DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE: MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

MODULE CODE: MEU 07102

Description of Module
Sub-enabling outcome:
▪ Classify Engineering materials for different applications
▪ Describe properties of materials for different applications
▪ Use different types of materials for manufacturing mechanical
components
▪ Analyze different materials’ properties for proper application
▪ Specify production methods of components from different materials
Learning Context:
This module will be conducted through lectures, hand out, and tutorials
Learning Material
Chalkboard, Overhead Projectors, flip charts, Audio Visual
References
Required References:
[1] Callister W. D. David and Rethwisch D. G. (2011), Materials Science
and Engineering: An Introduction, 8th Edition, Wiley Publishers.
[2] Callister W. D. D. and Rethwisch D. G. (2013), Materials Science and
Engineering: An Introduction, 9th Edition, Wiley Publishers.
Recommended References:
[3] Snedden R. (2007), Materials Technology (Material World) Paperback,
2nd Edition, Heinemann Publishers.
[4] Jacobs J. A. and, Kilduff T.
(2004), Engineering Materials Technology:
Structures, Processing, Properties, and Selection, 5th Edition, Prentice
Hall Publishers.
[5] Jones D. R. H. and Ashby M. F. (2011), Engineering Materials 1, 4th
Edition: An Introduction to Properties, Applications and Design,
Butterworth-Heinemann
Publishers.
 INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES:
Material: refers to matter from which a thing is or can be made.
Engineering materials: refers to the group of materials used to construct
manmade structures and components. The primary function of an
engineering material is to withstand applied loading without breaking
and without exhibiting excessive deflection.
Materials science: involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures
and properties of materials (i.e., why materials have their properties).
Materials engineering: involves, on the basis of these structure–
property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a
material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to
develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is
called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials
and/or developing techniques for processing materials.
Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both materials
scientists and materials engineers.
Structure is, at this point, a nebulous term that deserves some
explanation. In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the
arrangement of its internal components.
Structural elements may be classified on the basis of size and in this
regard, there are several levels:

• Subatomic structure—involves electrons within the individual atoms,

their energies and interactions with the nuclei.
• Atomic structure—relates to the organization of atoms to yield
molecules or crystals.
• Nanostructure—deals with aggregates of atoms that form particles
(nanoparticles) that have nanoscale dimensions (less than about 100nm).
• Microstructure—those structural elements that are subject to direct
observation using some type of microscope (structural features having
dimensions between 100 nm and several millimeters).
• Macrostructure—structural elements that may be viewed with the
naked eye (with scale range between several millimeters and on the
order of a meter).

General Materials properties

Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into
six different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic,
optical, and deteriorative. For each, there is a characteristic type of
stimulus capable of provoking different responses.
These are noted as follows:
• Mechanical properties—relate deformation to an applied load or force;
examples elastic modulus (stiffness), strength, and resistance to fracture.
• Electrical properties—the stimulus is an applied electric field; typical
properties are electrical conductivity and dielectric constant.
• Thermal properties—are related to changes in temperature or
temperature gradients
across a material; examples of thermal behavior include thermal
expansion and heat capacity.
• Magnetic properties—the responses of a material to the application of
a magnetic field; common magnetic properties include magnetic
susceptibility and magnetization.
• Optical properties—the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation;
the index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical
properties.
• Deteriorative characteristics—relate to the chemical reactivity of
materials; for example, corrosion resistance of metals.

Material science components

Important components of the subject Materials Science are structure,
properties, processing, and performance. A schematic interrelation
between these four components is shown in the figure below;
Why Studying Materials Technology
Increasing applications of system engineering are in materials
manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental
systems. Beforehand the designer must understand the properties of
materials, and their limitations. Thus it is very important that every
engineer must study and understand the concepts of Materials Science
and Engineering. This enables the engineer.
To select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and
performance. To understand the limits of materials and the change of
their properties with use. To be able to create a new material that will
have some desirable properties. To be able to use the material for
different application.

