abound in details and amusing anecdotes,
which throw much light on the events and men of the time, laying
stress on the personal, romantic and dramatic aspects of history. The
author was made a member of the Académie française in 1903. From
1886 to 1889 he edited the review Arts and Letters, published in
London and New York.

A bibliography of his works, including anonymous ones and

those under an assumed name, has been published by G. Vicaire
(Manuel de l’amateur des livres du XIXe siècle, tome v., 1904).
Napoléon et les femmes has been translated into English as
Napoleon and the Fair Sex (1894).
 MAST (1) (O. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate with
Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mastus comes Fr. mât), in
nautical language, the name of the spar, or straight piece of timber, or
combination of spars, on which are hung the yards and sails of a
vessel of any size. It has been ingeniously supposed that man himself
was the first mast. He discovered by standing up in his prehistoric
“dugout,” or canoe, that the wind blowing on him would carry his craft
along. But the origin of the mast, like that of the ship, is lost in times
anterior to all record. The earliest form of mast which prevailed till the
close of the middle ages, and is still in use for small vessels, was and is
a single spar made of some tough and elastic wood; the conifers
supply the best timber for the purpose. In sketching the history of the
development of the mast, we must distinguish between the increase in
the number erected, and the improvements made in the mast itself.
The earliest ships had only one, carrying a single sail. So little is known
of the rigging of classical ships that nothing can be affirmed of them
with absolute confidence. The Norse vessels carried one mast placed in
the middle. The number gradually increased till it reached four or five.
All were at first upright, but the mast which stood nearest the bow was
by degrees lowered forward till it became the bow-sprit of modern
times, and lost the name of mast. The next from the bows became the
foremast—called in Mediterranean sea language mizzana, in French
misaine. Then came the main-mast—in French grand mât; and then
the mizen—in French, which follows the Mediterranean usage, the
artimon, i.e. “next the rudder,” timon. A small mast was sometimes
erected in the very end of the ship, and called in English a
“bonaventure mizen.” It had a close resemblance to the jigger of yawl-
rigged yachts. By the close of the 16th century it had become the
established rule that a ship proper had three masts—fore, main and
mizen. The third takes its name not as the other two do, from its
place, but from the lateen sail originally hoisted on it (see Rigging),
which was placed fore and aft in the middle (Italian, mizzo) of the
ship, and did not lie across like the courses and topsails. With the
development of very large sailing clippers in the middle of the 19th
century a return was made to the practice of carrying more than three
masts. Ships and barques are built with four or five. Some of the large
schooners employed in the American coast trade have six or seven,
and some steamers have had as many.

