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 third edition
third edition
AN INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING

McLeod
Third Edition

Reviews of the second edition:

“It is impossible to do justice to such an exhaustive, broad based and very readable work in a
short review. Professor McLeod has been meticulous, and with true scientific impartiality has
AN INTRODUCTION
looked at, studied and described the many strands and different schools of thought and
methods that can lead towards successful counselling.” – Therapy Weekly

“This is a fascinating, informative, comprehensive and very readable book...McLeod has

produced a text that offers a great deal no matter what your level of competence or
TO COUNSELLING
knowledge.” – Journal of Interprofessional Care

“One of the book’s strengths is McLeod’s willingness to go beyond a history of the

development of counselling or a beginner’s technical manual...[and to] consider the political

TO COUNSELLING
AN INTRODUCTION
dimensions of counselling and the relevance of power to counselling relationships. A
worthwhile acquisition for therapeutic community members, whatever their discipline or
background.” – Therapeutic Communities

This thoroughly revised and expanded version of the bestselling text, An Introduction to
Counselling, provides a comprehensive introduction to the theory and practice of counselling
and therapy. It is written in a clear, accessible style, covers all the core approaches to
counselling, and takes a critical, questioning approach to issues of professional practise.

Placing each counselling approach in its social and historical context, the book also
introduces a wide range of contemporary approaches, including narrative therapy, systemic,
feminist and multicultural.

This third edition includes a new chapter on the important emerging approach of
philosophical counselling, and a chapter on the counselling relationship, as well as
expanded coverage of attachment theory, counselling on the internet, and solution-focused
therapy. The text has been updated throughout, with additional illustrative vignettes and case
studies.

Current, comprehensive and readable, An Introduction to Counselling is a classic

introduction to its subject.

John McLeod is Professor of Counselling at the University of Abertay Dundee, having

previously taught at Keele University and Wolverhampton University. He has practised in a
range of counselling settings, as well as being involved in training, research and consultancy
with many occupational groups, including nurses, social workers and emergency services
personnel. The author of six books and more than fifty articles and chapters on various
aspects of counselling and psychotherapy, he is currently editor of Counselling and
Psychotherapy Research.
ISBN 0-335-21189-5

9 780335 211890
John McLeod
 AN INTRODUCTION TO
COUNSELLING
Third Edition

AITA01 1 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

AITA01 2 12/10/06, 10:08 AM
 AN INTRODUCTION TO
COUNSELLING
Third Edition

John McLeod

Open University Press

AITA01 3 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

 Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
SL6 2QL
email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk
and
Two Penn Plaza
New York, NY 10121-2289, USA
First Published 1993
Reprinted 1994 (twice), 1996 (twice), 1997
Second Edition published 1998
Reprinted 1999, 2000 and 2001
First published in this third edition 2003
Reprinted 2003, 2004
Copyright © John McLeod 2003

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such
licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright
Licensing Agency Ltd of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P 0LP.

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 335 21189 5 (pb) 0 335 21190 9 (hb)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McLeod, John, 1951–
An introduction to counselling / John McLeod.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-335-21190-9 – ISBN 0-335-21189-5 (pbk.)
1. Counseling. 1. Title.

BF637.C6 M379 2003

361′.06–dc21
2002072276

Typeset by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

Printed in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd., Glasgow

AITA01 4 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

 For Julia

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AITA01 6 12/10/06, 10:08 AM
 Contents

Preface xviii

1 An introduction to counselling 1

Introduction 1
Stories of counselling 2
Paula’s story: coming to terms with trauma 2
Myra’s story: being depressed 3
Matthew’s story: everything is getting on top of me 3
Laura’s story: finding the right counsellor 4
What is counselling? 4
Defining counselling 7
The relationship between counselling and psychotherapy 8
Counselling and other helping professions 8
The diversity of theory and practice in counselling 10
The aims of counselling 12
Counselling as an interdisciplinary area of study 13
A user-centred definition of counselling 14
Conclusions 16
Chapter summary 17
Topics for reflection and discussion 17
Key terms and concepts 18
Suggested further reading 19

AITA01 7 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

 viii Contents

2 The cultural and historical origins of counselling 20

Introduction 20
The emergence of the ‘trade in lunacy’ 21
The invention of psychotherapy 24
The growth of psychotherapy in the USA 26
The secularization of society 28
The role of Carl Rogers 29
Therapy as a response to the ‘empty self’ 30
The expansion of counselling in the late twentieth century 31
The social meaning of counselling 33
Images of the person implicit in counselling approaches 36
Conclusions 37
Chapter summary 38
Topics for reflection and discussion 39
Key terms and concepts 39
Suggested further reading 40

3 Counselling theories: diversity and convergence 41

Introduction 42
What is a theory? 43
Theory as a structured set of ideas 43
Theory as a set of social practices 45
The purpose of theory: explanation or understanding? 47
Why do we need theory? The uses of conceptualization
in counselling practice 49
Something to hang on to: the need of the counsellor for
structure in the face of chaos 49
Offering the client a way of making sense 50
Establishing professional status 50
The creation of knowledge communities 50
The diversity of theorizing in counselling 52
Alternative ‘images of the person’ 52
The personal dimension of theory 53
The social context of theory construction 53
The mental health industry: brand names and special ingredients 54
The underlying unity of approaches to counselling 55
‘Common’ or ‘non-specific’ therapeutic factors 55
The movement towards theoretical integration 60
The debate over the merits of integrated versus ‘pure’ approaches 61
Eclecticism and integrationism 64