Types Of Engineering Materials

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped the following categories:
metals, ceramics, and polymers, a scheme based primarily on chemical
makeup and atomic structure. Most materials fall into one distinct
grouping or another. In addition, there are composites that are
engineered combinations of two or more different materials. A brief
explanation of these material classifications and representative
characteristics is offered next. Another category is advanced materials—
those used in high-technology applications, such as semiconductors,
biomaterials, smart materials, and nanoengineered materials

Metals
These are materials that are composed of one or more metallic elements
(e.g., iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, nickel) as a parent element.
In metals often also nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen)
are present in relatively small amounts.
Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner
and are relatively dense in comparison to the ceramics and polymers.
With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively
stiff and strong, yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of
deformation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture, which
accounts for their widespread use in structural applications.
Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons—that is,
these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of
metals are directly attributable to these electrons. For example, metals
are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat, and are not
transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous
appearance. In addition, some of the metals (i.e., Fe, Co, and Ni) have
desirable magnetic properties.
Metals
In other words;
These materials are characterized by high thermal and electrical
conductivity; strong yet deformable under applied mechanical loads;
opaque to light (shiny if polished). These characteristics are due to
valence electrons that are detached from atoms, and spread in an
electron sea that glues the ions together, i.e. atoms are bound together
by metallic bonds and weaker van der Waals forces. Pure metals are not
good enough for many applications, especially structural applications.
Thus metals are used in alloy form i.e. a metal mixed with another metal
to improve the desired qualities. E.g.: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
The term metal alloy refers to a metallic substance that is composed of
two or more elements.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements;
they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina, Al2O3 ), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2 ), silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4 ), and, in addition, what some refer to as the
traditional ceramics—those composed of clay minerals (e.g., porcelain),
as well as cement and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior,
ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong but slightly less than
metals stiffness and strength index. Historically, ceramics have exhibited
extreme brittleness (lack of ductility) and are highly susceptible to
fracture. However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have
improved resistance to fracture; these materials are used for cookware,
cutlery, and even automobile engine parts.
Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the passage of
heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities,) and are
more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than
metals and polymers. With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics
may be transparent, translucent, or opaque and some of the oxide
ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4 ) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Ceramics
In other words;
These are inorganic compounds, and usually made either of oxides,
carbides, nitrides, or silicates of metals. Ceramics are typically partly
crystalline and partly amorphous. Atoms (ions often) in ceramic
materials behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are
bound by very strong Coulomb forces between
them. These materials are characterized by very high strength under
compression, low ductility; usually insulators to heat and electricity.
Examples: glass, porcelain,

Many minerals. city. Examples: glass, porcelain,

many minerals. Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber
materials. Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically
based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si)

Polymers
Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chainlike
in nature, that often have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some common
and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber
Composites
A composite material combines two materials with different physical
and chemical properties. Combined, they create a specialized material to
do a certain job, for instance, to become stronger, lighter, or resistant to
electricity. They can also improve strength and stiffness. The reason for
their use over traditional materials is because they improve the
properties of their base materials and are applicable in many situations.
Humans have used composite materials for thousands of years. In 3400
B.C. the first man made composites were engineered by the
Mesopotamians in Iraq. The ancient society glued wood strips on top of
each other at different angles to create plywood. Following this, in
around 2181 B.C. the Egyptians started to make death masks out of linen
or papyrus soaked in plaster. Later on, both of these societies started to
reinforce their materials with straw to strengthen mud bricks, pottery,
and boats.
Composites
Some common composite materials include:
Ceramic matrix composite: Ceramic spread out in a ceramic matrix.
These are better than normal ceramics as they are thermal shock and
fracture-resistant. Metal matrix composite: A metal spread throughout a
matrix
Reinforced concrete: Concrete strengthened by a material with high
tensile strength such as steel reinforcing bars
Glass fibre reinforced concrete: Concrete which is poured into a glass
fibre structure with high zirconia content
Translucent concrete: Concrete which encases optic fibres
Engineered wood: Manufactured wood combined with other cheap
materials. One example would be particle board. A speciality material
like veneer can also be found in this composite
Plywood: Engineered wood by gluing many thin layers of wood together
at different angles
Engineered bamboo: Strips of bamboo fibre glued together to make a
board. This is a useful composite due to the fact it has higher
compressive, tensile and flexural strength than wood
Parquetry: A square of many wood pieces put together often out of
hardwood. It is sold as a decorative piece
Wood-plastic composite: Either wood fibre or flour cast in plastic
Cement-bonded wood fibre: Mineralised wood pieces cast in cement.
This composite has insulating and acoustic properties
Fiberglas: Glass fibre combined with a plastic which is relatively
inexpensive and flexible
Carbon Fibre reinforced polymer: Carbon fibre set in plastic which has a
high strength-to-weight ratio
Sandwich panel: A variety of composites that are layered on top of each
other
Composite honeycomb: A selection of composites in many hexagons to
form a honeycomb shape.
Papier-mache: Paper bound with an adhesive. These are found in crafts
Plastic coated paper: Paper coated with plastic to improve durability. An
example of where this is used is in playing cards
Syntactic foams: Light materials created by filling metals, ceramics or
plastics with microballoons. These ballons are made using either glass,
carbon or plastic
Types of Engineering Materials

