COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Computer architecture is like the blueprint or and store information. It's like understanding the
design of a computer system. It's all about roles and interactions of the workers in a factory
understanding how the different parts of a to make the whole system function smoothly.
computer work together to perform tasks and
LOGIC GATES
carry out instructions.

Think of a computer as a team of workers in a Logic gates are electronic devices that perform
factory. Each worker has a specific role and basic logical operations on binary inputs to
knows how to perform certain tasks. Similarly, a produce a binary output. They are the
computer has different components that work fundamental building blocks of digital circuits and
together to process information. are essential for the functioning of computers and
other digital systems.
The central processing unit (CPU) is like the
manager of the computer. It's responsible for The primary purpose of logic gates is to process
executing instructions and making decisions. The and manipulate binary information, which is
CPU has different parts, such as the arithmetic represented by 0s and 1s. These binary values
and logic unit (ALU) that performs calculations, correspond to the off and on states of electronic
and the control unit that coordinates and controls signals, respectively. By combining logic gates in
the flow of data. different ways, complex digital circuits can be
created to perform calculations, make decisions,
Memory is like the computer's workspace. It and control the flow of information.
stores information that the CPU needs to work
with. There are different types of memory, like Here are a few reasons why we need logic
random-access memory (RAM) and read-only gates :-
memory (ROM), which have different purposes. 1. Information Processing: Logic gates allow
Input and output devices are like the computer's us to process and manipulate binary
senses. They allow us to interact with the information, which forms the basis of
computer and for the computer to communicate digital computing. By performing logical
with us. Examples include keyboards, mice, operations, such as AND, OR, and NOT,
monitors, and printers. logic gates enable us to perform
calculations, make comparisons, and
The computer also needs a way to store and implement algorithms.
retrieve information for the long term. This is
where storage devices like hard drives or solid- 2. Decision Making: Logic gates help in
state drives (SSDs) come in. They provide a place making decisions based on binary inputs.
for the computer to save data even when it's For example, by using an AND gate, we
turned off. can check if multiple conditions are
satisfied simultaneously. By using an OR
Computer architecture also involves how all these gate, we can determine if at least one
components are connected and how data flows condition is met. These decision-making
between them. This is typically done through capabilities are crucial for various
buses, which are like highways that transfer applications, including computer
information between different parts of the programs, control systems, and data
computer. processing.
In summary, computer architecture is about 3. Data Storage and Memory: Logic gates are
understanding the different parts of a computer, used to build memory units, such as flip-
how they work together, and how they process flops and registers, which can store and
 retain binary information. These memory BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
elements are vital for storing data,
instructions, and intermediate results in a Boolean algebra is a mathematical structure that
computer system. deals with binary variables and logical operations.
It provides a formal system for manipulating and
4. Circuit Design and Optimization :- Logic
analyzing logical expressions, which are
gates provide a systematic and modular
statements that can either be true or false.
approach to designing digital circuits. By
combining different types of logic gates, In simpler terms, Boolean algebra helps us
complex circuits can be constructed to understand and manipulate statements that are
perform specific tasks efficiently. either true or false. It allows us to combine these
Additionally, logic gates can be optimized statements using logical operations like AND, OR,
and combined to reduce circuit and NOT, and perform calculations with binary
complexity, power consumption, and values (0s and 1s).
improve overall performance.
Here are some key aspects and applications of
5. Digital Communication: Logic gates are Boolean algebra:
used in digital communication systems to
1. Logical Operations: Boolean algebra
encode and decode data. They help in
defines three fundamental logical
transmitting and receiving binary
operations:
information accurately and reliably over
various communication channels. • AND: Represents the conjunction
of two statements. It evaluates to
In summary, logic gates are necessary because
true only when both statements
they allow us to process, manipulate, and store
are true. For example, "It is
binary information in digital systems. They
raining AND I have an umbrella."
provide the foundation for designing and building
complex digital circuits, enabling the development • OR: Represents the disjunction of
of computers, smartphones, digital appliances, two statements. It evaluates to
and countless other digital devices we rely on in true if at least one of the
our daily lives. statements is true. For example,
"It is raining OR I have an
umbrella."

• NOT: Represents the negation of a

statement. It reverses the truth
value of the statement. For
example, "It is not raining."

2. Logic Gates: Boolean algebra is the basis

for designing and analyzing digital circuits
using logic gates. Logic gates, such as
AND, OR, and NOT gates, manipulate
binary inputs (0s and 1s) based on the
principles of Boolean algebra. These gates
are the building blocks of computer
systems, enabling complex computations
and decision-making.

3. Digital Electronics: Boolean algebra is

essential in digital electronics, where
 signals are represented as binary values. information and the logical relationships between
By applying Boolean algebra, engineers the inputs and the output.
can design, analyze, and optimize digital
To summarize :-
circuits, such as processors, memory
units, and communication systems. • A Boolean function is a function that
operates on binary inputs and produces a
4. Computer Science: Boolean algebra is the
binary output.
foundation of computer science, as it
• A truth table is a table that shows all
forms the basis for designing logical
possible input combinations and their
circuits, writing Boolean expressions, and
corresponding output values for a Boolean
developing algorithms. Boolean logic is
function.
used extensively in programming,
• A logic diagram is a visual representation
database queries, search algorithms, and
of a Boolean function using logic gates,
decision-making in software systems.
illustrating the flow of information and
In summary, Boolean algebra provides a formal logical relationships between the inputs
system for reasoning about statements and their and the output.
logical relationships. It allows us to manipulate
Both truth tables and logic diagrams provide
binary values and perform logical operations. It
ways to understand and analyze the behavior of
has widespread applications in digital electronics,
Boolean functions. They help us comprehend how
computer science, and various fields where logical
logical operations and input values influence the
reasoning and binary computations are essential.
output of the function, making them essential
TRUTH TABLES AND LOGIC DIAGRAMS tools in the study of digital logic and computer
science.
Boolean functions are mathematical functions that
take binary inputs (0s and 1s) and produce a Example :- F= x +y’z
binary output based on specific rules or
conditions. These functions can represent logical
relationships or operations between binary
variables.

A truth table is a way to represent the behavior

of a Boolean function. It lists all possible
combinations of input values and shows the
corresponding output values. Each row in the FLIP FLOPS
truth table represents a specific combination of
inputs and the resulting output. The truth table Imagine you have a special box called a flip-flop.
provides a complete description of how the This box can hold and remember a single piece
function behaves for every input combination. of information. The information can be either
"yes" or "no," or we can think of it as a light
A logic diagram is a visual representation of a
that can be turned on or off.
Boolean function using logic gates. Logic gates
are electronic components that perform logical Let's say you have a button connected to the flip-
operations, such as AND, OR, and NOT, based on flop. When you press the button, the flip-flop
the principles of Boolean algebra. In a logic will change its state and remember whether the
diagram, logic gates are interconnected to light is on or off. So if you press the button once
represent the input variables, the logical and the light is off, it will turn on and stay on
operations, and the output of the Boolean until you press the button again. Similarly, if you
function. The diagram shows the flow of press the button when the light is on, it will turn
off and stay off until you press the button again.
This special box is like a memory cell that can electronics to store information and help devices
remember its state even if you turn off the remember things.
power. It's like when you pause a video game
and come back to it later, it still remembers
where you left off.

In a computer, flip-flops are used to remember

information and make decisions based on that
information. They are like tiny memory cells that
store a simple "yes" or "no" answer, and they
help the computer know what to do next. For
example, a flip-flop can remember whether you
pressed a button on the keyboard or whether a
signal from a sensor is on or off.

Flip-flops are important because they allow the

computer to remember things and make choices
based on that memory. Just like you remember
how to spell a word or count numbers, flip-flops
help the computer remember and use information
to perform tasks correctly.

So, flip-flops are like special boxes that can store

and remember a simple "yes" or "no" answer.
They help computers remember things and make
decisions based on that memory. They are
important for the computer to work properly and
do all the things we want it to do!

In simpler terms, a flip-flop is like a special

switch that can remember its state. It can be in
one of two states: ON or OFF. Once you set the
switch to a specific state, it will remember that
state until you change it again.

Imagine a light switch in your room. When you

flip it up, the light turns on. When you flip it
down, the light turns off. The light switch
remembers its state, so when you come back
later, the light will still be in the same state as
you left it.

A flip-flop works similarly. It's a tiny electronic

component that can remember whether it's ON or
OFF. It's used in computers and other electronic
devices to store information. Just like the light
switch, a flip-flop will remember its state even if
the power is turned off.