AITA01 8 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

 Contents ix

Pathways to integration 65
The use of client assessment in integrative approaches 66
The use of ‘transtheoretical’ concepts in integrative approaches 67
The missing dimension: counsellor development 69
The future of integration 70
Conclusions: counselling theories – tools or truths? 72
Chapter summary 73
Topics for reflection and discussion 75
Key terms and concepts 76
Suggested further reading 76

4 Themes and issues in the psychodynamic approach to counselling 78

Introduction 78
The origins of psychodynamic counselling: the work of
Sigmund Freud 79
The childhood origins of emotional problems 80
The importance of the ‘unconscious’ 82
The therapeutic techniques used in psychoanalysis 83
The post-Freudian evolution of the psychodynamic
approach 87
The object relations school 89
The origins of object relations theory in child observation 89
The application of an object relations perspective in therapy 90
The British Independents: the importance of counter-transference 95
The American post-Freudian tradition: ego psychology and self theory 98
The European tradition 99
Attachment theory 100
Psychodynamic counselling within a time-limited framework 106
The conversational model 113
An appraisal of the psychodynamic approach to counselling 117
Chapter summary 118
Topics for reflection and discussion 120
Key terms and concepts 120
Suggested further reading 121

5 From behaviourism to constructivism: the cognitive–behavioural

approach to counselling 122

Introduction 122
The origins of the cognitive–behavioural approach 123

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 x Contents

The application of behavioural ideas in clinical

practice 125
Behavioural methods in counselling 126
The cognitive strand 132
Cognitive processes 133
Cognitive content 136
The techniques and methods of cognitive–behavioural
counselling 138
An appraisal of the cognitive–behavioural approach
to counselling 141
The constructivist revolution 143
Solution-focused therapy 146
Conclusions 152
Chapter summary 153
Topics for reflection and discussion 154
Key terms and concepts 154
Suggested further reading 155

6 Theory and practice of the person-centred approach 156

Introduction 156
The evolution of the person-centred approach 157
The image of the person in person-centred theory 163
The therapeutic relationship 166
Empathy 169
Congruence and presence 174
The therapeutic process 177
Experiential focusing 179
The process-experiential model of therapy 180
An appraisal of the person-centred approach 184
Chapter summary 187
Topics for reflection and discussion 188
Key terms and concepts 188
Suggested further reading 188

7 Working with systems 190

Introduction 190
Understanding human systems 191
The analysis and treatment of family systems 193

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 Contents xi

The concept of the person’s social ‘niche’ 199

The counsellor as consultant: working with
organizational systems 199
Conclusions: themes and issues in the application of
systemic ideas in counselling 201
Chapter summary 202
Topics for reflection and discussion 203
Key terms and concepts 204
Suggested further reading 204

8 Feminist approaches: the radicalization of counselling 205

Introduction 205
Feminism as philosophy and social action 206
The feminist critique of psychotherapy theory and
practice 208
Theory and practice of feminist counselling 213
Integrationist approaches 213
The Stone Center model of feminist counselling 214
Radical feminist therapy 217
Therapist as outlaw: the need for a feminist ethics 219
Conclusions: issues in feminist counselling 221
Chapter summary 222
Topics for reflection and discussion 223
Key terms and concepts 224
Suggested further reading 224

9 Narrative approaches to counselling: working with stories 225

Introduction 225
Competing ways of understanding narrative 226
Psychodynamic approaches to narrative 227
Cognitive/constructivist approaches to narrative 230
Social constructionist narrative therapy 234
Externalizing the problem 235
Enlisting community resources and audiences 238
Conclusions 240
Chapter summary 241
Topics for reflection and discussion 242

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 xii Contents

Key terms and concepts 242

Suggested further reading 242

10 Multiculturalism as an approach to counselling 243

Introduction 243
What do we mean by ‘culture’? 244
Underlying cultural aspects 246
The concept of reality 246
The sense of self 247
The construction of morality 248
The concept of time 250
The significance of place 251
Externally observable cultural aspects 251
Multicultural counselling in practice 254
Cultural awareness training for counsellors 259
Adapting existing services and agencies to meet the
needs of client groups from different cultures 263
Creating new specialist agencies 265
Promoting research into multicultural counselling 266
Conclusions 266
Chapter summary 267
Topics for reflection and discussion 268
Key terms and concepts 269
Suggested further reading 269

11 Philosophical counselling 270

Introduction: the relevance of philosophy for counselling

and psychotherapy 270
The range and scope of philosophical analysis 272
Existential psychotherapy as a philosophical approach 273
Philosophical counselling 277
Postmodern therapy 283
The value of conceptual analysis for counsellors and
psychotherapists 284
Conclusions 289
Chapter summary 290
Topics for reflection and discussion 291
Key terms and concepts 291
Suggested further reading 291

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 Contents xiii

12 The counselling relationship 293

Introduction: the counselling relationship as a key

theme in contemporary theory and practice 293
Images of the therapeutic relationship 297
The psychoanalytic concept of transference: therapist as container 298
Creating the conditions for growth: therapist as authentic presence 300
Therapist as teacher, coach, scientist and philosopher 302
The ‘not-knowing’ stance: therapist as editor 303
Integrative models: the all-purpose therapist 304
The practicalities of relationship competence: how to
develop an effective therapeutic alliance 307
Adopting a collaborative style: being congruent and using
metacommunication 308
Repairing ruptures in the alliance 308
The embodiment of the relationship: transition objects 310
The concept of boundary 311
Measuring the therapeutic relationship 314
The role of money in the relationship 316
Implications of relationship theories for counsellor
training and development 318
Conclusions: the complexity of the therapeutic relationship 320
Chapter summary 320
Topics for reflection and discussion 321
Key terms and concepts 322
Suggested further reading 322