The mast was for long made out of a single spar. Thence the
Mediterranean name of “palo” (spar) and the Spanish “arbol”
(tree). The typical Mediterranean mast of “lateen” (Latin) vessels
is short and bends forward. In other classes it is upright, or bends
slightly backwards with what is called a “rake.” The mast is
grounded, or in technical language “stepped,” on the kelson (or
keelson), the solid timber or metal beam lying parallel with, and
above the keel. As the 15th century advanced the growth of the
ship made it difficult, or even impossible, to find spars large
enough to make a mast. The practice of dividing it into lower, and
upper or topmast, was introduced. At first the two were fastened
firmly, and the topmast could not be lowered. In the 16th century
the topmast became movable. No date can be given for the
change, which was gradual, and was not simultaneously adopted.
When the masting of sailing ships was fully developed, the division
was into lower or standing mast, topmast, topgallant mast, and
topgallant royal. The topgallant royal is a small spar which is often
a continuation of the topgallant mast, and is fixed. Increase of size
also made it impossible to construct each of these subdivisions out
of single timbers. A distinction was made between “whole” or
single-spar masts and “armed” and “made masts.” The first were
used for the lighter spars, for small vessels and the Mediterranean
craft called “polacras.” Armed masts were composed of two single
timbers. Made masts were built of many pieces, bolted and
“coaked,” i.e. dovetailed and fitted together, fastened round by
iron hoops, and between them by twelve or thirteen close turns of
rope, firmly secured. “Made masts” are stronger than those made
of a single tree and less liable to be sprung. The general principle
of construction is that it is built round a central shaft, called in
English the “spindle” or “upper tree,” and in French the mèche or
wick. The other pieces—“side trees,” “keel pieces,” “side fishes,”
“cant pieces” and “fillings” are “coaked,” i.e. dovetailed and bolted
on to and around the “spindle,” which itself is made of two pieces,
coaked and bolted. The whole is bound by iron bands, and
between the bands, by rope firmly “woulded” or turned round, and
nailed tight. The art of constructing made masts, like that of
building wooden ships, is in process of dying out. In sailing men-
of-war the mizen-mast often did not reach to the kelson, but was
stepped on the orlop deck. Hollow metal cylinders are now used
as masts. In the case of a masted screw steamer the masts abaft
the engines could not be stepped on the kelson because they
would interfere with the shaft of the screw. It is therefore
necessary to step them on the lower deck, where they are
supported by stanchions, or on a horseshoe covering the screw
shaft. The size of masts naturally varies very much. In a 110-gun
ship of 2164 tons the proportions of the mainmast were: for the
lower mast, length 117 ft., diameter 3 ft. 3 in.; topmast, 70 ft.,
and 20¾ in.; topgallant mast, 35 ft., and 115⁄8 in., 222 ft. in all. At
the other end of the scale, a cutter of 200 tons had a lower mast
of 88 ft., of 22 in. diameter, and a topgallant mast (there was no
topmast between them) of 44 ft., of 9¾ in. in diameter, 132 ft. in
all; topgallant mast of 44 ft., and 9¾ in. in diameter. The masts of
a warship were more lofty than those of a merchant ship of the
same tonnage. At present masts are only used by warships for
signalling and military purposes. In sailing merchant ships, the
 masts are more lofty than they were about a century ago. A
merchant ship of 1300 tons, in 1830, had a mainmast 179 ft. in
height; a vessel of the same size would have a mast of 198 ft. to-
day.

A “jury mast” is a temporary mast put up by the crew when the

spars nave been carried away in a storm or in action, or have been
cut away to relieve pressure in a storm. The word has been
supposed without any foundation to be short for “injury” mast; it
may be a mere fanciful sailor adaptation of “jury” in some
connexion now lost. Skeat suggests that it is short for O. Fr.
ajourie, Lat. adjutare, to aid. There is no reason to connect with
jour, day.

See L. Jal, Glossaire Nautique (Paris, 1848); Sir Henry

Manwayring, The Seaman’s Dictionary (London, 1644); N.
Hutchinson, Treatise on Naval Architecture and Practical
Seamanship (Liverpool, 1777); David Steel, Elements and Practice
of Rigging, Seamanship and Naval Tactics (London, 1800); William
Burney’s Falconer’s Dictionary (London, 1830); Sir Gervais Nares’s
Seamanship (Portsmouth, 1882); and John Fincham, On Masting
Ships and Mast Making (London, 1829). (D. H.)

Mast (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic

languages, and ultimately connected with “meat”), the fruit of the
beech, oak, and other forest trees, used as food for swine.
 MASTABA (Arab. for “bench”), in Egyptian architecture, the term
given to the rectangular tombs in stone with raking sides and a flat
roof. There were three chambers inside. In one the walls were
sometimes richly decorated with paintings and had a low bench of
stone in them on which incense was burnt. The second chamber was
either closed, with holes pierced in the wall separating it from the first
chamber, or entered through a narrow passage through which the
fumes of the incense passed; this chamber contained the serdab or
figure of the deceased. A vertical well-hole cut in the rock descended
to a third chamber in which the mummy was laid.

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to magis, more, as the

corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly
to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maître; cf.
Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro), one holding a position of
authority, disposition or control over persons or things. The various
applications of the word fall roughly into the following main divisions;
as the title of the holder of a position of command or authority; as that
of the holder of certain public or private offices, and hence a title of
address; and as implying the relationship of a teacher to his pupils or
of an employer to the persons he employs. As a title of the holder of
an office, the use of the Lat. magister is very ancient. Magister
equitum, master of the horse, goes back to the early history of the
Roman Republic (see Dictator; and for the British office, Master of the
Horse). In medieval times the title was of great frequency. In Du Cange
(Glossarium) the article magister contains over 120 sub-headings. In
the British royal household most of the offices bearing this title are
now obsolete. Of the greater offices, that of master of the buckhounds
was abolished by the Civil List Act 1901. The master of the household,
master of the ceremonies, master of the king’s music still survive.
Since 1870 the office of master of the mint has been held by the
chancellor of the exchequer, all the administrative and other duties
being exercised by the deputy master.