So, a flip-flop is like a smart switch that can

remember whether it's ON or OFF. It's used in
CHAPTER TWO
3. Octal System (Base 8):
NUMBER SYSTEMS
• The octal system uses eight digits:
Number systems are different ways to represent
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
and express numbers. They provide a structured
• Each digit in the octal system
way of counting, measuring, and performing
represents a value according to its
calculations.
position, similar to the decimal
In simpler terms, think of number systems as system. The rightmost digit
different languages for numbers. Just as we have represents ones, the next digit
different languages like English, Spanish, or represents eights, the one after
French to communicate, number systems are that represents sixty-fours, and so
different "languages" to express numbers. on. Each digit position represents
a power of 8.
The most commonly used number system is the
decimal system, which we use every day. It has
4. Hexadecimal System (Base 16):
ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. We
count from 0 to 9, and when we reach 9, we • The hexadecimal system is
add a new digit to the left and start again from commonly used in computer
0, like 10, 11, 12, and so on. programming and digital systems.
It uses sixteen digits: 0 to 9 and A
But there are other number systems too, like:
to F.
1. Decimal System (Base 10): • Each digit in the hexadecimal
• The decimal system is the most system represents a value
commonly used number system. It according to its position. The
has ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, rightmost digit represents ones,
7, 8, and 9. the next digit represents sixteens,
• In the decimal system, each digit's the one after that represents two
value depends on its position. The hundred fifty-sixes, and so on.
rightmost digit represents ones, Each digit position represents a
the next digit represents tens, the power of 16.
one after that represents hundreds, • To represent values greater than
and so on. 9, the letters A to F are used. A
represents 10, B represents 11,
2. Binary System (Base 2): and so on until F, which
represents 15.
• The binary system is fundamental
in computing and digital These are just a few examples of number systems.
electronics. It has two digits: 0 Different number systems find applications in
and 1. various fields, such as computing, mathematics,
• In the binary system, each digit's and engineering. By using different number
value depends on its position, systems, we can represent and manipulate
similar to the decimal system. numbers in different ways to suit different needs
However, in binary, the rightmost and contexts.
digit represents ones, the next Different number systems are useful for different
digit represents twos, the one after purposes. For example, the binary system is
that represents fours, and so on. excellent for representing and manipulating
Each digit position represents a information in computers, while the decimal
power of 2.
system is practical for everyday counting and
calculations.

By understanding different number systems, we

can communicate and work with numbers in
different ways, just as we use different languages
to communicate with people from different parts
of the world.

CONVERTING FROM ONE BASE TO ANOTHER

CHAPTER THREE TYPES OF MEMORY

COMMON DIGITAL COMPONENTS Let's provide a brief description of primary and

secondary types of memory and how they are
classified :-
INTRODUCTION TO MEMORY
Primary Memory: Primary memory, also known
In simpler terms, memory refers to the part of a as main memory or internal memory, refers to
computer where information is stored. It is like the memory directly accessible by the computer's
the computer's "brain" or its ability to remember processor. It is classified based on its speed,
things. proximity to the processor, and volatility.
Just like we humans remember things in our 1. Random Access Memory (RAM):
minds, computers have memory to remember
information. It allows a computer to store and • RAM is the primary memory used
retrieve data, instructions, and programs that it for temporary data storage while
needs to do its work. the computer is running.
• It is volatile memory, meaning the
Memory can be thought of as different types of data stored in RAM is lost when
containers or boxes where the computer keeps the computer is powered off or
information. These containers can hold numbers, restarted.
letters, pictures, and more. They store things • RAM provides fast and random
temporarily or permanently, depending on the access, allowing the computer to
type of memory. read and write data quickly. It is
When a computer is turned off, some types of essential for multitasking and
memory lose the information they were holding, running programs.
just like when we forget things when we go to
sleep. But other types of memory can remember 2. Read-Only Memory (ROM):
things even when the computer is turned off, just • ROM is another type of primary
like we remember things after waking up. memory that contains permanent
Memory is essential for computers to work. It instructions or data.
helps them remember the programs they are • It is non-volatile memory,
running, the files they are using, and the meaning the data stored in ROM
information they need to perform tasks. Without remains even when the computer
memory, a computer wouldn't be able to is powered off or restarted.
remember anything and wouldn't be able to do • ROM stores essential instructions
much at all! needed for booting up the
computer, firmware information,
So, in simpler terms, memory is like the
and other permanent data.
computer's ability to remember and store
information, just like our ability to remember Secondary Memory: Secondary memory, also
things in our minds. It is an essential part of a known as external memory or auxiliary memory,
computer that allows it to function and perform refers to storage devices used for long-term data
tasks. storage. It is classified based on its capacity,
speed, and persistence of data.

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

• HDD is a common type of

secondary memory that uses
 magnetic storage technology to for long-term storage of data. Secondary memory
store and retrieve data. devices offer larger storage capacities and
• It provides high-capacity storage persistent data storage. Both types of memory are
at a relatively lower cost important for the functioning of a computer
compared to other storage devices. system, with primary memory facilitating
• Data on an HDD remains immediate data access, and secondary memory
persistent even when the computer providing long-term storage capabilities.
is powered off or restarted.

2. Solid State Drive (SSD):

• SSD is a newer type of secondary

memory that uses flash memory
technology to store data.
• It offers faster access times, higher
data transfer rates, and lower
power consumption compared to
HDDs.
• Like HDDs, data on an SSD MAIN MEMORY
remains persistent even when the
Main memory, also known as primary memory or
computer is powered off or
RAM (Random Access Memory), is a crucial
restarted.
component of a computer system. It stores data
Secondary memory devices are typically used for and instructions that the computer needs to
storing large amounts of data, including the access quickly while it is running.
operating system, applications, and user files,
In simpler terms, main memory is like a
while primary memory provides temporary
computer's short-term memory. Just like we need
storage for data being actively used by the
a notepad or a whiteboard to jot down important
computer.
things we need to remember in the moment, a
Cache Memory: computer needs main memory to store and
retrieve information it needs right away.
• Cache memory is a small and ultra-fast
memory located close to the computer's Main memory is directly connected to the CPU
processor. It stores frequently accessed (Central Processing Unit), which is like the brain
instructions and data to speed up the of the computer. The CPU needs to communicate
computer's performance. with main memory to fetch instructions and data
• Cache memory acts as a buffer between for processing. The connection between the CPU
the processor and the main memory, and main memory allows for the transfer of
reducing the time it takes to retrieve information back and forth.
information.
The CPU and main memory communicate through
a pathway called the processor bus, which
consists of address lines and data lines. The
In summary, primary memory includes RAM and
address lines carry the memory address
ROM, which are directly accessible by the
information, while the data lines carry the actual
computer's processor. Primary memory provides
data being transferred.
fast and temporary storage for data and
instructions. On the other hand, secondary Overall, the connection between the CPU and
memory includes HDDs and SSDs, which are used main memory is crucial for the CPU to access the
necessary data and instructions for processing. It
allows the CPU to fetch and store information in It stores frequently used information closer to the
main memory, enabling the computer to perform CPU, so it doesn't have to wait for data from the
tasks and execute programs efficiently. slower main memory every time.

CACHE So, cache memory acts as a fast storage area

between the CPU and the main memory. It helps
Cache memory is a special, super-fast type of
the computer run faster and efficiently by keeping
memory that sits between the CPU (the brain of
frequently accessed data and instructions close at
the computer) and the main memory. It acts as a
hand.
temporary storage area for frequently used
instructions or data. CACHE MEMORY MAPPING
Think of cache memory like a small, super-
In simpler terms, cache memory mapping refers
speedy notebook that the CPU keeps right next to
to how data or instructions are stored and
it. It holds important information that the CPU
located in the cache memory. It determines
needs to access quickly. This helps the computer
where specific information is kept in the cache.
run faster and keeps the overall cost of the
computer lower. Cache memory mapping is like having a plan or
system for organizing information in a special
Here's how cache memory works :-
notebook (cache memory). It helps the computer
1. The cache is the fastest part of the quickly find the right place to store and retrieve
computer's memory. It is designed to data or instructions.
match the high speed of the CPU so that
Different cache memory mapping techniques
data can be accessed very quickly.
decide how the information is assigned to specific
2. When the CPU needs to access data or locations in the cache. These techniques
instructions, it first checks the cache to determine how the computer knows where to
see if it is already stored there. look for the needed information.

3. If the data or instructions are found in There are different types of cache memory
the cache, the CPU can retrieve them mapping techniques, but the basic idea is to find
right away. It's like finding the an efficient way to store and find information in
information in the speedy notebook right the cache. The technique used depends on factors
next to you. like simplicity, flexibility, and minimizing
conflicts.
4. However, if the data or instructions are
not found in the cache (called a cache Overall, cache memory mapping is a strategy or
miss), the CPU has to look for them in system used to decide where data or instructions
the main memory. The main memory is should be stored in the cache. It helps the
slower compared to the cache, but it computer find and access the information it needs
holds a lot more data. quickly, improving overall performance.

5. When the CPU successfully finds the data TYPES OF MEMORY MAPPING
or instructions in the cache, it's called a
cache hit. This means the CPU found the ➔ Direct Memory Mapping
information it needed quickly, without ➔ Associative Memory Mapping
➔ Set Associative Memory Mapping
having to search in the slower main
memory.