13 The process of counselling 324

Introduction: defining the concept of process 324

The process of counselling: beginnings and endings 327
Negotiating expectations 327
Assessment 329
Establishing a working alliance 334
Ending counselling 335
The middle part of counselling: the process of change 339
Assimilation of problematic experiences 339
Change events 343
Using structured exercises and interventions 343
What do counsellors do? Process defined in terms of
counsellor behaviour and intentions 344
The covert dimension of process: what is going
on behind the scenes 345

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 xiv Contents

Towards a comprehensive analysis of process: bringing it

all together 347
Conclusions: making sense of process 349
Chapter summary 350
Topics for reflection and discussion 351
Key terms and concepts 351
Suggested further reading 352

14 The politics of counselling: empowerment, control and

difference 353
Introduction 354
The nature of social and interpersonal power 354
The institutionalization of power and oppression in counselling 356
The language and concepts of counselling 357
The counsellor as an agent of social control 358
Control of space, territory and time 359
Differential access to services 360
Corruption of friendship 360
Counselling with economically disadvantaged people 361
Power and control in counselling with lesbians, gay men
and bisexual people 365
Counselling and religious commitment 371
Other disadvantaged and marginalized groups 374
Principles of anti-oppressive practice in counselling 374
Developing a critique of mainstream, ‘majority’ theory and practice 375
Empowerment and emancipation as goals of counselling 375
Developing a user-friendly approach to counselling 377
Conclusions 379
Chapter summary 379
Topics for reflection and discussion 380
Key terms and concepts 381
Suggested further reading 381

15 Morals, values and ethics in counselling practice 382

Introduction 382
Values in counselling 386
Ethics and moral reasoning 387
Personal intuition 388
Ethical guidelines developed by professional organizations 388
Ethical principles 391

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 Contents xv

General moral theories 393

Applying moral principles and ethical codes: from theory
to practice 395
Whose agent is the counsellor? 396
How far should the client be pushed or directed? The use of
persuasion, suggestion and challenge 399
Dual relationships 401
Sexual exploitation of clients 402
Ethical issues involved in the use of touch 406
Strategies for maintaining ethical standards 410
Conclusions 413
Chapter summary 413
Topics for reflection and discussion 414
Key terms and concepts 415
Suggested further reading 415

16 The organizational context of counselling 416

Introduction 416
Types of counselling organization 417
The nature of counselling organizations 420
Organizational culture 421
Institutional defence mechanisms 422
Parallel process 424
The developmental history of the agency 424
Role conflict 425
The role of the paraprofessional or voluntary counsellor 426
Organizational stress and burnout 428
Stability of funding 430
Conclusions 430
Chapter summary 431
Topics for reflection and discussion 432
Key terms and concepts 433
Suggested further reading 433

17 Alternative modes of delivery 434

Introduction 434
Time-limited counselling 435
Non-professional counsellors 437
Telephone counselling 440
Counselling on the Internet 442

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 xvi Contents

Reading and writing as therapy 443

Group counselling and therapy 445
Self-help groups 449
Couples counselling 450
Conclusions 453
Chapter summary 453
Topics for reflection and discussion 454
Key terms and concepts 455
Suggested further reading 455

18 The role of research in counselling and therapy 456

Introduction 456
Outcome and evaluation research 458
Process research 463
Studies of process from a client-centred perspective 464
Studies of process from a psychodynamic perspective 465
The ‘events paradigm’ 466
The process as experienced by the client 467
Case studies 468
Ethical dilemmas in counselling research 470
The problem of reactivity 471
The relevance of research for practitioners 472
The relationship between theory and research 474
The image of the person in therapy research 474
Chapter summary 475
Topics for reflection and discussion 476
Key terms and concepts 476
Suggested further reading 476

19 The skills and qualities of the effective counsellor 478

Introduction 478
Interpersonal skill 480
Personal beliefs and attitudes 482
Conceptual ability 483
Personal ‘soundness’ 483
Mastery of technique 485
Ability to understand and work within social systems 488
Openness to inquiry 489
The counsellor’s journey: a developmental model of
counsellor competence 489

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 Contents xvii

Chapter summary 493

Topics for reflection and discussion 494
Key terms and concepts 495
Suggested further reading 495

20 Training and supervision in counselling 496

Introduction 496
Historical trends in counsellor training 497
Key elements in counsellor training courses 498
Theoretical frameworks 498
Counselling skills 499
Work on self 501
Professional issues 503
Supervised practice 503
Research awareness 504
Issues and dilemmas in counsellor training 504
Selection of trainees 505
The assessment of counsellor competence 505
Supervision 507
Training and supervision in counselling: some conclusions 512
Chapter summary 514
Topics for reflection and discussion 515
Key terms and concepts 516
Suggested further reading 516

21 Beyond an introduction: continuing the conversation 517

Introduction 517
Key issues in counselling theory and practice 518
The tension between the individual and the collective:
autonomy/freedom versus relatedness/belonging 518
The nature of power and influence 519
Location of identity in time and history 520
The significance of body experience 520
The basis for knowledge, truth and moral action 521
Where counselling has been: the past 50 years 522
Where counselling is going: the next 50 years 524