Classification of material
Generally materials are classified into two major categories.
1. Metals
2. Non metals.
Metals: a solid material with good electrical and thermal conductivity
(e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminum, and alloys such as steel). Out of !80
elements in the periodic table, 90 of them are metals.
Metals are also further categorized into two:
1. Ferrous metals
2. Non Ferrous metals.
Classification of material
Ferrous Metals: These are the materials in which iron is the parent metal.
Are metals that contain iron as the primary element. They are known for
their mechanical properties, such as high tensile strength. They are also
magnetic and can be easily shaped or formed.
Some common examples of ferrous metals include carbon steel,
stainless
steel, cast iron and wrought iron. Due to their strength and durability,
ferrous metals are widely used in the construction, automotive and
manufacturing industries; they are suitable for architectural and
structural uses such as skyscrapers, bridges and railways.

Types of Ferrous metals

1. Steel
2. Cast iron
3. Iron
4. Wrought Iron

Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content ranging from
0.03% to 1.075%, and often other elements. It has high tensile strength
with low cost, thus becoming a major component for the construction of
buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances,
and weapons.

Types of Steel
Steel can be classified into 2 types mainly.
1. Carbon Steel
2. Alloy steel
Carbon steels; steel in which the main alloying element is carbon.
‘Alloy' is a substance formed from the combination of two or more
metals.

Types of Carbon steels

1.Carbon Steel can be divided into three main categories
2.Low carbon steel (known as mild steel)
3.Medium carbon steel
4.High carbon steel.

Carbon Steels
Low-carbon steel, also known as mild steel, has a comparatively low
ratio of
carbon to iron compared to other steel types.
Typically, its carbon content is within the range of 0.05% and 0.32% by
weight. This gives low-carbon steel low strength while making it more
malleable and ductile compared to high-carbon steel.
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content typically ranging between
0.3% and 0.6%. This category of steel offers a balance between the
ductility and formability of low-carbon steel and the strength and
hardness of high-carbon steel.
Medium-carbon steels are stronger and harder than low-carbon steels.
This is due to their increased carbon content, but it also means they’re
less ductile and more difficult to form and weld. They often require heat
treatment, such as quenching and tempering, to achieve desired
mechanical properties.
Carbon Steels
High-carbon steel contains a carbon content ranging between 0.60% –
1.5%. It’s the most corrosion resistant of the steels due to its high
amount of carbon. This increased carbon significantly enhances the
steel's hardness, tensile strength, and wear resistance. In turn, that
makes it suitable for applications that demand high strength and wear
resistance. However, the higher carbon content also makes these steels
more brittle and less ductile, which makes it more susceptible to
cracking under certain conditions.
High-carbon steel is also more challenging to weld than lower-carbon-
content steels, due to the risk of cracking and brittleness in the heat-
affected zone.