The purpose of cache memory is to speed up the

computer's performance by reducing the time it
takes for the CPU to access data and instructions.
DIRECT MEMORY MAPPING FULLY ASSOCIATIVE MEMORY MAPPING

Direct memory mapping is a straightforward In Simpler Terms: Associative mapping is a

approach to cache memory mapping. It flexible approach to cache memory mapping. It
determines a fixed location in the cache where allows data or instructions from the main
specific data or instructions from the main memory to be stored in any available slot in the
memory are stored. cache memory.

Think of direct memory mapping like assigning a Think of associative mapping like having a
specific slot or spot in the notebook (cache notebook (cache memory) without any specific
memory) for each piece of information from the spots assigned for information. Each piece of data
main memory. or instruction can be stored anywhere in the
notebook.
Here's how direct memory mapping works :-
When the CPU needs to access data or
1. Each block of data or instructions from
instructions, it searches the entire notebook to
the main memory has only one designated
find the desired information. This flexible
slot in the cache where it can be stored.
mapping technique enables quick retrieval
It's like having a specific place for each
without worrying about specific locations.
piece of information.
In Detail: Associative mapping is a cache memory
2. When the CPU needs to access data or
mapping technique that offers flexibility in storing
instructions, it checks the cache slot that
and retrieving data or instructions. Here's a more
corresponds to the specific location in the
detailed explanation :-
main memory where the desired data or
instructions are stored. 1. In associative mapping, there are no fixed
slots or spots assigned for specific data
3. If the required data or instructions are
blocks in the cache memory. Each block
found in that designated cache slot, it's a
can be stored in any available slot in the
cache hit. The CPU can quickly retrieve
cache.
the information from the cache.
2. When the CPU needs to access data or
4. However, if the data or instructions are
instructions, it searches the entire cache
not found in the designated cache slot,
to find the desired information. It
it's a cache miss. The CPU needs to access
examines all the slots simultaneously,
the main memory to retrieve the
looking for a match.
information.
3. If the required data or instructions are
Direct memory mapping is simple and easy to
found in the cache, it's a cache hit. The
implement because each data block has a specific
CPU can retrieve the information quickly,
location in the cache. However, it may result in
regardless of its location within the cache.
conflicts if multiple data blocks try to occupy the
same cache slot. In such cases, one block may 4. However, if the data or instructions are
need to be replaced with another, causing a not found in the cache, it's a cache miss.
cache miss. The CPU needs to access the main
memory to retrieve the information.
So, direct memory mapping is like having a fixed
spot in the cache for each piece of information. 5. Associative mapping offers flexibility
It simplifies the storage and retrieval process, but because data blocks can be placed in any
conflicts may occur if multiple data blocks need available slot in the cache. This reduces
to occupy the same slot. the likelihood of conflicts when multiple
data blocks try to occupy the same slot.
 6. The search process in associative mapping 4. When the CPU needs to access data or
may take longer compared to other instructions, it first checks the specific set
mapping techniques because the CPU related to the memory address. It searches
needs to search the entire cache to find within that set to find the desired
the desired information. information.

Associative mapping is more flexible compared to 5. If the required data or instructions are
direct mapping, but it requires additional search found in the cache set, it's a cache hit.
time to locate the desired data block in the The CPU can retrieve the information
cache. It provides a balance between flexibility quickly from the corresponding set.
and reduced conflicts, as any slot can be used to
6. However, if the data or instructions are
store a data block. However, the flexibility comes
not found in the set, it's a cache miss.
at the cost of longer search times.
The CPU needs to access the main
So, in simpler terms, associative mapping allows memory to retrieve the information.
data or instructions to be stored anywhere in the
Set associative mapping combines the advantages
cache without specific spots assigned. The CPU
of direct mapping and fully associative mapping.
searches the entire cache to find the desired
It offers flexibility within each set while reducing
information, offering flexibility but potentially
the chances of conflicts compared to fully
longer search times.
associative mapping.

In simpler terms, set associative mapping is like

SET ASSOCIATIVE MAPPING having separate groups within the cache memory.
Each group can hold a limited number of data
Set associative mapping is a compromise between blocks. When the CPU needs data, it checks the
direct mapping and fully associative mapping. It specific group related to the memory address and
divides the cache memory into multiple sets, and searches within that group. This approach
each set can hold a limited number of data provides a balance between flexibility and
blocks. reduced conflicts.
Think of set associative mapping like having
several smaller sections or groups within the THE CONCEPT OF A VIRTUAL MEMORY
notebook (cache memory). Each group can hold a
limited number of data blocks. Virtual memory is a technique that allows a
computer to use space on its storage devices, like
Here's how set associative mapping works:
the hard disk, as if it were additional memory. It
1. The cache memory is divided into helps the computer handle more programs and
multiple sets. Each set can hold a specific data than it could with just the physical memory
number of data blocks, typically referred (RAM) alone.
to as the associativity level.
Imagine virtual memory as an extension of the
2. When data or instructions from the main computer's memory that uses space on the hard
memory need to be stored in the cache, disk. It gives the computer extra "thinking space"
they are assigned to a specific set based to work with, even if the physical memory is
on their memory address. limited.

3. Within each set, the data blocks can be In Detail :- Virtual memory is a memory
stored in any available slot. This provides management technique used by computers. Here's
flexibility within each set while limiting a more detailed explanation :-
the number of possible locations for a
particular data block.
1. Physical Memory (RAM): memory and the hard disk. Pages
that are not currently needed are
• A computer's physical memory,
moved to the hard disk, freeing
also called RAM (Random Access
up space in the physical memory
Memory), is the actual memory
for other pages.
chips installed in the computer. It
provides fast and temporary
6. Advantages of Virtual Memory:
storage for data and instructions
that the CPU (Central Processing • Allows the computer to run more
Unit) actively uses. programs simultaneously, even if
the physical memory is limited.
2. Memory Address Space: • Provides a larger effective memory
size than the physical memory
• Every program running on a
alone.
computer requires memory to
• Enables the efficient use of
store its instructions and data.
memory resources by swapping
Each program needs its own
pages in and out as needed.
"memory address space" to store
its information. Virtual memory is a crucial technique in modern
computer systems. It allows computers to handle
3. Virtual Memory: larger programs and datasets by using the hard
disk as additional memory. Although the hard
• Virtual memory is an extension of
disk is slower compared to the physical memory,
the computer's physical memory. It
virtual memory helps maintain the illusion of a
uses part of the hard disk space to
larger memory space for the CPU to work with.
simulate additional memory.
• When the physical memory is
insufficient to hold all the SECONDARY MEMORY
programs and data the computer
is running, the operating system Secondary memory, also known as external
uses virtual memory as a memory or storage, refers to the long-term
temporary storage area. storage devices used by computers. It is where
data and programs are stored even when the
4. Page Faults: computer is turned off. Secondary memory
provides larger storage capacities but is slower
• Virtual memory is divided into
compared to the computer's primary memory
fixed-size blocks called "pages."
(RAM).
These pages are stored on the
hard disk. In brief detail: Secondary memory serves as a
• When the CPU needs to access a permanent storage solution for computers. Here's
page that is not currently in the a brief explanation:
physical memory, a "page fault"
1. Long-Term Storage:
occurs. This triggers the operating
system to swap a page from the • Secondary memory is designed to
hard disk into the physical store data and programs for an
memory. extended period, even when the
5. Swapping: computer is powered off.
• It retains information reliably and
• Swapping is the process of moving
does not require a continuous
pages between the physical
power supply.
 2. Large Storage Capacities: extended period. It complements the faster but
more volatile primary memory, enabling users to
• Secondary memory devices, such
store and retrieve data beyond the limitations of
as hard disk drives (HDDs) and
the computer's temporary working memory.
solid-state drives (SSDs), provide
much larger storage capacities Devices that provide backup storage are called
compared to primary memory secondary memory or auxiliary memory. These
(RAM). devices store information that is not currently in
• This allows users to store a use by the computer. They have larger storage
significant amount of data, capacities but are slower compared to the
including operating systems, computer's primary memory.
applications, documents, media
Here's a simpler explanation of secondary
files, and more.
memory:

3. Slower Access Time: 1. Backup Storage:

• While primary memory (RAM) • Secondary memory devices serve

provides fast access to data, as backup storage for the
secondary memory is slower. computer. They store information
• Retrieving information from that is not currently needed for
secondary memory takes more immediate use.
time due to mechanical or • It acts like a large storage space
electronic processes involved in where you can keep your files,
accessing the storage medium. documents, and other data for
long-term storage.
4. Various Types of Secondary Memory:
2. Slower but Larger Capacity:
• Common types of secondary
memory devices include HDDs, • Secondary memory is slower
SSDs, optical drives (CD/DVD), compared to the primary memory
USB flash drives, and external (RAM). It takes more time to
hard drives. access the stored information.
• These devices offer different • However, it offers a much larger
storage technologies, capacities, storage capacity, allowing you to
and transfer rates. store a significant amount of data,
including files, programs, and
5. Persistent Storage: media.