References 528
Index 588

AITA01 17 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

 Preface

Counselling is an activity that is at the same time simple yet also vastly complicated.
What can be simpler than talking to a concerned and interested listener about
your problems? But it is what is involved in the telling and listening, knowing
and being known, reflecting and acting, that can be so complex. In counselling,
people talk about anything and everything. The relationship between the counsellor
and the person seeking counsel is simultaneously taking place at a physical, bodily
level, and through language, and in the thoughts, feelings and memories of each
participant. This is what makes it so complicated, and this is what makes counselling
a big topic. Counselling is an interdisciplinary activity, which contains different
traditions and schools of thought, and spreads itself across the discourses of theory,
research and practice. Counselling has generated a rich and fascinating literature,
and a range of powerful theories and research studies. I believe that it is vital for
counsellors to be able to find their way around this literature, to tap into all these
different knowledges.
Reading a book like this is somewhat similar to looking through a window into
a room. In the room there are people doing something, but their world is always
on the other side of the glass. Counselling is a practical activity, and can only be
grasped through the experience of doing it, as client and counsellor. Real know-
ledge about counselling can never be gained through reading a book. It requires
immersion in an oral tradition, physically being there and doing it and – crucially
– feeling what is happening, rather than merely looking at words on a page.
Any author knows that what he or she writes does not come freshly minted
from their own personal and private thoughts about things, but is in fact an
assemblage of words and ideas borrowed from other people. I have been fortunate
to be in a position to learn from many people. Among those I would particularly
like to thank are a number of generous friends and colleagues who have helped
me in many ways: Lynne Angus, Joe Armstrong, Sophia Balamoutsou, Mike
Beaney, Tim Bond, Sue Cowan, Robert Elliott, Kim Etherington, Stephen Goss,

AITA01 18 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

 Preface xix

Soti Grafanaki, Robin Ion, Janet Johnson, Kate Kirk, Colin Kirkwood, Gordon
Lynch, Linda Machin, Moza Al-Malki, Dave Mearns, John Mellor-Clark, Marylou
Reid, David Rennie, John Sherry, William West, Sue Wheeler and Val Wosket.
I also thank, in a different way, my wife Julia, who has provided unfailing
support and encouragement, and my daughters Kate, Emma and Hannah, who
have constantly reminded me of how much else there is to life. I owe them more
than I can say.

AITA01 19 12/10/06, 10:08 AM

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 many of them being literally picked out of the holes in
the rocks by the bayonets of our soldiers.”—Lord
Londonderry.

* * * * *
“Referring to their conduct on this occasion, the Duke
of Wellington observes in his despatch, that he never
witnessed a more gallant attack than that made by
these two regiments on the division of the enemy which
had then reached the ridge of the Sierra. In addition to
this flattering testimony of his Grace, and in further
evidence of the gallantry they displayed, it will be
sufficient to state, that the loss sustained by these two
corps on the occasion amounted to sixteen officers,
seven sergeants, and two hundred and sixty-one men,
being nearly one-half of the whole British loss in the
battle.”—Mackie.

114
Napier.

115
It was said that by this discharge, two officers and ten
British soldiers fell. This is not surprising, as the
bayonets were literally touching.

116
Nearly at this moment the following incident occurred:
—“A poor orphan Portuguese girl, about seventeen
years of age, and very handsome, was seen coming
down the mountain, driving an ass, loaded with all her
property, through the French army. * * * She passed
over the field of battle with a childish simplicity,
unconscious of her perilous situation, and scarcely
understanding which were the hostile, and which the
 friendly troops; for no man on either side was so brutal
as to molest her.”—Napier.

117
The French loss was at first considerably exaggerated;
and few English writers yet agree in estimating its
amount. According to Colonel Jones, Massena’s loss
was two thousand killed, three hundred prisoners, and
from five to six thousand wounded. Napier only makes
their killed eight hundred, and their wounded and
prisoners about three thousand seven hundred. Other
writers differ as widely in their estimates. The number
given above is probably nearer to the true amount.

118
“The patron of a house, occupied by an officer of the
adjutant-general’s department, on arriving for other
purposes, requested the servants to remove for a short
time one of the horses out of a stall, where it had been
standing for some days. As soon as the animal was
removed, he proceeded to dig, and speedily exhumed
three thousand crusada novas, which he had buried
some months previous.”—Life on Service.

119
“Fifty thousand of these fugitives found support and
consolation in the hospitality and kindness of the
citizens of Lisbon; but an equal number, who fled to the
left bank of the Tagus, long remained exposed to the
weather; and a large proportion miserably perished
from hunger and disease before relief could be
administered. Hard as was their lot, it was far more
happy than that of the villagers in the rear, and on the
skirts of the enemy’s cantonments, whose habitations,
plundered of everything, and occasionally occupied by
detachments of French, afforded their owners no
 supplies, and only a precarious shelter. Many of these
wretched creatures passed the whole season of winter
exposed to its inclemencies in the neighbouring woods
or mountains, subsisting merely on roots and herbs;
and on the advance of the allies returned to their
homes, their bodies emaciated from abstinence, and
their intellects impaired by long-continued
apprehension; amongst them were girls of sixteen,
who, become idiots, resembled in person women of
fifty. Numbers of children of either sex, who’d survived
the severe trial, flocked to the road-side as the army
approached to demand relief; appearing so thin, pale,
and haggard, that many a hardened veteran was
observed to turn from the sight with disgust, as he
compassionately bestowed on them a portion of the
biscuit intended as his next day’s support.”—Jones’s
Account of the War.

