LECTURE NOTE ON

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY II – EDU 123.

HUMAN LEARNING (2 CREDITS COURSE)

COURSE OUTLINES
 The concept of learning
 Learning Theories and their Application in the classroom situation
 Behaviourist Theories of Learning
 Cognitivist Theories of Learning
 Constructivist Theories of Learning
 Transfer of Learning; Factors Affecting Learning
 Motivation
 Concept of Reward and Punishment with Emphasis on their Practical
Application in Education
 Memory; Rote Learning and over-learning
 Remembering and Forgetting
 Effect of urban and rural setting on Learning; Managing of Overcrowded
classroom
 ▪ * Concepts of Psychometrics
 ▪ * Psychometric Theories

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 Introduction

Learning is one of the distinguishing features of human being and it is central

in any educational setting. All activities in educational institution revolve around
learning. This make it imperative for any one undergoing teacher training programme
to know much about human learning which is the focus of this course. The aim of the
course is to make teachers understand things like the nature of learning, some theories
explaining human learning, transfer of learning and factors affecting learning, human
memory, remembering and forgetting, effect of motivation on learning, reward and
punishment in learning, the effect of urban and rural setting on learning and how to
manage overcrowded classroom for effective learning. These topics and sub-topics
will be treated below one after the other.

The Concept of Learning

Learning occupies all human life to the extent that all human actions and
inactions are as a result of what they learn or do not learn. Learning is a continuous
process right from birth until death. Therefore learning is not only restricted in a
school setting. This has make learning to be a key to the structure of human
personality and behaviour (Mangal, 2007). Although there are several Definitionof
learning, most definitions share a few common ideas, changes and experiences.
According to lavell (1978) sees Learning as a change in behaviour that is some
how permanent in nature and which results from activity, training or observation. It
therefore means that learning has taken place when the individual can do something
which earlier, he can not do it.
Also according to Akindele (2001), Learning is a relatively more or less
permanent change in the behaviour or potential behaviour that comes about as a result
of practice or experience.
In addition, according to Marx (1971) Defined Learning as a relatively
enduring changes in behaviour which is a function of prior behaviour or practice.
As mentioned earlier, change is a major factor in the definition of learning.
However, not every change in the individual could be referred to as learning.
Experience also plays a vital role in learning. For example it is experience from
testing or torching that makes a child to learn that cola nut is bitter while orange is
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sweet; fire is hot while ice-cream is cold. On the other hand experience of meeting a
mathematics teacher can make a child to learn that if you add 1 and 3 you can get 4,
while meeting with an Arabic teacher can make the child to learn a new language
from the language of his or her immediate environment.
Characteristics of Learning/Conditions for change to be term as Learning.
1. Learning is a change in behaviour.
2. The change must be relatively permanent.
3. The change must result from experience.
4. The change must take place in the context of an environment.
5. The change must be manifested(displayed /shown) in activities.

Types of Learning.
There are various ways through which people learn. Here we shall consider
three(3) types of learning :
 Classroom Learning :This type of learning is the type that takes place it
the classroom as the name implies. The classroom as used hare may
include under the shade of s tree and even in mobile schools. Classroom
learning has some distinct features. It needs a structure environment e.g.
school, an instructor, teachers, and instructional materials.
 Social Learning :Albert Bandura and Richard Walters were the founders
of social learning theory. The social learning model explains that children
learn as a result of observation and can take place without any direct
reward or punishment. This approach explains how social development
takes place for these types of learning to take place, there is the need of a
model, that the child observes and imitates, the immediate consequences
of the performance of a behaviour by model extends to the learner, that is
to say, if the model was punished for performing behaviours, they will
learn the behaviour but will not perform it for fear of the same outcome.
In a situation where the model was rewarded, the child will acquire the
behaviour and perform it. This type of learning accounts for the