• Unlike primary memory, which

3. Large, Slow, and Inexpensive:
loses its contents when the
computer is powered off, • Secondary memory devices are
secondary memory retains the designed to provide large storage
stored information even during capacities at a lower cost.
power cycles. • They may be physically larger in
• This makes it suitable for long- size compared to primary memory,
term storage and data archiving. and their access time is slower
due to mechanical or electronic
Secondary memory is an essential component of
processes involved in reading and
computer systems, providing the ability to store
writing data.
and access large amounts of data over an
 4. Non-Volatile Storage: In simpler terms:

• Unlike primary memory, which 1. Storage Medium:

loses its contents when the power
• Magnetic disks are flat, circular
is switched off, secondary memory
disks made of metal or glass.
is non-volatile. This means that
• The disk surface is coated with a
the data stored in secondary
special magnetic material that can
memory remains intact even when
store data.
the power is turned off or the
computer is restarted.
2. Spinning Disks:

5. Examples of Secondary Storage: • Magnetic disks have one or more

spinning disks, also known as
• Examples of secondary memory
platters.
devices include magnetic disks
• The disks rotate rapidly while the
(like hard disk drives), magnetic
computer is in operation.
tapes, and optical disks (like CDs,
DVDs, and Blu-ray discs).
3. Data Storage:
• These devices provide long-term
storage options, allowing you to • The magnetic coating on the disk
store and retrieve your data even surface allows data to be stored as
when it's not actively used by the magnetic patterns.
computer. • The patterns represent the binary
information of zeros and ones that
In summary, secondary memory or auxiliary
make up your files, documents,
memory serves as backup storage with larger
and other data.
capacities but slower access times. It is used to
store data that is not currently in use, providing
4. Read and Write Heads:
a reliable and non-volatile storage option for
long-term retention of files and information. • To access and modify the data on
the disks, magnetic disks use read
and write heads.
MAGNETIC DISK
• These heads are like tiny
electronic arms that move above
Magnetic disks are a type of secondary storage
the disk's surface to read or write
device commonly used for long-term data storage
the magnetic patterns.
in computers. They consist of one or more
spinning disks coated with a magnetic material.
5. Non-Volatile Storage:

• Magnetic disks are non-volatile,

meaning they retain the stored
data even when the power is
turned off.
• This makes them suitable for long-
term storage of your files and
information.

6. High Capacity and Relatively Lower Cost:

 • Magnetic disks offer large storage 2. Portable and Removable:
capacities, allowing you to store a
• Floppy disks were small and
significant amount of data,
lightweight, making them easy to
including operating systems,
carry around.
programs, documents, and
• They were designed to be inserted
multimedia files.
into floppy disk drives in
• They are also relatively more cost-
computers for reading and writing
effective compared to other
data.
storage technologies.
3. Low Storage Capacity:
Magnetic disks, such as hard disk drives (HDDs),
• Floppy disks had a relatively small
are widely used in computers and provide a
storage capacity compared to
reliable and cost-effective means of long-term
modern storage devices.
data storage. They store data as magnetic
• The most common type, the 3.5-
patterns on spinning disks and allow for random
inch floppy disk, could store
access to the stored information. These disks have
around 1.44 megabytes (MB) of
high capacities, making them suitable for storing
data.
large amounts of data over an extended period.

4. Limited Lifespan:
• FLOPPY DISK
• Floppy disks were susceptible to
• HARD DISK damage from dust, heat, and
magnetic fields.
FLOPPY DISK • The magnetic coating could
degrade over time, causing data
Floppy Disk: In Simpler Terms: A floppy disk is a loss.
small, portable storage device that was commonly
used in the past to store and transfer small Hard Disk:
amounts of data. It has a flexible magnetic disk
In Simpler Terms: A hard disk is a primary
inside a protective casing.
storage device in computers that provides a large
In Detail: A floppy disk, also known as a floppy amount of long-term storage. It consists of rigid
or diskette, is a thin, flat storage medium made magnetic disks inside a sealed casing and is used
of a flexible magnetic disk enclosed in a to store the operating system, programs, and user
protective plastic casing. Here are some key data.
points about floppy disks:
In Detail: A hard disk, also known as a hard
1. Data Storage: drive or HDD (Hard Disk Drive), is a non-
• Floppy disks were used to store removable storage device that stores and retrieves
and transfer data, such as digital information. Here are some key points
documents, images, and software, about hard disks:
in the early days of personal 1. Data Storage:
computers.
• Hard disks are used to store
• The magnetic coating on the disk's
various types of data, including
surface stores data as magnetic
the operating system, software
patterns.
applications, documents, photos,
videos, and more.
 • Data is stored on rigid, circular OPTICAL DISK
magnetic disks called platters.

In Simpler Terms: An optical disk is a storage

2. Large Storage Capacity:
medium that uses laser beam technology to read
• Hard disks provide high storage and write data. It is a compact, lightweight, and
capacities, typically ranging from durable disk that can store large amounts of data.
several hundred gigabytes (GB) to
In Detail: An optical disk, also known as a laser
several terabytes (TB) or more.
disk or optical laser disk, is a storage medium
• This allows users to store a vast
that uses laser technology for recording and
amount of data on their
reading data. Here are some key points about
computers.
optical disks:

3. Fast Data Access:

• Hard disks offer fast access to

stored data due to the high
rotational speed of the platters
and the use of read/write heads.
• The read/write heads move rapidly
over the spinning platters to read
or write data.

4. Installed Internally:

• Hard disks are installed inside the

computer as a permanent storage
solution.
• They connect to the computer's
motherboard and are usually 1. Laser Beam Technology:
housed in a sealed casing. • Optical disks use laser beams to
record and retrieve data. The laser
5. Reliability and Longevity: beam interacts with a special layer
• Hard disks are designed for long- on the disk's surface to create
term use and are more resistant to patterns representing data.
damage compared to floppy disks.
• However, they are still susceptible 2. Storage Capacity :-
to mechanical failures, such as • Optical disks have the ability to
head crashes or motor failures. store extremely large amounts of
Hard disks have become the primary storage data in a limited space.
medium in modern computers due to their large • The most popular optical disk
storage capacity, fast data access, and reliability. format, such as CD (Compact
They provide ample space for storing the Disc), typically has a storage
operating system, software applications, and user capacity of around 650 megabytes
data, ensuring quick and efficient access to stored (MB) or more.
information.
3. Access Times :-
 • Access times for optical disks, TYPES OF OPTICAL DISK
referring to the time it takes to
retrieve data, typically range from Here are the types of optical disks defined in
100 to 300 milliseconds. simpler terms:
• This is slower compared to hard 1. Compact Disc (CD) :-
disks, which have access times in
• CDs are a popular type of optical
the range of 10 to 30
disk used for storing and playing
milliseconds.
audio, as well as data files.
• They are often used for music
4. Applications :-
albums, software distribution, and
• Optical disks became popular for backup storage.
storing music, movies, and • CDs have a standard storage
software programs due to their capacity of around 650 megabytes
compact size and the ability to (MB) or more.
distribute digital content.
• They provide a minimum of 650 2. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) :-
MB of data storage, which is
• DVDs are similar to CDs but offer
suitable for various multimedia
larger storage capacities.
applications.
• They are commonly used for
storing movies, video games,
5. Advantages of Optical Disks :-
software applications, and other
• Optical disks have a low cost-per- multimedia content.
bit of storage, making them an • DVDs can have storage capacities
economical choice for storing large ranging from 4.7 gigabytes (GB)
amounts of data. for single-layer discs to 8.5 GB for
• They are considered more reliable dual-layer discs.
than magnetic tapes or disks
because they don't have 3. Blu-ray Disc (BD) :-
mechanical read/write heads that
• Blu-ray discs are the latest optical
can cause damage.
disc format, offering even higher
• Optical disks have a long data
storage capacities and improved
storage life, exceeding 30 years,
data transfer rates.
making them suitable for data
• They are commonly used for high-
archiving purposes.
definition movies, gaming
In summary, optical disks use laser beam consoles, and large data backups.
technology to store and retrieve data. They offer • Blu-ray discs have storage
high storage densities, making them suitable for capacities ranging from 25 GB for
music, movies, software programs, and other single-layer discs to 100 GB for
digital content. Optical disks are compact, triple-layer discs.
lightweight, durable, and provide a cost-effective
In summary, the types of optical disks include
solution for storing large amounts of data over a
CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. CDs are used for
long period.
audio and data storage, DVDs offer larger storage
capacities for multimedia content, and Blu-ray
discs provide even higher capacities for high-
definition movies and large data backups. These
optical disk formats have varying storage • Magnetic tape is used for storing
capacities to meet different storage needs. large amounts of data, typically in
the gigabyte range.
• It is a cost-effective storage
MAGNETIC TAPE
solution, making it suitable for
both mainframe computers and
Magnetic tape is a type of storage medium that
microcomputers.
consists of a long plastic ribbon, typically ½ inch
or ¼ inch wide and ranging from 50 to 2400 feet
5. Disadvantages:
long. Here are some key points about magnetic
tape: • Due to its sequential access
nature, searching for specific data
1. Data Storage:
on magnetic tape can be time-
• Magnetic tape is coated with a consuming.
material containing iron oxide, • Reading or writing data can only
which can store data in the form be done in a linear manner, which
of binary digits (zeros and ones). limits its usability for random
• Data is recorded and read using access purposes.
the same techniques as disk
In summary, magnetic tape is a plastic ribbon
systems.
coated with iron oxide used for storing data. It
offers a cost-effective solution for storing large
2. Sequential Access:
amounts of information. However, accessing data
• Magnetic tape is accessed on magnetic tape is sequential, making it less
sequentially, meaning data is read suitable for random access or quick searching
or compared to other storage technologies.