120
“Above one hundred and fifty officers and five thousand
men were made prisoners by this well-timed enterprise;
three thousand five hundred muskets were taken,
nearly the whole of which were charged, and hence the
number of effective men may be estimated.”
[A curious inference of Doctor Southey. Surely the
muskets of wounded men would be just as likely to be
found loaded, as those of soldiers who had escaped
unhurt.]—M.

121
After driving the allied rear-guard from Sobral, “the
French were pursuing their advantage,” says Doctor
Southey, “when a peasant fell into their hands, who,
unlike his countrymen, answered without hesitation all
the interrogatories which were put to him; he told the
 commander that they were close upon the British lines,
and pointed out to him where the batteries were, in
constructing which he had himself laboured. Had it not
been for this warning,” &c.—[Surely works that
extended nearly thirty miles, for which fifty thousand
trees had been allotted—on which three thousand
artillerymen and engineers, and seven thousand
peasants, had laboured—and on whose armament
three hundred and nineteen heavy guns had been
employed; works like these could not have been
involved in all this mystery, and their very locality kept a
secret from an officer like Massena, who commanded
the most unbounded sources of information!]—M.

122
Leith Hay’s description of the lines has been selected,
as well for its graphic power as its fidelity.

123
“The French plundered after the most scientific and
approved methods; they used to throw water on
suspected places, and watch its absorption, judging
that the spot where it dried the quickest had been
lately disturbed. No qualms of conscience prevented the
orthodox catholic soldiery of the French army from
rifling the most sacred places. The communion plate
and silver lamps and candlesticks vanished in the
twinkling of an eye. Not content with what the churches
offered above ground, or from a zeal for antiquarian
research, they despised a superficial or traditional
account of former modes of burial, and investigated the
point by breaking open the tombs.”—Southey.

124
Santarem stands on a hill which rises boldly from the
banks of the Tagus. The road runs across an open
 plain, and a causeway that extends nearly eight
hundred yards. This is the only approach, one side
being surrounded by impassable marshes, and the
other, which reaches to the river, by deep ditches
overgrown with reeds, which are impracticable for
either cavalry or guns.

125
Militia.

126
“One squadron of dragoons surmounted the ascent,
and, with incredible desperation, riding up to the wall,
were in the act of firing over it with their pistols, when
a rolling volley laid nearly the whole of them lifeless on
the ground. By this time, however, a second and a
stronger column of infantry had rushed up the face of
the hill, endeavouring to break in and retake the
howitzer, which was on the edge of the descent and
only fifty yards from the wall; but no man could reach it
and live—so deadly was the 43rd’s fire.”—Napier.

127
An ingenious phrase used by the Prince of Esling in his
despatches, to evade the plain but unpalatable term of
retreat.

128
The French soldiers had been so long accustomed to
plunder, that they proceeded in their researches for
booty of every kind upon a regular system. They were
provided with tools for the work of pillage, and every
piece of furniture in which places of concealment could
be constructed they broke open from behind, so that no
valuables could be hidden from them by any
contrivance of that kind. Having satisfied themselves
that nothing was secreted above ground, they
proceeded to examine whether there was any new
masonry, or if any part of the cellar or ground-floor had
been disturbed; if it appeared uneven, they dug there:
where there was no such indication, they poured water,
and if it were absorbed in one place faster than
another, there they broke the earth. There were men
who at the first glance could pronounce whether any
thing had been buried beneath the soil, and when they
probed with an iron rod, or, in default of it, with sword
or bayonet, it was found that they were seldom
mistaken in their judgment. The habit of living by prey
called forth, as in beasts, a faculty of discovering it:
there was one soldier whose scent became so acute,
that if he approached the place where wine had been
concealed, he would go unerringly to the spot.
“Wherever the French bivouacked, the scene was
such as might rather have been looked for in a camp of
predatory Tartars than in that of a civilized people. Food
and forage, and skins of wine, and clothes and church
vestments, books and guitars, and all the bulkier
articles of wasteful spoil, were heaped together in their
huts with the planks and doors of the habitations which
they had demolished. Some of the men, retaining amid
this brutal service the characteristic activity and
cleverness of their nation, fitted up their huts with
hangings from their last scene of pillage, with a regard
to comfort hardly to have been expected in their
situation, and a love of gaiety only to be found in
Frenchmen. The idlers were contented with a tub, and,
if the tub were large enough, three or four would stow
themselves in it!”—Southey.
It would appear that the English had some little
experience in this line of business as well as the French.
 “Some of the dragoons, with a quarter-master,
immediately mounted and followed the French, who
were now approaching their goal, and took little notice
of these few horsemen. The quarter-master, however,
saw an opportunity of doing a little business; observing,
among those who lagged in the rear, one man with a
ledger in the slings of his knapsack, he naturally
concluded that such gear in the French, as in our
service, belonged to those who carried the purse, and,
on the strength of this analogy, he by degrees
approached him of the ledger, and returning his sword,
and advancing at speed, he pounced upon his prey, and
seizing him by the collar, shook the musket out of his
hands, and bore him off. He proved to be a paymaster’s
clerk, and carried sixty doubloons, then worth about
four guineas each.”—The Hussar.

129
“For some time we contented ourselves with keeping
pointers and greyhounds, and indulging as often as
opportunities offered in the sports of shooting,
coursing, and fishing; but now a taste for hunting
began to prevail amongst us, and fox-hounds and
harriers, more or less numerous and good, were
established in the different divisions of the army. At
head-quarters we were fortunate enough to become
possessed of an excellent pack, which afforded us
much amusement, and occupied time which otherwise
would have hung heavily on our hands. In our quarters
we lived gaily and well: a spirit of good-fellowship and
hospitality every where prevailed; and in them, war,
balls, private theatricals, and agreeable parties, were
things of continual occurrence.”—Lord Londonderry.
130
The covered-way is the space extending round the
counterscarp. The counterscarp, the slope of the ditch,
facing the body of the place.