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 acquisition of norms, and cultural values of a society, likewise attitudes
and aggressive tendencies.
Teachers in classroom should present good models for what they are
teaching and for other aspects of their lives, because children do not just learn
the curricular subjects, but lots of other things that they observe from their
teachers. Both teachers and parents alike should always serve as useful role
models to children. Teachers should have those qualities that worth imitation by
their students especially in the school environment. The teacher's relationship
with the students will include his friendliness, calmness, types of authority,
discipline, love and affection
 Incidental or unconscious Learning:This type of learning takes place
without the learner being aware of, it may take place as a result of an
incident. This type of learning takes place even in school but differs from
classroom learning, if you are teaching a child a behaviour that is seen
beneficial, e.g toilet training, although the child may not learn how to use
the toilet, but he is learning something else, and that is attitude towards
avoiding dirtiness.
Incidental learning or unconscious learning is that type of learning
which takes place unconsciously or accidentally. For instance by accidentally
touching electric wire and getting shocked or a hot iron and getting burnt, just
teaches us that those objects are dangerous and should not be tempered with.
Types of learning by Robert Gagne.
Robert Gagne attempted to stretch the extremes of Pavlovian Reflexes to
Kohler's problem-solving exercises by postulating a hierarchy of learning.
Gagne has classified learning into eight types in a hierachical order as given
below:
1. Signal Learning
2. S-R Learning
3. Chain Learning
4. Verbal Associate Learning
5. Multiple Discrimination
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 6. Learning of Concepts
7. Learning of Principles
8. Problem-Solving.
Importance of Learning to Teachers.
1. Learning helps the teacher to discover needs and motives for children
learning at different level.
2. To help the teacher to understand concept of motivation, reinforcement,
etc.
3. It helps the teacher to understand the individual differences among
learners.
4. It helps the teacher to create and improve a conducive atmosphere for his
learners.
5. It helps the teacher to know the process of remembering and forgetting.

Theories of Learning
Theories are sets of Principles that provide a summary of various
observations and predict what will happen in a new situation.
Learning theory therefore, is a set of statements that provide guidelines
as to the process of learning and factors affecting learning.
Psychologists have conducted many researches to find out the nature of
learning in organism. These studies have culminated in a plethora of learning theories.
The theories of concern to us in this course are;
1. Behaviourist theories of Learning.
2. Cognitivist theories of Learning
3. Constructivists’ theories of Learning.
 Behaviourist theories of Learning.
Behaviourism is one of the early school of thought in psychology.
Behaviourists are much concern by the role played by environment in human learning.
They believe that if environment is properly structured then learning will follow. To
them individual learning is supposed to be controlled by environmental factors and
forces not by hereditary endowment or innate differences (Mangal, 2007).

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 To behaviourists, learning is a connection between stimulus and response or
between response and reinforcement. For example connection between learning
tasks presented by a teacher and the response made by the students. The most
notable theories in behaviourism are:
I. Classical Conditioning of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
II. Connectionism of Edward Lee Thorndike
III. Operant Conditioning of B. F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936):

The founder of classical conditioning is a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936). In Classical conditioning theory, learning is seen as a connection
between stimulus and response. In this type of learning an organism is conditioned to
associate or connect difference stimulus in order to elicit similar response for them. In
other words classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an artificial stimulus
can elicit the same or similar response with a natural or unconditioned stimulus if they
are presented together.
When formulating this theory Pavlov conducted an experiment with a dog. In
the first instance food (unconditioned stimulus) was presented to the dog and saliva
(unconditioned response) followed. Then a sound of a bell (neutral Stimulus) was
presented to the dog then there was no saliva. Subsequently the food (unconditioned
stimulus) was paired and presented together with a sound of a bell (conditioned
stimulus) then there was a saliva (unconditioned response) this continued for a time.
After this only sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), was presented without food
(unconditioned stimulus) and there was a saliva. This means the dog learn to salivate
to a sound of a bell through a connection between sound of the bell and food.
These can be summarised below:
1. Natural stimulus- produced- Natural response.
[Food = Saliva]
2 Neutral stimulus- did not produced - unconditioned response
[Sound of bell = no saliva]
3. Natural stimulus plus conditioned stimulus- produced- Natural response.
[food + sound of bell = saliva]
4. Conditioned stimulus alone – produced – conditioned response

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 [Sound of bell only = saliva].
After these studies Pavlov came up with three principles of learning which
include:
I. Principle of Generalisation
II. Principle of Discrimination
III. Principle of Extinction

Connectionism of Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)