• CODE OPTIMIZATION
3.
• Code optimization is a phase in
the compilation process that aims
to improve the efficiency, speed,
and overall performance of the
generated code. It focuses on
transforming the code to produce
an optimized version while
preserving its original
functionality.written in a linear
order from one end to the other.
• Searching for specific data or
accessing data randomly is more
challenging compared to other
storage devices.

4. Usage and Advantages:

CHAPTER FOUR SYSTEM BUS

REGISTER TRANSFER AND MICRO In simple terms, a system bus is like a highway
OPERATION that allows different parts of a computer to
communicate with each other. It is a pathway
REGISTERS that enables the transfer of data and control
signals between the CPU, memory, and other
Registers can be thought of as small, ultra-fast
hardware components.
storage units within a computer's central
processing unit (CPU). They are like temporary Here's a brief explanation of a system bus :-
storage spaces where the CPU can quickly access • Think of a system bus as a road that
and work with data or instructions. connects various important locations in a
Here's a closer look at registers :- computer, like the CPU, memory, and
input/output devices.
• Imagine you have a small desk with
drawers right next to you while you're
• It consists of multiple electrical wires or
working on a project. These drawers are
traces that act as communication
your registers.
channels.
• Each register can hold a small amount of
information, such as numbers or
• The system bus carries different types of
instructions.
information, such as instructions, data,
• Registers are built directly into the CPU,
and control signals, between the
making them extremely fast to access.
components.
• The CPU uses registers to store data that
it needs to perform calculations or make
• It allows the CPU to fetch instructions
decisions.
from memory, send and receive data, and
• Instead of retrieving data from the
control the flow of operations.
computer's main memory, which is
slower, the CPU can quickly retrieve data
• The system bus is responsible for
from registers to perform operations.
coordinating and synchronizing the
• Registers are also used to temporarily
activities of different components in the
store intermediate results during
computer.
computations.
• Registers help speed up the overall
• It ensures that data is transferred
performance of the computer by reducing
accurately and in the correct sequence.
the need to access slower memory
locations.
• The width of the system bus, measured in
In summary, registers are like small, lightning- bits, determines how much data can be
fast storage units within the CPU. They allow the transferred at once. A wider bus allows
CPU to quickly access and work with data or for faster data transfer.
instructions, improving the speed and efficiency
of computations. Think of them as handy drawers • The system bus operates at a specific
right next to you while you're working on a clock speed, which defines how fast data
project, providing quick access to the information can be transmitted.
you need.
In summary, a system bus is like a
communication highway in a computer,
connecting the CPU, memory, and other
hardware components. It enables the transfer of data being transferred. The control bus manages
data, instructions, and control signals between operations such as reading or writing data,
these components, ensuring efficient coordination initiating specific actions, or signaling when a
and operation of the computer system. task is complete. It helps ensure that the data is
processed correctly and that the computer
functions smoothly.
TYPES OF SYSTEM BUSES
By understanding the role of each bus, we gain
In a computer system, different components need insight into how data and instructions are
to communicate and exchange information to exchanged within a computer system. The address
perform tasks effectively. The system bus is like a bus guides the CPU to the right location, the
network of interconnected roads that facilitates data bus carries the actual information, and the
this communication. It consists of three main control bus manages and regulates the flow of
buses: the address bus, data bus, and control bus. data and instructions. Together, these buses form
Each bus has a specific role in enabling the flow the backbone of communication and coordination
of information and coordinating the activities of within a computer.
various components. Understanding these buses is
essential to comprehend how data and
REGISTER TRANSFER
instructions are transferred within a computer.
Register transfer refers to the movement of data
Let's explore each of these buses in simpler
between different registers within a computer
terms.
processor or between a register and another
Address Bus :- The address bus is like the road component. In simpler terms, it is like
signs or addresses that help the computer locate transferring information from one storage location
specific information. It is a pathway through to another within the computer.
which the CPU sends signals indicating the
Registers are small, fast storage locations within
memory location or device it wants to
the processor that hold temporary data during the
communicate with. Imagine it as a set of
execution of instructions. They are used to store
directions guiding the CPU to the right
operands (data to be processed) and results of
destination. The address bus allows the CPU to
calculations.
access and interact with the memory or external
devices by specifying the exact location where During register transfer, data is moved from one
data or instructions are stored. register to another through designated paths
within the processor. This transfer can involve
Data Bus :- The data bus is like a busy highway
operations such as copying the contents of one
where information travels between different parts
register to another, adding or subtracting values,
of the computer. It serves as a pathway for
or performing logical operations.
actual data transfer. Just like cars traveling on a
road, data moves through the data bus. It can be Register transfer is an essential part of executing
numbers, text, images, or any other form of instructions in a computer. It allows the processor
information that needs to be processed, stored, or to access and manipulate data quickly, which is
sent to output devices. The data bus ensures that crucial for performing computations and making
data can flow between components like the CPU, decisions.
memory, and input/output devices.
By transferring data between registers, the
Control Bus: Think of the control bus as the processor can perform arithmetic calculations,
traffic signals or commands that regulate the flow logical operations, comparisons, and other tasks
of data and coordinate the activities of different required by the program being executed. Register
computer components. It carries control signals transfer enables efficient data processing and
that instruct the computer on how to handle the
helps ensure that the computer performs tasks handling and reduces the overhead associated
accurately and in a timely manner. with transferring data one unit at a time.

Overall, register transfer is the process of moving Memory transfer is a fundamental operation in
data between registers within the processor, computer systems as it enables the CPU to
enabling the computer to perform computations retrieve instructions and data necessary for
and carry out instructions. It plays a vital role in program execution. It plays a crucial role in the
the efficient functioning of a computer system. overall performance and functionality of a
computer by facilitating the storage and retrieval
BUS AND MEMORY TRANSFER
of data during program execution.

Bus: In the context of computer architecture, a In simpler terms, bus provides a pathway for
bus refers to a communication pathway that different computer components to communicate,
allows different components of a computer system while memory transfer involves the movement of
to exchange data and signals. It is like a highway data between the CPU and the computer's main
that connects various parts of a computer, memory, ensuring that the necessary information
enabling them to communicate and transfer is accessible for processing and execution.
information with each other.

Think of a bus as a shared pathway that multiple

devices, such as the CPU, memory, and
input/output devices, can use to send and receive
data. It serves as a medium through which these
components can communicate and coordinate
their activities.

A bus consists of multiple lines or wires, each

with a specific purpose. For example, there may
be lines dedicated to transferring data, addressing
memory locations, controlling operations, and
managing timing signals. These lines carry
electrical signals that represent binary data and
instructions.

Memory Transfer: Memory transfer refers to the

process of reading data from or writing data to
the computer's main memory (RAM). It involves
the movement of data between the processor
(CPU) and the memory modules.

When the CPU needs to access data from

memory, it sends a memory request through the
bus, specifying the memory location from which
it wants to read or write. The memory controller
receives this request and accesses the
corresponding memory cell, retrieving or storing
the data.

During memory transfer, data is transferred in

chunks or blocks, rather than individual bits or
bytes. This allows for more efficient data
CHAPTER FIVE and execute. Different processors may have
different instruction sets, tailored to specific
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN application domains or performance requirements.