At sea, a “master” is more properly styled “master mariner.” In the

merchant service he is the commander of a ship, and is by courtesy
known as the captain. In the British navy he was the officer entrusted
with the navigation under the captain. He had no royal commission,
but a warrant from the Navy Board. Very often he had been a
merchant captain. His duties are now performed by the staff
commander or navigating lieutenant. The master-at-arms is the head
of the internal police of a ship; the same title is borne by a senior
gymnastic instructor in the army. In the United States navy, the master
is a commissioned officer below the rank of lieutenant.

“Master” appears as the title of many legal functionaries (for the

masters of the supreme court see Chancery; and King’s Bench, Court of;
for masters in lunacy see Insanity: § Law, see also Master of the Rolls,
below). The “master of the faculties” is the chief officer of the
archbishop of Canterbury in his court of faculties. His duties are
concerned with the appointment of notaries and the granting of special
licences of marriage. The duties are performed ex officio by the judge
of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York, who is also dean of
Arches, in accordance with § 7 of the Public Worship Regulation Act
1874. The “master of the Temple” is the title of the priest-in-charge of
the Temple Church in London. It was formerly the title of the grand
master of the Knights Templars. The priest-in-charge of the Templars’
Church was properly styled the custos, and this was preserved by the
Knights Hospitallers when they were granted the property of the
Templars at the dissolution of that order. The act of 1540 (32 Henry
VIII.), which dissolved the order of the Hospitallers, wrongly styled the
custos master of the Temple, and the mistake has been continued. The
proper title of a bencher of the Inns of Court is “master of the Bench”
(see Inns of Court). The title of “Master-General of the Ordnance” was
revived in 1904 for the head of the Ordnance Department in the British
military administration.

“Master” is the ordinary word for a teacher, very generally used in

the compound “schoolmaster.” The word also is used in a sense
transferred from this to express the relation between the founder of a
school of religion, philosophy, science, art, &c., and his disciples. It is
partly in this sense and partly in that of one whose work serves as a
model or type of superlative excellence that such terms as “old
masters” are used. In medieval universities magister was particularly
applied to one who had been granted a degree carrying with it the
licentia docendi, the licence to teach. In English usage this survives in
the faculty of arts. The degree is that of artium magister, master of
arts, abbreviated M.A. In the other faculties the corresponding degree
is doctor. Some British universities give a master’s degree in surgery,
magister chirurgiae, C.M. or M.Ch., and also in science, magister
scientiae, M.Sc. The academic use of “master” as the title of the head
of certain colleges at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge is to be
referred to the frequent application of the term to the holder of a
presiding office in an institution.

Master was the usual prefix of address to a man’s name, though

originally confined to people of some social standing. Probably under
the influence of “mistress,” it was corrupted in sound to “mister,” and
was abbreviated to “Mr.” In the case of the puisne judges of the High
Court “Mr Justice” is still used as the proper official form of written
address. The Speaker of the House of Commons is also formally
addressed as “Mr Speaker.” In some Scottish peerages below the rank
of earl, “master” is used in the courtesy title of the heir, e.g. the
“Master of Ruthven.”

MASTER AND SERVANT. These are scarcely to be

considered as technical terms in English law. The relationship which
they imply is created when one man hires the labour of another for a
term. Thus it is not constituted by merely contracting with another for
the performance of a definite work, or by sending an article to an
artificer to be repaired, or engaging a builder to construct a house. Nor
would the employment of a man for one definite act of personal
service—e.g. the engagement of a messenger for a single occasion—
generally make the one master and the other servant. It was held,
however, in relation to the offence of embezzlement, that a drover
employed on one occasion to drive cattle home from market was a
servant within the statute. On the other hand, there are many
decisions limiting the meaning of “servants” under wills giving legacies
to the class of servants generally. Thus “a person who was not obliged
to give his whole time to the master, but was yet in some sense a
servant,” was held not entitled to share in a legacy to the servants.
These cases are, however, interpretations of wills where the intention
obviously is to benefit domestic servants only. And so in other
connexions questions may arise as to the exact nature of the relations
between the parties—whether they are master and servant, or
principal and agent, or landlord and tenant, or partners, &c.