[Trial and Error Learning]:
Connectionism is another theory of learning in behaviourism founded by
Edward Lee Thorndike. This theory view learning as a connection between stimulus
and response and the connection is made through trial and error. Thorndike conducted
his experiment using a rat, chickens and cats. In one of such experiments he placed a
hungry cat in puzzle box. The box has only one door which could only be opened by
manipulating a latch(lock). A fish was place outside the box, the smell of the fish
acted as the stimulus that motivate the cat to come out of the box to have the fish. The
cat made a random movement to get out of the box, in the process the latch was open
accidentally and the cat came out and had the fish. In the subsequent trials the cat used
to randomly locate the latch to come out. But the randomization keep on decreasing
with each trial up to a time that the cat learn the exact location of the latch so that it
can go direct to it to manipulate whenever it wanted to go out of the box.
Through this experiment Thorndike came up with the following laws of
learning;
 Law of readiness;
 Law of effect.
 Law of exercise.
 Law of recency.
 Law of primacy.
 Law of readiness- this law states that learning can only take place when
a student is ready to learn. When Students feel ready, they learn more
effectively than when they are not ready.
 Law of exercise – this states that more a person practices something, the
better he/she is able to retain that knowledge.

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  Law of effect- this is the most important law in Thorndike’s theory.
Effect means what follows a connection (learning). If satisfaction
follows, the connection is strengthen but if dissatisfaction follows the
connection is weaken.
 Law of recency -- this law states that we remember the most recent (last)
material covered.
 Law of primacy -- that once people learn something, it is almost
impossible to tell them it is actually different.

Operant Conditioning of B. F. Skinner

This theory was propounded by an American Psychologist B. F. Skinner.
Unlike in classical conditioning, in operant conditioning, learning is a connection
between response and reinforcement. In this type of learning emphasis is on response
not stimulus as in classical conditioning.
In operant conditioning the role of a teacher is to evoke desired response and
strengthen properly by using reinforcement (Mangal, 2007). For example a teacher
can identify a required learning task and shape the environment for students to display
the task and the teacher immediately strengthen the behaviour through reinforcement.
The most important contribution of this theory is the concept of reinforcement.

Application of Behaviourist Theory in the Field of Education

1. The concept of reinforcement can be used in strengthening desired
behaviour among students. A reinforcer means any stimulus which when
apply or remove can increase the chances of repeating that behaviour. When
a pleasant stimulus like praising a student is immediately applied after a
good behaviour like giving a good answer it is called positive
reinforcement. But if an unpleasant stimulus is removed in order to increase
the chances of repeating a behaviour it is called negative reinforcement.
2. The concept of punishment in trying to decrease the reoccurrence of a
behaviour is also from behaviourism.
3. The principle of discrimination in classical conditioning can be used to help
leaners to distinguish between similar letters, figures and any other similar
learning content. For example young pupils are often confusing letters b and

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 d, v and u etc. and figures 12 and 21, 57 and 75 etc. the principle of
discrimination can be used to help them to understand the difference
between the letters
4. Positive transfer of learning is based on the principle of generalisation in
classical conditioning. Teachers need to pair all similar learning tasks to
facilitate positive transfer of learning and to pair learning experience with
practical life problems so that learners can transfer their knowledge in their
daily activities.
5. Law of extinction can be used to condition students to stop exhibiting any
unwanted behaviour. For example students’ fear of any subject can be
change through the principle of extinction.
6. Students should be encouraged to be practicing all learning tasks for
mastery.
7. Teachers should ensure the readiness of students for learning any task
before starting teaching and learning procedure. This can be achieved
through arousing learners’ interest in any learning task.

 Cognitive Theory of Learning

Cognitive theorists are later school of thought in psychology who broke away
from the dominant theory of behaviourism. Cognitive theorists believe that
behaviourism cannot fully explain the nature of learning especially complex learning
like problem solving. To cognitive psychologists, learning is a deliberate and
conscious attempt of the learner rather than being a product of stimulus and response
like a machine (Mangal, 2007).
According to cognitive theory, a learner do some insightful thinking and
reasoning before responding to any stimulus or learning tasks. The learners’ response
to that stimulus depends on his or her information processing ability through thinking,
reasoning, perception and intelligence. The foundations of cognitive theory lies in the
work of a Gestalt psychologists who came up with a theory of learning known as
‘insightful theory of learning’. This theory was developed by a German psychologist
by name Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) after an experiment he conducted with a
chimpanzee.