131
“After receiving the praise his gallantry merited, we
have heard that Colonel Head was addressed, ‘I
believe, Colonel, that you would have galloped into
Badajoz if the gates had been open.’ ‘Faith, General, I
believe I would,’ was the Irish answer.”—A Campaigner.

132
After the battle of Barosa, the wounded of both nations
were, from want of means of transport, necessarily left
upon the field of action the whole night, and part of the
following day. General Rousseau, a French general of
division, was of the number; his dog, a white one of the
poodle kind, which had been left in quarters upon the
advance of the French force, finding that the general
returned not with those who escaped from the battle,
set out in search of him; found him at night in his
dreary resting-place, and expressed his affliction by
moans, and by licking the hands and feet of his dying
master. When the fatal crisis took place, some hours
after, he seemed fully aware of the dreadful change,
attached himself closely to the body, and for three days
refused the sustenance which was offered him.
Arrangements having been made for the interment of
the dead, the body of the general was, like the rest,
committed to its honourable grave; the dog lay down
upon the earth, which covered the beloved remains,
and evinced by silence and deep dejection his sorrow
for the loss he had sustained. The English commander,
General Graham, whose fine feelings had prompted him
to superintend the last duties due to the gallant slain,
 observed the friendless mourner, drew him, now no
longer resisting, from the spot, and gave him his
protection, which he continued to him until his death,
many years after, at the general’s residence in
Perthshire.

133
Narrative by Colonel Jones.

134
At one place, however, the fury of the fight seemed for
a time to centre. “A great commotion was observed
among the French squadrons; men and officers closed
in confusion towards one point where a thick dust was
rising, and where loud cries and the sparkling of blades
and flashing of pistols indicated some extraordinary
occurrence. Suddenly the multitude was violently
agitated, an English shout arose, the mass was rent
asunder, and Norman Ramsay burst forth at the head of
his battery, his horses breathing fire, and stretching like
greyhounds along the plain, his guns bounding like
things of no weight, and the mounted gunners in close
and compact order protecting the rear.”—Napier.

135
74th, 83rd, and 88th.

136
The final charge that decided the possession of the
village, on the evening of the 5th, was made by the
88th. That it was a splendid affair may be inferred from
the praise bestowed upon it by a man, who for some
unknown reason, detested that gallant regiment, and
sought every opportunity of exhibiting his feelings of
dislike.
 Speaking of the attack on Fuentes d’Onoro, Picton, in
a letter to his uncle, says, “It was defended in the most
determined manner by the 71st, 24th, and 79th. About
two o’clock, however, these regiments began to give
way, and fell back on more defensible ground in the
rear of the village; when at this moment the 88th,
under Colonel Wallace, and led on by Major-general
Mackinnon, was ordered to move up and support them.
This was done in admirable order; and they made so
overwhelming a charge through the streets, that they
drove the enemy from the village with immense loss.”
In fact, the charge of the 88th was so brilliant and
decisive, that the French never ventured to enter the
streets again.

137
The French officers were censured for continuing these
attacks on the village, instead of assailing the right. “At
Fuentes d’Onoro the British army stood, after the right
wing was thrown back, on perfectly open and level
ground, one point only resting on the strong village in
question; yet was that strong point constantly attacked,
while the army was left totally unassailed. At Albuera
the French employed the whole of Godinot’s division of
infantry in the attack of the village that gives its name
to the battle; yet, when evacuated by Alten’s brigades,
it proved of no use whatever, for the battle was fought
and decided on open ground, at the other extremity of
the field, where an entire division of infantry would
probably have turned the fate of the day.”—Raoul.

138
“He ruined all the principal bastions, and kept up a
constant fire of the artillery in a singular manner, for
always he fired several guns at one moment with very
heavy charges, placing one across the muzzle of
 another, so that, while some shots flew towards the
besiegers, and a loud explosion was heard, others
destroyed pieces without attracting notice.”—Napier.

139
When Brennier’s escape was reported to Picton by an
Irish officer, the general, never remarkable for suavity
of temper, hastily inquired, “What the devil were the
——th doing?”—“Faith,” returned his informant, “I
suppose they were asleep.” “Asleep!—What then was
the ——th about?” and he named the next regiment in
the line.—“Devil a one of me can tell,” replied the
Irishman coolly; “but maybe they were watching the
——th, for fear somebody would waken them!”

140
“Observing that all the interior of the castle could be
seen from a small fort situated on the heights of
Christoval, on the Portuguese side of the Guadiana, and
that the back of the front defence of the castle might
be enfiladed from thence, it became clear, that should
the fort be reduced, and heavy batteries erected within
it, no body of men, exposed to their fire, could stand to
dispute a breach in the wall, which formed the sole
defence of the castle. That wall, from its uncovered
position, appeared liable to be battered down from a
distance; and as, when in possession of the castle, the
resistance of the town must, under its commanding
influence, cease, Badajoz might by this mode of attack
be captured in a fortnight.”—Jones’s Account of the
War.