The terms of the contract of service are for the most part such as
the parties choose to make them, but in the absence of express
stipulations terms will be implied by the law. Thus, “where no time is
limited either expressly or by implication for the duration of a contract
of hiring and service, the hiring is considered as a general hiring, and
in point of law a hiring for a year.” But “in the case of domestic and
menial servants there is a well-known rule, founded solely on custom,
that their contract of service may be determined at any time by giving
a month’s warning or paying a month’s wages, but a domestic or other
yearly servant, wrongfully quitting his master’s service, forfeits all claim
to wages for that part of the current year during which he has served,
and cannot claim the sum to which his wages would have amounted
had he kept his contract, merely deducting therefrom one month’s
wages. Domestic servants have a right by custom to leave their
situations at any time on payment of a calendar month’s wages in
advance, just as a master may discharge them in a similar manner”
(Manley Smith’s Law of Master and Servant, chs. ii. and iii.). The
following are sufficient grounds for discharging a servant: (1) wilful
disobedience of any lawful order; (2) gross moral misconduct; (3)
habitual negligence; (4) incompetence or permanent disability caused
by illness. A master has a right of action against any person who
deprives him of the services of his servant, by enticing him away,
harbouring or detaining him after notice, confining or disabling him, or
by seducing his female servant. Indeed, the ordinary and only available
action for seduction in English law is in form of a claim by a parent for
the loss of his daughter’s services. The death of either master or
servant in general puts an end to the contract. A servant wrongfully
discharged may either treat the contract as rescinded and sue for
services actually rendered, or he may bring a special action for
damages for the breach. The common law liabilities of a master
towards his servants have been further regulated by the Workmen’s
Compensation Acts (see Employer’s Liability). A master is bound to
provide food for a servant living under his roof, and wilful breach of
duty in that respect is a misdemeanour under the Offences against the
Person Act 1861.

A servant has no right to demand “a character” from an employer,

and if a character be given it will be deemed a privileged
communication, so that the master will not be liable thereon to the
servant unless it be false and malicious. A master by knowingly giving
a false character of a servant to an intending employer may render
himself liable—should the servant for example rob or injure his new
master.

Reference may be made to the articles on Labour Legislation for

the cases in which special terms have been introduced into
contracts of service by statute (e.g. Truck Acts).

MASTER OF THE HORSE, in England, an important official of

the sovereign’s household. The master of the horse is the third
dignitary of the court, and is always a member of the ministry (before
1782 the office was of cabinet rank), a peer and a privy councillor. All
matters connected with the horses and hounds of the sovereign, as
well as the stables and coach-houses, the stud, mews and kennels, are
within his jurisdiction. The practical management of the royal stables
and stud devolves on the chief or crown equerry, formerly called the
gentleman of the horse, who is never in personal attendance on the
sovereign and whose appointment is permanent. The clerk marshal
has the supervision of the accounts of the department before they are
submitted to the Board of Green Cloth, and is in waiting on the
sovereign on state occasions only. Exclusive of the crown equerry there
are seven regular equerries, besides extra and honorary equerries, one
of whom is always in attendance on the sovereign and rides at the side
of the royal carriage. They are always officers of the army, and each of
them is “on duty” for about the same time as the lords and grooms in
waiting. There are also several pages of honour in the master of the
horse’s department, who must not be confounded with the pages of
various kinds who are in the department of the lord chamberlain. They
are youths aged from twelve to sixteen, selected by the sovereign in
person, to attend on him at state ceremonies, when two of them,
arrayed in an antique costume, assist the groom of the stole in
carrying the royal train.