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 In the experiment, Kohler placed a chimpanzee in a cage with a box inside the
cage and hung a banana on the roof of the cage above the reach of the chimpanzee. At
first the chimpanzee tried to get the banana by jumping but it could not succeed. Then
the chimpanzee did some thinking and placed that box directly under the banana and
then climbed the box then jump to get the banana.
Educational Implications of Cognitive theory of Learning
1. Cognitive psychologists proved learning to be purposeful and goal oriented.
2. A learner need to be acquainted with the specific purpose and aim of a learning
task, this can increase his motivation and interest.
3. A learning task like memorising a poem or a passage could be presented as a
whole to the learner before allowing them to master it part by part.
4. Learning material can be selected based on learners’ cognitive abilities.
5. Teachers should facilitate the motivation of their learners

 Constructivists’ Theory.
Constructive theory of learning is an offshoot of cognitive psychology.
Constructive theorists believe that learners always actively construct or make their
own knowledge. According to this theory, teachers’ role is to guide the learners to
construct their knowledge by themselves instead of impacting the knowledge to the
learners. The leading psychologist in this theory include: Jean Piaget; L. Vygotsky;
Jerome Brunner; and Howard Gardner among others.
The idea behind this theory is that knowledge is subjective. That is every
person has difference experience and that learning process is affected by learners
personal
experience, therefore learners should be allowed to construct their learning based on
their experience.
Educational implications of Constructive theory of learning.
The idea of learners constructing their learning by themselves has the following
implications for both the teacher and the learner.
1. The teacher only serve as a facilitator of learning whose duty is only to
structure the learning environment.
2. Learning is individualised and personalised based on each learners
experience, interest, and coleveve ability or level

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 3. Teachers should not set the same learning exercise for the class but to
response to individual student’s need.
4. Students are very active in the learning process, making choices as to what
and how they would learn.
5. Assessment of learning is less formal and frequent. Teachers assess what
learners produce as in presentations or project instead of emphasising on
test result.
How to use this theory in classroom
1 pose a problem to the learners
2 structure the learning around primary concept.
3 seek and value learners’ point of view.
4 adapt curriculum to address learners’ current knowledge.
5 assess students’ learning in the context of teachi

Transfer of Learning
Transfer of leaning means the use of previously acquired knowledge and skills
in new learning.
In addition, transfer of learning can be described as the application of
previously acquired knowledge /skills in solving of problems in a new situation. In
other words, when experience which have been acquired in one learning situation can
be used to solve problems in a new situation we can say that transfer of learning has
taken place.
Crow and Crow (1973) say this about transfer of learning “the carryover of
habit, thinking, feeling or working, of knowledge or of skills from one learning area
to another is referred to as transfer of learning…...”.
Types of Transfer of Learning.
According to H. C Ellis, transfer of learning can take place in three (3)
different forms. These are:
1. Positive transfer of learning- this happens when previous learning or
training help a learner in understanding new learning task. For example

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 where a simple addition help one in understanding statistics or when the
knowledge of letters of the English alphabet helps one in understanding
how to spell English words correctly and even make sentenses, or a learned
skill in handball help one to master a skill in basketball.
2. Negative transfer of learning- this happens when learning in one situation
hiniders or weaken learning in another situation. For example if your
knowledge of the proper pronunciation of the word ‘shake’ hinders your
learning of the proper pronunciation of the word ‘check’.
Negative Transfer can occur in two ways:
I. Proactive Inhibition :this is a situation where previous learning hinders
the learning of a new materials.It occurs when one cannot learn a new
task because of an old task that had been learnt.Example ;when a child
that has previously learnt how to pronounce the word ‘But’ now finds it
difficult to pronounce the word ‘Put’ correctly.
II. Retroactive inhibition :this is a situation where the learning of new
material interferes with and confuses previous learning. It occurs when
one forgets a previously learnt task due to the learning of new task. In
other words, later learning /new memories disrupt old memories.
Example, starting learning French may affect our memory of previously
learned English or other language vocabulary.
3. Zero Transfer of Learning :Transfer is zero when previous learning has no
effect on the learning /performance of new learning. In other words, the
initial Learning has no effect on the subsequent /new learning. Example,
Learning how to cook has no effect on learning how to sing/drive. Also
learning history may neither help nor hinder the learning of economics.
It is important to note that, such occurs when the learning activities
and subject areas have nothing in common between them.
How to foster positive Transfer of Learning
1. Identical components between two similar learning situations or contents
should be identified and properly explained.
2. Learning should be based on understanding; rote learning should be
discourage.
3. Building generalisations and making use of them in further learning.