Alloy steels
Alloy steel is a type of steel alloyed with several elements such as
molybdenum, manganese, nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, and
boron. These alloying elements are added to increase strength, hardness,
wear resistance, and toughness. The amounts of alloying elements may
vary between 1 and 50%. Alloy steels may be classified into two groups:
low alloy steel and high alloy steel. The boundary between low alloy and
high alloy steel is commonly accepted as 5% alloying element.
Alloy steel is made by melting the base alloys in an electric furnace at
over 1600 °C for 8-12 hours. It is then annealed at over 500 °C to alter
the chemical and physical properties and remove impurities.
Main alloy steels of study are:
1. Stainless steel.
2. Tool steel.
Alloy steels
Tools steel is a term used to describe a range of carbon and alloy steels
that are well-suited for the production of tools. These steels are
distinguished by their hardness, resistance to wear, toughness, and
resistance to softening at high temperatures. Tool steel’s ideal
application is for tool manufacturing, including (but not limited to)
machine dies and hand tools. Tool steels are alloys of
vanadium, cobalt, tungsten, and molybdenum in various amounts, which
makes it highly durable and heat resistant.
They are named as such as they are used to make metal tools like cutting,
pressing, extruding and mold-making tools. Their uniqueness comes
from their greater deformation resistance, enhanced hardness, and their
ability to be used as a cutting edge even at excessive temperatures. This
is why tool steels are a perfect match for the shaping of other materials.

Alloy steels
Stainless steel is one of the most well-known alloy steel and the most
corrosion-resistant. It typically has some combination of nickel,
chromium, and molybdenum as major alloying elements, which make up
around 11-30 % of the steel’s composition. Three types of stainless steel
exist: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic.
It is a steel alloy with a minimum of 11.5 wt% chromium content.
Although stainless still are not stain proof, they don’t rust or corrode as
easily as its other counterparts. Stainless steel has its use in many
products, but mostly in home appliances and cooking utensils.
Some other advantages are:
1. Reduced delivery time of stainless parts due to the lack of need for a
finish.
2. Retains strength and shock resistance even at high temperatures.
3. Hygienic due to the smooth and minimal porous surface.
4. Excellent fatigue and impact resistance makes the metal last a long
time.

Cast Iron
Cast Iron is an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon, with carbon content
greater than 2%. There are also differences in composition—cast iron
contains 2–4% carbon and other alloys, and 1–3% of silicon, which
improves the casting performance of the molten metal(castability).
Small amounts of manganese and some impurities like sulfur and
phosphorous may also be present. Differences between wrought iron
and cast iron can also be found in the details of chemical
structure and physical properties. Although both steel and cast iron
contain traces of carbon and appear similar, there are significant
differences between the two metals. Steel contains less than 2% carbon,
which enables the final product to solidify in a single microcrystalline
structure. The higher carbon content of cast iron means that it solidifies
as a heterogeneous alloy, and therefore has more
than one microcrystalline structure present in the material.

Various types of cast irons are produced using different heat treatment
and processing
techniques, including
1.Gray cast iron,
2.White cast iron,
3.Malleable cast iron, and
4.Ductile/Nodular cast iron.
Gray cast iron
Gray cast iron is the cast iron which has flake graphite molecules in the
metal microstructure. When the metal is fractured, the break occurs
along the graphite flakes, which gives it the gray color on the fractured
metal’s surface. The name gray iron comes from this characteristic.
It is possible to control the size and matrix structure of the graphite
flakes during production by adjusting the cooling rate and composition.
Gray cast iron is not as ductile as other forms of cast iron and its tensile
strength is also lower. However, it is a better thermal conductor and has
a higher level of vibration damping. It has a damping capacity that is 20–
25 times higher than steel and superior to all other cast irons. Gray iron
is also easier to machine than other cast irons, and its wear resistance
properties make it one of the highest volume cast iron products.
Our hardscape products are made of grey iron. Vibration damping and
wear resistance are properties that make this the right material for
many street applications. Raw grey iron also produces a patina that
keeps it safe from destructive corrosion even outdoors.