Overall, instruction codes are the building blocks

INSTRUCTION CODES of program execution in a computer system. They
provide the means for performing various
Instruction codes, also known as opcodes, are a
operations and control flow in a structured and
fundamental part of computer architecture and
efficient manner, enabling the execution of
represent the instructions that a processor can
complex tasks and the realization of
execute. They define the specific operations to be
computational tasks performed by a computer.
performed by the processor, such as arithmetic
calculations, data manipulation, branching, and
input/output operations. INSTRUCTION FORMATS

In a computer system, instructions are stored in Instruction formats define the structure and
memory as binary patterns that are recognized organization of instructions in a computer's
and executed by the processor. Each instruction instruction set architecture (ISA). Different
code corresponds to a specific operation or set of instruction formats are designed to accommodate
operations that the processor can carry out. The various types of operands and operations. They
instruction codes are designed to be easily dictate how the instructions are encoded and
interpreted and executed by the processor's decoded by the processor. Here, we will discuss
control unit. four common instruction formats: three-address
instructions, two-address instructions, one-address
An instruction code typically consists of two
instructions, and zero-address instructions.
parts: the opcode and the operand(s). The opcode
specifies the operation to be performed, while the 1. Three-Address Instruction: In a three-
operand(s) provide the necessary data or address address instruction format, an instruction
for the operation. The operands can be registers, can operate on three operands. The
memory locations, or immediate values. instruction typically consists of an opcode
(operation code) and three operand fields,
Different instruction codes have different formats
where each operand represents a memory
depending on the computer architecture. Some
location or a register. This format allows
instruction codes may have fixed lengths, while
for complex operations involving multiple
others may have variable lengths. The format of
operands. Three-address instructions are
the instruction code determines how the opcode
often found in high-level programming
and operands are encoded and interpreted by the
languages and allow for more expressive
processor.
and flexible programming.
Instruction codes are designed to be efficient,
For example, a three-address instruction "ADD X,
compact, and easily decoded by the processor.
Y, Z" adds the values stored in memory locations
They are optimized to minimize the number of
or registers X and Y and stores the result in
instructions required to perform complex
memory location or register Z.
operations and to make efficient use of the
processor's resources, such as registers and 2. Two-Address Instruction: In a two-address
memory. instruction format, an instruction can
operate on two operands. The instruction
The set of instruction codes supported by a
consists of an opcode and two operand
processor is referred to as the instruction set
fields. The first operand represents a
architecture (ISA). The ISA defines the repertoire
source, and the second operand represents
of instructions that a processor can understand
a destination. The result of the operation
 is stored in the destination operand. Two- STACK ORGANIZATION
address instructions are commonly used in
many computer architectures and provide In computer architecture, stack organization is a
a balance between flexibility and data structure that follows the Last-In-First-Out
simplicity. (LIFO) principle. It is used for efficient memory
management and control flow in a computer
For example, a two-address instruction "MOV X, system. The stack allows for the dynamic
Y" copies the value from source memory location allocation and deallocation of memory and
or register Y to destination memory location or provides a convenient way to store and retrieve
register X. data.
3. One-Address Instruction: In a one-address 1. Stack Organization: In stack organization,
instruction format, an instruction operates memory is divided into regions called
on only one operand. The instruction stacks. Each stack has a stack pointer that
typically contains an opcode and a single keeps track of the top of the stack. Data
operand field. The operand represents is pushed onto the stack and popped off
either a memory location or a register. the stack using specific instructions or
One-address instructions are less common operations. The stack grows and shrinks
in modern computer architectures but dynamically as data is pushed and
were used in early computer systems. popped.
For example, a one-address instruction "INC X" 2. Register Stack: A register stack is a type
increments the value stored in memory location of stack organization where the stack is
or register X by one. implemented using registers within the
4. Zero-Address Instruction: In a zero-address processor. The registers act as stack
instruction format, an instruction does not locations, and the stack pointer points to
explicitly specify any operands. The the top of the register stack. Register
instruction contains only an opcode, and stacks are commonly used in some
the operands are implicitly determined by processors to store temporary data or
the instruction itself or the processor's function call information. The advantage
internal state. Zero-address instructions of using register stacks is that accessing
are often used in stack-based data from registers is faster than accessing
architectures, where operands are accessed data from memory.
from the top of the stack. 3. Memory Stack: A memory stack, also
For example, a zero-address instruction "ADD" known as a hardware stack or a call
would perform an addition operation on the top stack, is a type of stack organization that
two values on the stack. uses the main memory to store the stack
data. The stack pointer points to the top
Each instruction format has its advantages and is
of the stack in memory, and data is
suited for different types of operations and
pushed and popped from this memory
programming paradigms. The choice of instruction
location. The memory stack is typically
format depends on factors such as the
used for storing local variables, function
architecture's design goals, the complexity of the
call information, and return addresses in
instruction set, and the intended application of
program execution.
the computer system.
The memory stack is commonly used for
managing program execution flow, including
function calls, subroutine jumps, and exception
handling. Each time a function is called or a
subroutine is executed, the necessary information that points to the location where the
is pushed onto the stack, such as the return actual data is stored. When the instruction
address, function arguments, and local variables. is executed, the processor first retrieves
When the function or subroutine completes, the the memory address from the specified
information is popped off the stack, and the location and then retrieves the data from
program execution continues from the return that memory address.
address.
For example, consider an instruction "LOAD A,
The stack organization provides a convenient and (2000)" which loads the value from the memory
efficient way to manage data and control flow in location pointed to by the value stored at
a computer system. It allows for the dynamic memory location 2000 into register A. In this
allocation of memory, supports nested function case, the value at memory location 2000 is a
calls and subroutine execution, and facilitates the pointer or address that indicates the actual
proper handling of program execution flow. Both memory location where the data is stored. The
register stacks and memory stacks play important processor first retrieves the pointer value from
roles in optimizing program performance and memory location 2000 and then retrieves the data
memory management in different computer from the pointed memory address.
architectures.
Indirect addressing allows for more flexible
memory access because it enables the use of
ADDRESSING MODE pointers and dynamic memory locations. It is
often used in cases where the memory address is
Addressing modes determine how the operands of
not known in advance or needs to be dynamically
an instruction are accessed in a computer's
determined during program execution.
memory. Two common addressing modes are
direct addressing and indirect addressing. Both direct and indirect addressing modes have
their own advantages and uses depending on the
1. Direct Addressing: In direct addressing
specific requirements of a program or instruction.
mode, the operand of an instruction is
directly specified by its memory address.
The instruction contains the actual REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER (RISC)
memory address where the data is
RISC instructions, or Reduced Instruction Set
located. When the instruction is executed,
Computer instructions, are the individual
the processor retrieves the data directly
operations that a RISC processor can perform.
from that memory location. Direct
They are designed to be simple and efficient,
addressing is straightforward and efficient
focusing on basic operations that can be executed
for accessing data that is stored at a
quickly by the processor.
known, fixed memory address.
Here are a few key points about RISC
For example, consider an instruction "LOAD A,
instructions:
2000" which loads the value from memory
location 2000 into register A. Here, the memory 1. Simplified instructions: RISC instructions
address 2000 is directly specified in the are designed to be straightforward and
instruction, and the processor retrieves the data easy to execute. They typically perform
from that location. basic arithmetic and logical operations,
such as addition, subtraction,
2. Indirect Addressing: In indirect addressing
multiplication, division, and comparisons.
mode, the operand of an instruction is
not the actual memory address but a 2. Fixed instruction format: RISC instructions
pointer to the memory address. The have a fixed length and follow a
instruction contains a memory address consistent format. This makes them easier
 to decode and execute, as the processor load and store instructions to move data
knows in advance the structure and size between memory and the processor's
of each instruction. registers.

3. Limited addressing modes: RISC 3. Operations within the CPU: Most

instructions typically have fewer calculations and operations are performed
addressing modes compared to complex within the registers of the processor itself.
instruction set computers (CISC). They This reduces the need to access memory
often rely on load and store instructions frequently, making the operations faster.
to access data in memory, keeping the
4. Fixed length instructions: RISC instructions
instruction set simple and reducing the
have a fixed length and are designed to
complexity of memory access.
be easily decoded by the processor. This
4. Register-based operations: RISC helps in improving the efficiency of
instructions frequently operate on data instruction fetching and decoding.
stored in registers within the processor.
5. Single cycle instruction execution: Each
This reduces the need to access memory
instruction in a RISC computer is typically
frequently, as data can be processed
executed in a single clock cycle, which
within the processor itself.
makes the execution faster and more
5. Single-cycle execution: Each RISC predictable.
instruction is designed to be executed in a
6. Hard-wired control: The control unit of a
single clock cycle, allowing for faster
RISC computer is implemented using
processing and predictable instruction
hard-wired logic instead of microcode.
timing.
This simplifies the control unit and
Overall, RISC instructions prioritize simplicity and improves the overall performance.
speed, aiming to execute basic operations
7. More registers: RISC processors have a
efficiently within a single clock cycle. This design
relatively larger number of registers
philosophy enables RISC processors to achieve
available for storing data. This reduces
faster execution and better performance in many
the need for accessing memory frequently,
computing tasks
leading to faster execution.
A Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) is a
8. Overlapped register windows: RISC
type of computer architecture that focuses on
processors use a technique called
simplicity and efficiency. It is designed to have a
overlapped register windows to speed up
smaller and simpler set of instructions compared
procedure calls and returns. This allows
to older computer designs called Complex
for efficient switching between different
Instruction Set Computers (CISC).
parts of a program.
Here are the key characteristics of RISC
9. Efficient instruction pipeline: RISC
architecture explained in simpler terms:
computers often have an efficient
1. Fewer instructions: RISC computers have a instruction pipeline, which means that
smaller number of instructions that the multiple instructions can be in different
processor can understand and execute. stages of execution simultaneously. This
This helps in simplifying the design and helps in achieving higher performance by
implementation of the hardware. overlapping instruction execution.