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Factors Affecting Learning
Factors affecting learning means things, circumstances or elements that
contribute in producing learning outcome.
Psychologist have been able to identify some important factors that affect
learning, these factors are basic to all learning situation, that is to say, whether the
learning situation is in the classroom, the carpenters workshops, the mechanic
shade, the factory, those factors are important.
Factors affecting Learning :
1. Motivation :it refers to a state (need) within an individual that direct
behaviour towards a goal. Unless students are ready to acquire new
ideas or they see some reasons in learning, then any effort towards
learning will be fruitless. Adequate motivation is essential to the success
of any learning situation. Motivation can intrinsically (interest and
satisfaction) or extrinsically (reward and punishment)
2. Age of the Learner: The Swiss psychologist Piaget, and others
interested in learning have called our attention to the fact that learning
proceeds in stages, which often time conduces with the level of maturity
and development of the individual learner. From what we know, it is
pointless teaching children certain ideas when they are not
psychologically ready to profit from such teaching.
3. Background of the Learner :Children come from various
backgrounds. Some come from very poor homes while others have well-
to-do parents, there are also those whose parents are illiterate while
others have parents who are civil servants or who work in non-
governmental establishments. We also have whose parents are self-
employed. Whichever category that the children belongs, the imprint of
his upbringing at home e.g. studies indicate that majority of Nigerian
school children come from poor home.
4. Level of Ability of the Learner :Each learner in the class posses a
given level of ability. This factor can be expressed in various ways,
interest, aptitudes, achievement, etc. When measurement of these traits
are obtained they become the basis for assisting an individual to one
group or another, e.g. ability is consider as inheritance, this informs or

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 advices a gentleman or lady in search of marriage partner to pay some
attention to the level of intelligence of each individual parents.
5. Peer group Influence :Children and adolescents exercise a great deal of
influence on themselves. This influence is felt both inside and outside
the classroom. One known fact about children is that they desired to
confirm behaviour Thai is defined by each particular group.
6. Learning by Doing :It is difficult for a learner to perform a task
successfully just from instruction. It is by actually performing the task
that the learner learns. In physical task, it is easy to see how doing
facilitates learning e.g. a person learning to play tennis or typewriting,
can easily be seen as performing the task, but when we are dealing with
theories or concepts, in such a situation we can conduct laboratory
experiments, etc.
7. Knowledge of Result (feed back) :This refers to information given to
the Learner regarding his progress. In other words, it is the information
given to the learner performance (output) has been evaluated. Research
has shown that learning is faster when the Learner knows about his
performance. This is so because feedbacks serves as a motivator and
also highlight the mistakes of the learner which can be easily corrected.

Motivation
In educational terms motivation means leaners disposition,desire or willingness
to learn. The desire is rooted in what the psychologists called motives (Salawu & Isah,
2005). Webster dictionary defines motives as “some inner drives, impulses, intentions
etc. that causes a person to do something or act in a certain way …….”
Therefore within a learning context motivation means some inner drives,
impulses or intentions that cause or move an individual to learn. The goal of learning
process therefore, should be to arouse this inner desire of the learners to modify their
behaviour through learning (Salawu & Isah, 2005).
Types of motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation :It refers to motivation that arises from within the
individual. It means that type of energy that compel an individual to
undertake an action aim at achieving a goal internally. Example, when a

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 person is ‘interested' in a particular thing and as a result he/she is eager
and apply all effort towards achieving that particular thing we say that
that person is intrinsically motivated.
An important factor in ‘intrinsic motivation ‘ is ‘interest’.
2. Extrinsic Motivation :It refers to that type of motivation that arises
from source outside the individual. In other words, it refers to the
external forces/factors that makes an individual to do something.
In ordinary class room situation we apply reward and punishment
as drives in Extrinsic motivation.
Characteristics of Motivated Learners
1. Motivated learners actively participated in class activity
2. They perform class function with less directive from the teacher.
3. They enjoy school and learning.
Techniques of Improving Students Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is that desire to learn which lives within the learner. The
ultimate goal of teacher is therefore to arouse this inner desire within the
learner. The followings techniques can help in achieving this.
1. Make learning environment to be attractive and conducive.
2. Stimulate the impulse of curiosity within the learner.
3. Set attainable goals for every learning task.
4. Use audio visual aids.
5. Adjust learning content to learners’ interest and ability.
6. Show learners the relevance of what they are learning to their lives.
7. Provide pleasant and satisfying experience for the learners,
8. Make students to experience a sense of success frequently.
9. Stimulus variation by the teacher, do not always stick to one approach.
Example; teachers should vary their voices, gestures, movements, methods
etc.
10. Frequent use of reinforcement.
11. Let students know their progress
12. Consider individual differences
13. Encourage learning by discovery.