In France the master of the horse (“Grand Écuyer,” or more

usually “Monsieur le grand”) was one of the seven great officers of
the crown from 1617. As well as the superintendence of the royal
stables, he had that of the retinue of the sovereign, also the
charge of the funds set aside for the religious functions of the
court, coronations, &c. On the death of a sovereign he had the
right to all the horses and their equipment in the royal stables.
Distinct from this officer and independent of him, was the first
equerry (“Premier Écuyer”), who had charge of the horses which
the sovereign used personally (“la petite écurie”), and who
attended on him when he rode out. The office of master of the
horse existed down to the reign of Louis XVI. Under Louis XVIII.
and Charles X. the duties were discharged by the first equerry, but
 under Napoléon I. and Napoléon III. the office was revived with
much of its old importance.

In Germany the master of the horse (Oberststallmeister) is a

high court dignitary; but his office is merely titular, the
superintendence of the king’s stables being carried out by the
Oberstallmeister, an official corresponding to the crown equerry in
England.

MASTER OF THE ROLLS, the third member of the Supreme

Court of Judicature in England, the lord chancellor, president of the
chancery division, being the first, and the lord chief justice, president
of the king’s bench division, being the second. At first he was the
principal clerk of the chancery, and as such had charge of the records
of the court, especially of the register of original writs and of all
patents and grants under the Great Seal. Until the end of the 15th
century he was called either the clerk or the keeper of the rolls, and he
is still formally designated as the master or keeper of the rolls. The
earliest mention of him as master of the rolls is in an act of 1495; and
in another act of the same year he is again described as clerk of the
rolls, showing that his official designation still remained unsettled.
About the same period, however, the chief clerks of the chancery came
to be called masters in chancery, and the clerk, master or keeper of
the rolls was always the first among them, whichever name they bore.
In course of time, from causes which are not very easy to trace, his
original functions as keeper of the records passed away from him and
he gradually assumed a jurisdiction in the court of chancery second
only to that of the lord chancellor himself. In the beginning he only
heard causes in conjunction with the other masters in chancery, and
his decrees were invalid until they had been approved and signed by
the lord chancellor. Sitting in the Rolls chapel or in the court in Rolls
yard, he heard causes without assistance, and his decrees held good
until they were reversed on petition either to the lord chancellor or
afterwards to the lords justices of appeal. Before any judge with the
formal title of vice-chancellor was appointed the master of the rolls
was often spoken of as vice-chancellor, and in theory acted as such,
sitting only when the lord chancellor was not sitting and holding his
court in the evening from six o’clock to ten. Only since 1827 has the
master of the rolls sat in the morning hours. By the Public Record
Office Act 1838 the custody of the records was restored to him, and he
is chairman of the State Papers and Historical Manuscripts
Commissions. Under the Judicature Act 1875, and the Appellate
Jurisdiction Act 1876, he now always sits with the lords justices in the
court of appeal (which usually sits in two divisions of three judges, the
master of the rolls presiding over one division), whose decisions can
be questioned only in the House of Lords. The master of the rolls was
formerly eligible to a seat in the House of Commons—a privilege
enjoyed by no other member of the judicial bench;1 but he was
deprived of it by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, which
provides that all judges of the High Court of Justice and the court of
appeal shall be incapable of being elected to or sitting in the House of
Commons. The master of the rolls is always sworn of the privy council.
His salary is £6000 a year.

See Lord Hardwicke, Office of the Master of the Rolls.

1 Sir John Romilly, M.P. for Devonport, 1847 to 1852, was the last master
of the rolls to sit in Parliament. He was appointed master of the rolls in
 1851.