2. Limited addressing modes: RISC computers 10.Compiler support: RISC architecture is

have fewer ways to access and manipulate well-suited for compiler optimizations.
data stored in memory. They mainly use Compilers can efficiently translate high-
 level language programs into machine providing flexibility in addressing memory
language programs that can be executed locations and operands.
by RISC processors, resulting in improved
4. Variable length instruction formats: Unlike
performance.
RISC instructions, which have a fixed
Overall, RISC architecture aims to provide a length, CISC instructions can have
simpler and more efficient way of processing variable lengths. This allows for more
instructions, leading to faster execution and complex and flexible instructions but can
improved performance for various computing also introduce challenges in instruction
tasks. decoding and execution.

5. Memory operations: CISC instructions

CISC INSTRUCTION often include operations that directly
manipulate operands in memory. This
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) allows for more flexible data handling but
instructions are a type of instruction set can also result in more memory accesses,
architecture used in certain computer processors. potentially impacting performance.
CISC processors are characterized by their
CISC instructions aim to provide a rich set of
extensive set of instructions, including specialized
instructions and flexible addressing modes to
instructions for specific tasks. Unlike RISC
handle a wide range of computational tasks. They
(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors,
are often associated with older processor
which prioritize simplicity and speed, CISC
architectures and legacy systems. However,
processors aim to provide a wide range of
modern processors often incorporate elements of
complex instructions to handle various
both CISC and RISC designs, combining the
computational tasks efficiently.
advantages of both approaches to achieve optimal
Here are a few key points about CISC performance and compatibility.
instructions:

1. Extensive instruction set: CISC processors

have a large number of instructions,
typically ranging from 100 to 250
instructions. These instructions cover a
wide range of operations and allow for
more complex tasks to be performed in a
single instruction.

2. Specialized instructions: CISC instructions

include specialized operations that are
designed to handle specific tasks
efficiently. These specialized instructions
are often used infrequently but can
greatly simplify complex operations when
needed.

3. Multiple addressing modes: CISC

processors support a variety of addressing
modes, which define how operands are
accessed and manipulated. These modes
can range from 5 to 20 different options,
CHAPTER SEVEN • Device controllers manage the
communication protocols, data
INPUT OUTPUT ORGANIZATION formatting, and timing required
for proper interaction between the
In Simpler Terms: Input/output (I/O) organization computer and the device interrupts
refers to how a computer system communicates es.
with external devices, such as keyboards, mice,
printers, and storage devices. It involves the 4. I/O Channels :-
processes of sending and receiving data between
• I/O channels serve as pathways for
the computer and these devices.
data transfer between the
In Detail: Input/output organization is a crucial computer and the external devices.
aspect of computer systems that deals with the • These channels can be physical
communication between the computer and connections or virtual interfaces,
external devices. Here are some key points about depending on the specific
I/O organization :- hardware and system architecture.

1. External Devices:
5. I/O Operations :-
• External devices include various
• I/O operations include reading
peripherals connected to the
data from devices, writing data to
computer, such as keyboards,
devices, and controlling device
mice, displays, printers, scanners,
functions.
and storage devices.
• These operations are coordinated
• These devices allow users to input
by the computer's operating
data (e.g., typing on a keyboard)
system and the software running
and receive output (e.g., viewing
on it.
information on a display).

6. Interrupts and Polling :-

2. Data Transfer :-
• I/O organization involves
• I/O organization involves the
techniques such as and polling to
transfer of data between the
manage the flow of data between
computer's memory and the
the computer and devices.
external devices.

• Interrupts allow devices to signal

• Data can be transferred in both
the computer when they require
directions: from the computer to
attention, while polling involves
the devices (output) and from the
the computer regularly checking
devices to the computer (input).
the status of devices.

3. Device Controllers :- Effective I/O organization is essential for smooth

communication between the computer and
• Each external device is typically
external devices. It ensures efficient data transfer,
connected to a device controller,
synchronization, and control over the connected
which acts as an intermediary
peripherals. By managing the flow of information,
between the device and the
the I/O organization enables users to interact
computer.
with the computer and facilitates various tasks,
ranging from simple data input to complex
printing or data storage operations.
PERIPHERAL DEVICES to handling peripheral
communication.
In Simpler Terms: Peripheral devices are external
devices connected to a computer, such as
4. Importance of I/O :-
keyboards, displays, printers, and more. They
allow users to input information into the • The I/O subsystem is crucial as it
computer and receive output. The I/O enables data and programs to be
organization of a computer refers to how it entered into the computer for
communicates with these external devices to processing and results to be
exchange data and perform tasks. displayed or recorded.

In Detail: Peripheral devices are external devices

• Without I/O, a computer would
that enhance the functionality of a computer
have limited usability since it
system. Here are some key points about
needs to interact with the external
peripheral devices and I/O organization :-
environment and exchange
1. Examples of Peripherals :- information.

• Peripherals include devices like

5. I/O Modules and Interfaces :-
keyboards, displays (monitors),
printers, scanners, mice, speakers, • Peripheral devices connect to the
and storage devices. computer through I/O modules,
also known as interfaces.
• Keyboards are used for inputting
text and commands, displays show • These modules facilitate the
visual output, and printers exchange of control signals, status
produce physical copies of information, and data between the
documents. computer and the peripherals.

2. Input and Output Organization :- 6. Peripheral Devices:

• I/O organization is about how the • Peripheral devices are often

computer system interacts with referred to as peripherals.
peripheral devices for data input
and output. • They provide additional
functionality to the computer
• It involves managing the system by offering various input
communication protocols, data and output capabilities.
transfer, and control between the
Effective I/O organization and the use of
computer and the peripherals.
peripheral devices allow users to interact with the
computer system, input data, and receive
3. System Size and Peripheral Connections :-
meaningful output. These devices expand the
• The I/O organization depends on capabilities of the computer and facilitate tasks
the size of the computer system such as data entry, information display, and
and the number of peripheral document printing. The I/O subsystem ensures
devices connected to it. efficient communication between the central
system and the external environment, enabling
• Larger computer systems have users to interact with the computer effectively.
more hardware resources dedicated
INPUT OUTPUT INTERFACES 3. Resolving Differences :-

In Simpler Terms: Input/output (I/O) interfaces • Peripheral devices often have

provide a way for the computer to transfer different data formats,

information between its internal storage and communication protocols, and

external devices. When peripherals are connected timing requirements compared to

to the computer, they need a special the computer.

communication link to interact with the central

processing unit (CPU). These communication links • The I/O interface acts as a

are called I/O interfaces , and they help bridge mediator, translating the signals

the gap between the computer and each and data formats used by the

peripheral device. computer to a format that the

peripheral device understands, and
In Detail: I/O interfaces and peripheral units play vice versa.
a vital role in enabling communication between
the computer and external devices. Here are some 4. Peripheral Units :-
key points about I/O interfaces and peripheral
units :- • Peripheral units refer to the
individual external devices
1. I/O Interfaces: connected to the computer, such
• I/O interfaces are components that as keyboards, displays, printers,
facilitate the transfer of data and scanners, and more.
commands between the computer's
internal storage and external • Each peripheral unit requires a
peripheral devices. specific I/O interface to establish
communication with the computer.
• They serve as communication
links, allowing the computer's 5. Function and Interaction :-
central processing unit (CPU) to • The I/O interface manages the
interact with each connected exchange of control signals, status
peripheral device. information, and data between the
computer and the connected
2. Purpose of Communication Link :- peripheral units.
• The communication link provided
by the I/O interfaces helps • It ensures that commands are
overcome the differences that exist properly transmitted from the
between the computer and each computer to the peripherals, and
peripheral device. that data from the peripherals is
received and processed by the
• Each peripheral device has its own computer.
unique characteristics and By providing specialized communication links, I/O
requirements, and the I/O interfaces enable the computer to interact with
interface ensures that the various peripheral devices efficiently. They ensure
computer can communicate with that data and commands can be exchanged
them effectively. between the computer's internal storage and the
external devices. Each peripheral unit is
connected to the computer through a specific I/O
interface, which facilitates the proper
communication and coordination between the • In interrupt-driven I/O, the I/O
computer and the peripherals. device interrupts the CPU to signal
that it requires attention.

INPUT OUTPUT TECHNIQUES (DATA

• When the CPU receives an
TRANSFER MODE )
interrupt signal, it suspends its
Introduction: it comes to transferring data current operations and responds to
between the computer and external devices, the device's request.
different techniques can be used. These
techniques determine how the data is transferred • The CPU transfers data between
and how the computer manages the I/O the I/O device and the computer's
operations. memory without continuously
checking the device's status.
In Detail:

1. Programmed I/O: In Simpler Terms: • This technique reduces CPU

Programmed I/O is a technique where the overhead and allows the CPU to
CPU actively controls the data transfer perform other tasks while waiting
between the computer and external for the I/O device.
devices by repeatedly checking the status
of the I/O device. 3. Direct Memory Access (DMA): In Simpler
Terms: Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a
In Detail: technique where the I/O device transfers
• In programmed I/O, the CPU data directly to and from the computer's
initiates and manages each step of memory without involving the CPU,
the I/O operation. freeing up the CPU for other operations.