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The Concept of Reward and Punishment and their application in Education.
Reward and punishment are factors in students’ management. It is therefore
imperative/essential for a teacher education students to acquaint themselves with
techniques of how to properly use reward and punishment.
Reward: This generally means compensating a person or a group of persons
for a service they rendered. In educational setting like a school reward means giving
compensation to a student or a group of students by a teacher, school authority or any
authorised person in the school for a good behaviour exhibited by the student like
good performance in classwork or test, sport or in any other task, . Reward can be in
the form of prizes, praising the students, award of marks, promotion, scholarship,
cash, or other materials like exercise books or textbooks or any another gift to a
deserving students.
Despite the positive effect of reward on students’ behaviour, psychologists said
it can be used wisely, because misusing or overusing reward may make the students to
value the reward more than the rewarded behaviour. And the student may stop to
perform the desired behaviour if the reward ceases to come.
Punishment- this generally means making a person to suffer a penalty for an
unwanted behaviour he or she may do in order to deter/prevent him or her from
repeating the behaviour. Technically, Kazdin (1989) defines punishment as “the
presentation of aversive(an unplesant ) event or removal of a positive event following
a response that reduce the frequency of that response”.

Educational psychologists have identified the following effects of punishment

in schools:
a. Punishment, if properly use can change students’ negative behaviour.
b. It discourages other students from doing the same unwanted behaviour.
c. It instils in the mind of the students respect for authorities.
Types of Punishment
Psychologists have identified the following types of punishment:
i. Applying or presenting an unpleasant event on the student. This can include
criticising or blaming the behaviour, physical intervention like flogging,
frog jump, kneeling down, sweeping a compound or hoeing, etc. But
physical intervention, that is corporal punishment, could not be apply unless

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 in some extra ordinary circumstances. And it must be recorded in the school
log book.
ii. Withdrawal of positive or pleasant stimulus; like loss of privileges like class
monitor, loss of marks, not allowing student to go out and play etc.
iii. Punishment involving some effort or work. For instance restitution is also a
punishment. For example student who tear some body’s exercise book may be made
to buy a new one for him. Another example of this type of punishment is where a
positive practice is involve. Positive practice means making a student to repeatedly
practice an appropriate behaviour. For example the student who tear an exercise book
may be made to continuously demonstrate the proper use of an exercise book.
Conclusively, punishment also need to be applied wisely because it excessive
or improper use may make a student to withdraw instead of positively modifying
the unwanted behaviour. Teachers should not make the students have an
impression that the teacher or the school hate them by punishing them. But they
should try to focus the punishment towards making the students to change a
behaviour not hatred and they should make the student to realise that.
Memory
In psychological terms memory means faculty of the mind in which people
store past experience and learning to reproduce them in the future when the need
arises (Mangal. 2007). There are three types of memory.
1. Sensory memory- this type of memory helps individual to recall something
immediately it is perceive. It has the lowest retention time usually 1-2
seconds. For example when we are given a seat number in a commercial
bus, we forget the number immediately we take our seat.
2. Short term memory- this is also a temporary memory but it is longer than
the sensory memory. In a short term memory the information can be stored
up to thirty seconds without rehearsal. So rehearsal can keep information
here permanently in the long term memory.
3. Long term memory- this is the most important type of memory in school
learning. Whatever is being taught by the teacher needs to be stored in long
term memory. Long term memory has a limitless capacity to store
information with little or no decay and it requires little rehearsal. For