MASTIC, or Mastich (Gr. μαστίχη, probably connected with

μασᾶσθαι, to chew, since mastic is used in the East as a chewing
gum), a resinous exudation obtained from the lentisk, Pistacia
lentiscus, an evergreen shrub of the natural order Anacardiaceae. The
lentisk or mastic plant is indigenous to the Mediterranean coast region
from Syria to Spain, but grows also in Portugal, Morocco and the
Canaries. Although experiments have proved that excellent mastic
might be obtained in other islands in the archipelago, the production of
the substance has been, since the time of Dioscorides, almost
exclusively confined to the island of Chios. The mastic districts of that
island are for the most part flat and stony, with little hills and few
streams. The shrubs are about 6 ft. high. The resin is contained in the
bark and not in the wood, and in order to obtain it numerous vertical
incisions are made, during June, July and August, in the stem and
chief branches. The resin speedily exudes and hardens into roundish or
oval tears, which are collected, after about fifteen days, by women and
children, in little baskets lined with white paper or cotton wool. The
ground around the trees is kept hard and clean, and flat pieces of
stone are often laid beneath them to prevent any droppings of resin
from becoming contaminated with dirt. The collection is repeated three
or four times between June and September, a fine tree being found to
yield about 8 or 10 ℔ of mastic during the season. Besides that
obtained from the incisions, mastic of very fine quality spontaneously
exudes from the small branches. The harvest is affected by showers of
rain during the period of collection, and the trees are much injured by
frost, which is, however, of rare occurrence in the districts where they
grow. Mastic occurs in commerce in the form of roundish tears about
the size of peas. They are transparent, with a glassy fracture, of a pale
yellow or faint greenish tinge, which darkens slowly by age. During the
15th, 16th and 17th centuries mastic enjoyed a high reputation as a
medicine, and formed an ingredient in a large number of medical
compounds; but its use in medicine is now obsolete, and it is chiefly
employed for making varnish.

Pistacia Khinjuk and P. cabulica, trees growing throughout

Sindh, Baluchistan and Cabul, yield a kind of mastic which is met
with in the Indian bazaars under the name of Mustagirūmī, i.e.
Roman mastic. This when occurring in the European market is
known as East Indian or Bombay mastic. In Algeria P. Atlantica
yields a solid resin, which is collected and used by the Arabs as a
masticatory. Cape mastic is the produce of Euryops multifidus, the
resin bush, or harpuis bosch of the Boers—a plant of the
composite order growing abundantly in the Clanwilliam district.
Dammar resin is sometimes sold under the name of mastic. The
West Indian mastic tree is the Bursera gummifera and the
Peruvian mastic is Schinus molle; but neither of these furnishes
commercial resins. The name mastic tree is also applied to a
timber tree, Sider oxylon mastichodendron, nat. ord. Sapotaceae,
which grows in the West Indies and on the coast of Florida.
 MASTIGOPHORA, a group of Protozoa, moving and ingesting
food by long flagella (Gr. μάστιξ, whip), usually few in number, and
multiplying by fission, usually longitudinal, in the active condition. They
were separated off from the rest of the old “Infusoria” by K. Düsing,
and subdivided by O. Bütschli and E. R. Lankester into (1) Flagellata
(q.v.), including Haemoflagellata (q.v.), (2) Dinoflagellata (q.v.) and
Rhyncho = Cystoflagellata E. Haeckel (q.v.) = Rhynchoflagellata E. R.
Lankester. The Mastigophora are frequently termed Flagellata or
Flagellates.

MASTODON (Gr. μαστός, breast, ὀδούς, tooth), a name given

by Cuvier to the Pliocene and Miocene forerunners of the elephants, on
account of the nipple-like prominences on the molar teeth of some of
the species (fig. 2), which are of a much simpler type than those of
true elephants. Mastodons, like elephants, always have a pair of upper
tusks, while the earlier ones likewise have a short pair in the lower
jaw, which is prolonged into a snout-like symphysis for their support.
These long-chinned mastodons are now regarded as forming a genus
by themselves (Tetrabelodon), well-known examples of this group
being Tetrabelodon angustidens from the Miocene and T. longirostris
(fig. 1 C.) from the Lower Pliocene of the Continent. In the former the
upper tusks are bent down so as to cross the tips of the short and
chisel-like lower pair. These long-chinned mastodons must have had an
extremely elongated muzzle, formed by the upper lip and nose above
and the lower lip below, with which they were able to reach the
ground, the neck being probably rather longer than in elephants. On
the other hand, in the short-chinned mastodons, as represented by the
Pleistocene North American Mastodon americanus and the Pliocene
European M. turicensis (fig. 1), the chin had shrunk to the dimensions
characteristic of elephants, with the loss of the lower incisors (or with
temporary retention of rudimentary ones), while at the same time a
true elephant-like trunk must have been developed by the shortening
of the lower lip and the prolongation of the combined upper lip and
nose.

Mastodons are found in almost all parts of the world. In Asia they
gave rise to the elephants, while they themselves originated in Africa
from ungulates of more normal type. (See Proboscidea.)
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