141
Much of the success of a siege depends on the quality
and endurance of its battering train, as well as the
accurate service of the guns. In some of the sieges
undertaken by the Duke of Wellington, his artillery were
miserably deficient—and the wonder is how, with such
inadequate means, he effected successful results in
such brief time, and under the greatest disadvantages.
A French engineer, in alluding to the sieges, makes the
following observations:—“There sat down before the
place a besieging army of fourteen or fifteen thousand
men, including three thousand Spaniards, and two
thousand Portuguese militia; and the artillery to be
employed amounted to forty pieces, among which are
to be numbered four 10-inch and six 8-inch howitzers.
Of mortars we possessed none; eight, therefore, out of
the ten howitzers were directed to be used as such;
and our guns, of which two were 24-pounders, and four
16-pounders, were all brass, and of Portuguese
manufacture. The engineers’ stores collected on the
occasion comprised three thousand five hundred
intrenching tools, sixty thousand sand-bags, six
hundred gabions, a very few fascines, and an extremely
inadequate quantity of splinter-proof timber and planks;
whilst, independently of the officers, there were
attached to the department, one hundred and sixty-
nine men of the line, to act as overseers, forty-eight
carpenters, forty-eight miners, and twenty-five rank and
file, of the corps of royal artificers. The chief engineer
and principal director of the operations was Lieutenant-
colonel Fletcher. Major Dixon, of the Portuguese
artillery, was at the head of that department; and
Captains Ross and MacLeod were put in charge of two
depôts, which were established on each side of the
river.”

* * * * *
“The first siege of Badajoz by the English, being
attempted with forty bronze cannon of Portuguese
construction, the whole were rendered unserviceable in
a very short space of time, though loaded with powder
not more than one-third of the weight of the balls, and
discharged at the moderate rate of once only in eight
minutes; and the siege miscarried. The English
attributed the quick deterioration of the cannon to the
strength of their powder, and consequently they
determined to have no parks but such as were
composed of cast-iron cannon from England. The latter
was the description of artillery which they employed
when they attacked Ciudad Rodrigo in the January
following. They established their batteries at a distance
of about 500 yards (mètres) from the escarp, and fired
upon it incessantly, until they had opened two
practicable breaches; this they effected in two-and-
thirty hours and a half’s firing, and they carried the
place in five days. There was not a single cannon which
burst, or suffered injury, though each was fired a very
considerable number of times in constant succession.
The siege of Badajoz was resumed a second time, and
the breaching batteries were established at about 710
yards’ distance (mètres). The number of cannon
brought to bear was sixteen 24-pounders, twenty-four
18-pounders, and six mortars of five inches and a half
diameter. The attack began on the 30th of March, and
by the 6th of April three practicable breaches were
effected; that in the curtain was forty feet broad; that
on the flank ninety feet; and the third, which was on
the face of the bastion, was 150 feet. The number of
hours’ firing was 104, and the number of projectiles
discharged 35,246. The results were the same during
this siege as at the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo; not a
single cannon burst, or became unserviceable, though
the 24-pounders were fired in constant succession, at
the rate of 1249 discharges each.”
 * * * * *
“The siege of St. Sebastian affords a third instance of
the extreme endurance of English cast-iron cannon. The
breaching batteries, which were established at a
distance of about 660 yards (mètres) from the place,
opened a breach 100 feet broad in the escarp, against
which they were directed, and it was rendered
practicable on the third day after the firing was first
opened. The batteries were composed of thirty-four
cannon, of which twenty were 24-pounders. The same
batteries being opened the next morning, to make a
second breach, effected one of thirty feet in breadth,
after fifteen hours and a half’s firing. During this
interval each cannon discharged from 300 to 350 shot
without being injured. Had it been required to produce
the same result with brass cannon, three times as many
cannon would have been necessary, supposing the
ordinary rate of firing to have been observed. During
this siege, which was twice resumed, several of the
pieces withstood the discharge upwards of 9,000 times
in uninterrupted succession, without experiencing any
material damage. Their fire was so accurate at the last
attack, that they were employed in throwing shrapnel-
shells, filled with powder and balls, over the heads of
the besiegers, for the purpose of driving away the
besieged who lined the top of the breach. It was one of
these shells which set fire to a quantity of obusses and
bombs that stood on the rampart, and occasioned an
explosion, which created so much confusion in the
place as to produce its fall.”—Thierry.

142
Napier.
143
Marshal Beresford was furiously attacked by one of
these desperadoes, who, under the influence of brandy,
were riding recklessly about the field, and doing an
infinity of mischief. The marshal seized the lancer’s
spear, unhorsed him by sheer strength, and his orderly
dragoon despatched him by a coup de sabre.
144
Napier.

145
“Fields far on the rear of the allies were strewed with
the bodies of Polish lancers who had penetrated singly
beyond the contending parties. These desperadoes
galloped about in all directions, spearing the wounded
men and their defenceless supporters.”—Jones’s
History.

146
“The wounded of both armies were brought in
promiscuously, and many of them laid in the streets
and in the squares, till shelter could be allotted them;
even for this inevitable necessity no order having been
taken by the Spanish authorities. It is worthy of notice,
that a greater proportion recovered of those who were
left a night upon the field than of such as were earlier
housed; and this is explained by the effect of free air in
preventing fever.”