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 instance remembering your name, classmate name, date of birth or
marriage, etc.
Techniques for Helping Memory
The following techniques have been identified to be of help in recalling information.
1. Will and interest to learn.
2. Grouping and rhythm- eg the rhythm for remembering the number of days in
each month of the Gregorian calendar= thirty days has September April June
and November………….
3. Repetition and practice- repetition and continuous practice increase the
effectiveness of memorisation especially if the repetition is accompanied by
understanding.
4. Making use of SQ4R technique- where S means survey, Q means questions
like why, what, who, where, when, how etc. 1st r means read to try to answer
these questions, 2nd r means reflect, 3rd r means recite and recall while the last r
means review.
5. Making use of mnemonics- this entails using visual imagery to provide useful
association and connection for remembering the required materials. For
example;
a. Loci method- loci means location or place in Latin. This method simply
means identifying and locations or a place in one’s house or office and
naming these places after the information to be remembered. If you want to
recall those information then remember the locations.
b. Initial latter strategy- in this method it is the initial letters that are the
subject of remembering and association. Typical example = BODMAS.
Rote Learning and Over Learning

Rote learning
This is a term use in describing a type of learning in which the learners try to
master the material by memorisation through sheer repetition. That is, the student keep
on chanting, rereading or repeating the material like notes or textbooks with the aim of
memorising it (Zoe, 2003). The idea behind rote learning is that one may be able to
quickly recall the meaning of the material the more one repeats it. In other words the
more you repeat a material the more easily you can recall it. The opposite of rote

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learning are meaningful learning, deep learning or active learning, all these signify
learning by understanding instead of memorisation through sheer repetition.
Rote learning, which is learning through memorisation or sheer repetition, has
some advantages and disadvantages. That is why some scholars are in support of it
while others are not.
The advantages of rote learning include:
a. It is the first step of learning in some subjects. For example before one can
understand the interpretation of some chapters (Suras) of the glorious
Qur’an in I.R.S., one has to memorise the chapter first. Some mathematical
or scientific formulas, vocabulary of a foreign language, steps in complex
equation, phonic in reading etc. may all require rote learning for mastery.
b. It also help in mastering some geographical or historical facts. For example
state and capital of a country or names of countries of Africa.
The disadvantages of rote learning are:
a. Rote learning lead to poor memory. If a person masters a material by sheer
repetition without understanding recalling it in the long run may be
difficult.
b. The knowledge gain through rote learning may not be put in to practice or
transferring it to other areas because of lack of initial understanding. For
example just memorising a meaning of a word without understanding how
to use it in sentence is useless.
c. Rote learning may be boring.
Rote learning is a poor approach to learning and therefore discouraged except
in some few situations. As teachers we need to train our students on how and when to
use rote learning. If a material requires understanding we are supposed to adopt deep
meaning learning instead of rote learning. On the other hand if a material requires
remembering basic facts or formulas then we may use rote learning wisely, that is rote
learning accompanied by understanding.

Overlearning:
Over learning is the continuous learning or practice of a skill, even though you seem
to have already learned the skill, you continue to practice at the same level of
difficulty.

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 Examples of overlearning are:
a. Consistently studying or reviewing for a test or exams even though you already
know all the materials.
b. Putting your vocabulary words on flash cards and repeatedly studying them
throughout the day even though you know them all by heart.
c. An actor to continue rehearsing his or her lines of acting in a play even after
they have mastered them.
Overlearning and rote learning are two different things. Whereas rote learning
concentrate on sheer repetition and memorisation with a less focus on understanding,
overlearning concentrate on continuous rehearsal and practice after understanding and
mastering the learned material.

Remembering and Forgetting

Remembering – this refers to the ability to recall or retrieve or reproduce
information stored in the memory. Whatever is learnt is supposed to be retrieved in
one time or the other so that it can be put into use. The above mention techniques
under memory, if properly applied, can help in remembering what has been learnt.
Students should therefore be trained on how to use them.
Forgetting- forgetting simply means not being able to recall or retrieve
information, experience or skill stored in the memory. Munn, (1967) scientifically
defines forgetting as: “the lost permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or
recognise something learnt earlier”. There are many theories that explain why people
forget. One of these theories is the interference theory. Interference means a negative
inhibiting effects of one learning experience on another (Mangal, 2007). This means
what we have learnt now to negatively interfere with what we have learnt earlier. This
happens in two different ways:
a. Retroactive Inhibition- this happens when newly learnt material works
backward to hinder the retention of what was learnt earlier.
b. Proactive inhibition- this happens when previously learnt material or
experience come forward to hinder our retention of what we are learning
now.
Effect of Urban and Rural Setting on Learning