White cast iron

With the right carbon content and a high cooling rate, carbon atoms
combine with iron to form iron carbide. This means that there are little
to no free graphite molecules in the solidified material. When white iron
is sheared, the fractured face appears white due to the absence of
graphite. The cementite microcrystalline structure is hard and brittle
with a high compressive strength and good wear resistance. In certain
specialized applications, it is desirable to have white iron on
the surface of the product. This can be achieved by using a good
conductor of heat to make part of the mold. This will draw heat out of
the molten metal quickly from that specific area, while the rest of the
casting cools at a slower rate. One of the most popular grades of white
iron is Ni-Hard Iron. The addition of chromium and nickel alloys gives this
product excellent properties for low impact, sliding abrasion applications.
White irons and ni-hard irons fall under a classification of alloys referred
to as ASTM A532; the “Standard Specification for Abrasion-Resistant
Cast Irons”.
Malleable cast iron
White iron can be further processed into malleable iron through a
process of heat treatment. An extended program of heating and cooling,
results in the breakdown of the iron carbide molecules, releasing free
graphite molecules into the iron. Different cooling rates, and the
addition of alloys, produces a malleable iron with a microcrystalline
structure.
Ductile/Nodular cast iron
Ductile iron, or nodular iron, obtains its special properties through the
addition of magnesium into the alloy.
The presence of magnesium causes the graphite to form in a spheroid
shape as opposed to the flakes of gray iron.
Composition control is very important in the manufacturing process.
Small amounts of impurities such as sulfur and oxygen react with the
magnesium, affecting the shape of the graphite molecules.
Different grades of ductile iron are formed by manipulating the
microcrystalline structure around the graphite spheroid. This is achieved
through the casting process, or through heat treatment, as a
downstream processing step. Because ductile iron deforms on impact,
rather than shattering into shards, we use the material to make our cast
iron bollards. Ductile iron’s impact profile makes it a good cast iron for
bollards near vehicle traffic.

Iron
Iron (Fe): Pure iron is a soft and ductile metal.
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26.
Classified as a transition metal, Iron is a solid at room temperature.
Iron is used to make alloy steels like carbon steels with additives such as
nickel, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and manganese. These are used
to make bridges, electricity pylons, bicycle chains, cutting tools and rifle
barrels. Cast iron contains 2% carbon and above. It is used for pipes,
valves, and pumps.
The most common oxidation state for iron are +2 and +3 which are
reactive with oxidizing agents. Iron has a smaller atomic radius of 126pm
as compared to other transition metals. Its ionization energies (IE) range
from 7.87eV/atom in the first IE, 16.87eV/atom in the second, to
30.65eV/atom in the third. It has a density of 7.86g/cm3, melting
temperature of 1530ºC and a specific heat capacity of 0.45J/gºC.
Ranging from 4.67-4.81eV, iron has a moderate to high work function,
which is the energy required to remove an electron from the valence
band.

Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with very low carbon content with respect
to cast iron. It is soft, ductile, magnetic, and has high elasticity and
tensile strength. It can be heated and reheated and worked into various
shapes. Although wrought iron exhibits properties that are not found in
other forms of ferrous metal, it lacks the carbon content necessary for
hardening through heat treatment.
Wrought iron may be welded in the same manner as mild steel, but the
presence of oxides or inclusions will provide defective results.

The following are the list of applications of wrought iron:

1. Decorative items such as railings, outdoor stairs, fences and gates
2. Nuts and bolts
3. Handrails.

Non Ferrous Metals

Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron or have very low
iron content. Are metals in
which iron is not the parent metal.
These metals are known for their lightweight, corrosion resistance,
electrical conductivity, and
malleability.
They find applications in a wide range of industries, including electronics,
aerospace, construction,
automotive, and more
Here are some examples of non-ferrous metals:
1. Aluminum (Al): Aluminum is a lightweight metal with excellent
corrosion resistance.
2. Copper (Cu): Copper is highly conductive and has excellent electrical
and thermal properties.
3. Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
4. Bronze: Bronze is an alloy of copper and other elements.
5. Nickel (Ni): Nickel is a versatile metal with excellent corrosion
resistance and high-temperature
strength.
6. Titanium (Ti): Titanium is a lightweight metal with a high strength-to-
weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance.
7. Zinc (Zn): Zinc is commonly used as a protective coating for steel
(galvanization) to prevent corrosion.

Non Metals
Non-metals are those which lack all the metallic attributes.
They are materials which are good insulators of heat and electricity.
They are mostly gases and sometimes liquid.
Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions by accepting or
gaining electrons. Non-metals usually have 4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their
outermost shell. Hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, selenium are examples of non-metal.
Non metal Engineering materials can fall under the following
categories:
1. Ceramics,
2. Polymers,
3. Composites.