* * * * *
The following is a graphic but faithful description of a
military hospital after a battle:—
“In the yard of a quinta, or nobleman’s house, I
looked through the grating and saw about 200
wounded soldiers waiting to have their limbs
amputated, while others were arriving every moment.
It would be difficult to convey an idea of the frightful
appearance of these men; they had been wounded on
the 5th, and this was the 7th; their limbs were swollen
to an enormous size, and the smell from the gun-shot
wounds was dreadful. Some were sitting upright
against a wall, under the shade of a number of
chestnut-trees, and, as many of them were wounded in
the head as well as in limbs, the ghastly countenances
of those poor fellows presented a dismal sight. The
streams of gore which had trickled down their cheeks
were quite hardened with the sun, and gave their faces
a glazed and copper-coloured hue; their eyes were
sunk and fixed; and what between the effects of the
sun, of exhaustion, and despair, they resembled more a
group of bronze figures than any thing human. There
they sat, silent and statue-like, waiting for their turn to
be carried to the amputating tables. At the other side of
the yard lay several whose state was too hopeless for
them to sit up; a feeble cry from them occasionally, to
those who were passing, for a drink of water, was all
they uttered.
“A little farther on, in an inner court, were the
surgeons. They were stripped to their shirts and bloody.
Curiosity led me forward: a number of doors, placed on
barrels, served as temporary tables, and on these lay
the different subjects upon whom the surgeons were
operating; to the right and left were arms and legs,
flung here and there without distinction, and the
ground was dyed with blood.”

* * * * *
“In an inner room was a young officer shot through
the head,—his was a hopeless case. He was quite
delirious, and obliged to be held down by two men; his
strength was astonishing, and more than once, while I
remained, he succeeded in escaping from the grasp of
his attendants. The Scotch officer’s servant soon after
came in, and stooping down inquired of his master how
he felt, but received no reply; he had half-turned on his
face; the man took hold of his master’s hand—it was
still warm, but the pulse had ceased—he was dead.”—
Reminiscences of a Subaltern.

* * * * *
“We were about to leave the room when we
perceived a paillasse in the corner, which had hitherto
escaped our notice; a pelisse of the 18th hussars
served as a coverlet, a little round head was upon the
pillow; a vivid eye, with the countenance of a deadly
pallid hue, bespoke a wounded Irishman. ‘Do you
belong to the 18th?‘—‘Yes, plase your honour;’ (the
right hand at the same time carried up to the forelock.)
‘Are you wounded?’—‘Yes, plase your honour;’ (again
the hand to the head.) ‘Where?’—‘Run through the
body, plase your honour.’ (We verily believe he said
twice through the body, but cannot charge our
memory.) ‘Are you in pain?’—‘Och! plase your honour,
I’m tolerably asy; the Frinch daacter blid me, and to-
morrow I shall see the old rigiment.’ It is needless to
say that we were deeply interested in this gallant
fellow, who bore his dangerous wounds with so much
composure; and it is a pleasing sequel to this anecdote
to be able to state that he finally recovered.”

* * * * *
“Two singular cases of contusion of the brain were
observed at this time in the hospitals: one man did
nothing but count, with a loud and deliberate voice,
from forty to seventy, always beginning at one number
and ending at the other, and this incessantly through
the whole night. Another continually uttered the most
 extraordinary blasphemies and curses, exhausting the
whole vocabulary of malediction, without any apparent
emotion of anger. This case did not prove fatal, but the
man was left in a state of helpless idiocy.”

147
Major M’Intosh commanded, Dyas led the forlorn hope,
and Forster, of the Engineers, guided the party.

148
The French united corps amounted to sixty thousand
infantry, and seven thousand six hundred dragoons.
The allied force had probably fifty-five thousand
infantry, and some four thousand cavalry. As only a
portion of the latter arm was British, in quality, as well
as numbers, it was much inferior to the French.

149
“Nothing but the greatest discipline, the most
undaunted bravery and a firm reliance on their officers,
could have saved those devoted soldiers from total
annihilation. They were attacked, with a fury
unexampled, on three sides of the square; the French
horsemen rode upon their bayonets; but, unshaken by
the desperate position in which they were placed, they
poured in their fire with such quickness and precision,
that the cavalry retired in disorder.”

* * * * *
“At the charge made by the whole of the French
cavalry at El Bodon on the square formed by the 5th
and 77th regiments, a French officer had his horse shot
under him, and both fell together. The officer, although
not much hurt, lay on the ground as if dead, and in this
situation would, in all probability, have escaped, as the
 French infantry were fast advancing to the relief of their
cavalry, had it not been for a German hussar, one
squadron of whom were engaged in the conflict, who
rode up to the spot, and made a cut at the officer lying
on the ground; on which, he immediately sprang up,
and, with his sword at the guard, set the German at
defiance. Another of the King’s German hussars then
galloped up, and desired the French officer to
surrender, which he refused to do. The appearance of
the officer in this position was truly heroic: he stood
without his cap; his head was bare, and some marks of
blood were on his face. From the fine attitude he
presented, and being a tall, athletic man, he strongly
impressed the beholders with the belief that he would
defend himself against both the hussars. At this time,
Ensign Canch, of the 5th, ran out of the square, and
was proceeding rapidly to the place, in the hope of
inducing the officer to surrender himself a prisoner; but
the hussars, finding they were baffled, and could not
subdue this brave man with the sword, had recourse to
the pistol, with which they killed him, to the great
regret of the British regiments that were looking on.
This affair took place about halfway between the
square already mentioned and the French cavalry, who
were hovering about, after being repulsed by the 5th
and 77th regiments.
“We were informed by a prisoner taken at the time,
that the officer who defended himself so gallantly
against the two hussars, was an Irishman, and the
major of his regiment.”—Reminiscences of a Subaltern.

150
“Marmont contented himself with making an exhibition
of his force, and causing it to execute a variety of
manœuvres in our presence; and it must be confessed,
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