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 The environment of learning is one of the factors that affect learning. The
effect of the environment could either be positive if the environment is conducive for
learning or negative if the environment is not conducive for learning. Urban and rural
settings are two different environment with different characteristics, therefore each
one of them would have different effect on learning. Let us look at their effects on
learning separately.
Urban Setting – urban setting is a large settlement, which is more than a town.
The features of urban setting include; dense population, social amenities, large
commercial activities, many different profession, many rich people, urbanisation etc.
There are more advantages for effective learning in urban setting than disadvantages.
The advantages include:
a. Existence of more instructional and educational facilities both in home and
in schools in urban setting than in rural setting.
b. There are qualitative and quantitative teachers in urban schools.
c. More educated parents who can monitor and encourage students’ learning.
d. Higher level of aspiration and achievement motivation.
All these can stimulate students’ effective learning in urban setting. These
notwithstanding, there are also some disadvantages of urban setting on learning. These
include overcrowded classrooms which hinders effective teaching and learning
process. There are also higher level of behavioural problems that can hinder learning
in urban setting because of large and diverse population.
Rural Setting – this refers to small settlements usually less than a town with
the following characteristics; sparsely populated, shortage of social amenities, larger
number of uneducated parents, limited number of profession largely agriculturally
based. The nature of rural setting usually hinders learning. Researchers have shown
that rural students tend to manifest low academic performance than their urban
counterparts. The hindrance to learning is due to the following factors;
a. Poor supply of qualify teachers in the rural schools;
b. Shortage of learning materials like; classrooms, furniture, instructional
materials, libraries, laboratories, textbooks etc.;
c. Low level of student’s aspiration and achievement motivation; and
d. Shortage of parental support and encouragement.

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 But the relatively low number of students in rural classroom is an advantage for
effective learning. Teachers in rural areas should use improvisation techniques to
provide lacking materials that can stimulate learning. Teachers should also use
techniques for increasing achievement motivation so as to increase learner’s level of
aspiration and motivation to learn.
Managing Overcrowded Classrooms
One of the factors that increase teachers stress in Nigerian schools is overcrowded
classrooms. The increase in population and poor funding of education among other
factors have been identified as the factors responsible for the overcrowded classrooms.
An ideal classroom is not supposed to be more than 25 students. But nowadays, it is
not uncommon to have a class of over 100 students in Nigeria.
The overcrowded classrooms is a hindrance to effective teaching and learning
sessions especially now that child centred methods of teaching are being emphasise.
Since we cannot do without the overcrowded classrooms, at least for now, the
following techniques can be used by teachers to effectively manage overcrowded
classrooms to minimise its negative effects on teaching and learning process.
Techniques /ways a teacher can use in managing of overcrowded classroom.
a. Adequate and excellent planning of the lesson taking into consideration the
nature of the class.
b. Make lessons to be engaging- students should be engage throughout the lesson
in an enticing and fun manner.
c. Properly assign and reassign seats to students bringing the weak and stubborn
students to the front.
d. Properly structure the classroom by leading the students to formulate rules and
regulations by themselves such as acceptable behaviour that everyone most
observe and hold any student accountable for violation.
e. Allocate students into smaller learning groups of 5-6 and make them sit in
circles so that everyone can participate.
f. You seek the assistance of a fellow teacher if necessary to serve the role of
teacher’s assistance.
g. Assign some roles and responsibilities to some students wisely.
h. Give additional attention to the weaker students after the school ours.
The concept of psychometrics.

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References
Alley Dog. (2010). Overlearning. Retrieved: November 16th, 2016 from
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition/php?term=overlearning.
Crow, L. D. & Crow. A. (1973). Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Euroasia
Publishing House.
Mangal, S. K. (2011). Advance educational Psychology. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
Munn, N. L. (1967). An Introduction to Psychology. New Delhi: Oxford & IHB.
Murphy, G. (1968). An Introduction to Psychology. New Delhi: Oxford & IHB.
Salawu, A. A. & Isah, A. M. (2005). Basic Concepts in Educational Psychology.
Kaduna: Rahama Press Ltd.
TRACHI BEACH, (2013). What is Overlearning and Why is it so Important.
Retrieved: November 15th, 2016 from
http://www.psychlopedia.wikispaces.com/overlearning.
Zoe, H. (2013). Active versus Passive Study Skills. Retrieved: September 12 th 2015
from www.wyzont.com/resources/blogs/13239/active_pasive_study_skills

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