In Detail:
• The CPU sends commands to the
I/O device, waits for the device to • DMA is a more efficient technique
complete the operation, and then for transferring large amounts of
transfers data between the device data between the I/O device and
and the computer's memory. memory.
• With DMA, the I/O device takes
• It involves repeatedly checking the control of the system bus and
status of the I/O device, which directly transfers data to or from
can result in slower data transfer the computer's memory without
and high CPU usage. CPU intervention.
• This technique offloads the data
2. Interrupt-Driven I/O: In Simpler Terms: transfer process from the CPU,
Interrupt-driven I/O is a technique where allowing it to focus on other
the I/O device sends a signal to the CPU tasks.
to request attention when it needs to • DMA can significantly improve the
transfer data, reducing the need for speed and efficiency of data
continuous CPU monitoring. transfer, particularly for high-
bandwidth devices like hard drives
In Detail: or network adapters.

In summary, the three I/O techniques are

programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct
memory access (DMA). Programmed I/O involves 5. No direct notification or interruption:
the CPU actively managing each step of the I/O
• The I/O module does not inform
operation. Interrupt-driven I/O allows the I/O
the CPU directly or interrupt it
device to interrupt the CPU when attention is
when the operation is complete.
required. DMA enables direct data transfer
• It is the responsibility of the CPU
between the I/O device and memory without CPU
to periodically check the status
involvement. Each technique offers different levels
bits and act accordingly.
of efficiency and CPU utilization, depending on
the specific I/O requirements and data transfer
needs of the system.
➔ CPU requests I/O operation

➔ I/O module performs operation

Programmed I/O
➔ I/O module sets status bits
With programmed I/O, data exchange occurs ➔ CPU checks status bits periodically
between the CPU and the I/O module. The CPU
executes a program that directly controls the I/O ➔ I/O module does not inform CPU directly
operation. Here's a breakdown of the process :- ➔ I/O module does not interrupt CPU
1. CPU requests I/O operation:

• The CPU initiates the I/O In summary, programmed I/O involves the CPU
operation by sending a command directly controlling the I/O operation. The CPU
to the I/O module, specifying requests the operation, the I/O module performs
whether it's a read or write it, and sets status bits to indicate completion. The
operation. CPU periodically checks the status bits to
determine if the operation is finished. No direct
2. I/O module performs the operation: notification or interruption is provided by the I/O
• The I/O module carries out the module to the CPU, so the CPU must actively
requested operation, such as poll the status to determine when the operation
reading data from or writing data is complete.
to an external device.
I/O COMMANDS
3. I/O module sets status bits:
In I/O operations, the CPU issues specific
• After completing the operation, commands to the I/O module to perform desired
the I/O module sets status bits to actions. Here are the four types of I/O
indicate the completion status or commands:
any error conditions.
1. Control Command:

4. CPU checks status bits periodically: • A control command is used to

activate a peripheral device and
• The CPU periodically checks the
specify what action it should
status bits to determine if the I/O
perform.
operation is complete or if any
• For example, a control command
errors have occurred.
may be used to instruct a
• The CPU must repeatedly poll the
magnetic tape device to rewind or
status bits until it finds that the
move forward to a specific record.
operation is finished.
 2. Test Command: I/O MAPPING
• A test command is used to check
I/O memory mapping refers to the technique of
various status conditions associated
assigning memory addresses to input/output (I/O)
with an I/O module and its
devices within a computer system. It allows the
peripherals.
CPU to interact with I/O devices by treating them
• The CPU can use a test command
as if they were memory locations.
to inquire about the status of a
specific peripheral device. In simpler terms, I/O memory mapping means
• It helps the CPU determine if the that the I/O devices are given specific memory
device is available for use, if the addresses within the computer's address space.
most recent I/O operation has This allows the CPU to access the I/O devices by
completed, and if any errors have reading from and writing to those memory
occurred. addresses, just like it would with regular
memory.
3. Read Command:
By mapping I/O devices to memory addresses, the
• A read command instructs the I/O CPU can use the same memory read and write
module to retrieve an item of data instructions to communicate with both memory
from the peripheral device and and I/O devices. This simplifies the programming
store it in an internal buffer. and makes it easier for the CPU to control and
• The CPU can then request the exchange data with the I/O devices.
data from the I/O module, which
In summary, I/O memory mapping is a technique
places it on the data bus for the
that assigns memory addresses to I/O devices,
CPU to access.
enabling the CPU to communicate with these
devices using memory read and write operations.
4. Write Command:
It provides a unified approach to access both
• A write command directs the I/O memory and I/O devices, simplifying the
module to take an item of data programming and facilitating data transfer
from the data bus and transmit it between the CPU and the I/O devices.
to the peripheral device.
• The CPU places the data on the TYPES OF I/O MAPPING
data bus, and the I/O module
Memory-Mapped I/O:
sends it to the appropriate
peripheral device. • In memory-mapped I/O, the CPU,
main memory, and I/O module
In summary, I/O commands are instructions
share a common address space.
issued by the CPU to the I/O module to control
• This means that both memory
peripheral devices and perform specific actions.
locations and I/O device registers
Control commands activate peripherals and
are assigned unique addresses
specify operations, test commands check status
within the same address space.
conditions, read commands retrieve data from the
• From the CPU's perspective,
peripheral, and write commands transmit data
performing I/O operations is
from the CPU to the peripheral. These commands
similar to reading from or writing
allow the CPU to interact with external devices
to memory.
and control data flow between the computer and
• No special commands are needed
peripherals.
for I/O, and a wide range of
 memory access commands can be INTERRUPT DRIVEN I/O
used.
• It provides a convenient and In a computer system, interrupt-driven I/O is a
flexible approach, as I/O devices technique that allows the CPU to issue an I/O
can be accessed using familiar command to a module and then continue
memory access techniques. executing other instructions while waiting for the
I/O operation to complete. The I/O module, when
2. Isolated I/O: ready to exchange data with the CPU, interrupts
• In isolated I/O, the CPU and I/O the CPU to request service. Here's a breakdown
module have separate address of the process :-
spaces. 1. CPU initiates I/O and continues execution:
• I/O devices are assigned unique
• The CPU sends an I/O command
addresses that are distinct from
to the I/O module and proceeds
memory locations.
with other tasks instead of waiting
• To access I/O devices, specific I/O
for the I/O operation to finish.
or memory select lines are used to
• This approach avoids wasting CPU
differentiate between memory and
time by allowing it to perform
I/O operations.
other computations while the I/O
• Special commands are required for
module carries out its work.
I/O operations, which are typically
a limited set of commands specific
2. I/O module interrupts the CPU:
to I/O.
• Once the I/O module completes its
In summary, memory-mapped I/O and isolated
operation or requires attention
I/O are two different approaches for accessing I/O
from the CPU, it interrupts the
devices in computer systems:
CPU.
• Memory-mapped I/O allows both memory • An interrupt is a signal sent by
locations and I/O device registers to share the I/O module to the CPU,
the same address space. I/O operations indicating that it needs the CPU's
are performed using memory read/write attention.
commands, making it easy to access I/O
devices and utilize a wide range of 3. Execution of interrupt service routine:
memory access commands.
• When the CPU receives the
• Isolated I/O separates the address spaces interrupt signal, it stops the
of the CPU and I/O module. I/O devices current execution and transfers
have their own unique addresses and control to an interrupt service
require specific I/O or memory select lines routine (ISR) specific to the
to differentiate between memory and I/O interrupting device.
operations. Special commands designed for • The ISR performs the necessary
I/O operations are used, offering a limited operations related to the interrupt,
set of commands specific to I/O tasks. such as transferring data between
The choice between memory-mapped I/O and the I/O module and memory.
isolated I/O depends on the specific system
requirements, design considerations, and the level 4. Resume former processing:
of control and flexibility needed for interacting • After the ISR completes its
with I/O devices. execution, the CPU resumes its
 former processing and continues 2. DMA module takes over the data transfer:
with the interrupted program or
• Once the DMA module receives
task.
the command, it takes control of
Interrupts are not limited to I/O operations; they the data transfer process.
are also used in various control applications and • The DMA module directly transfers
operating systems. They enable the transfer of the entire block of data, one word
control from one program to another based on at a time, between the external
events external to the computer. Interrupts help device and the computer's
accurately time the execution of certain routines memory.
relative to external events. • This transfer occurs without
involving the CPU, which is now
In summary, interrupt-driven I/O is a technique
free to perform other tasks.
where the CPU issues an I/O command and
continues executing other instructions. The I/O
3. CPU continues with other work:
module interrupts the CPU when it requires
attention, and the CPU responds by executing an • While the DMA module is
interrupt service routine specific to the transferring the data, the CPU can
interrupting device. Interrupts are signals sent by carry on with other computations
the I/O module to notify the CPU, and they or execute different instructions.
facilitate the coordination and timing of I/O • The CPU is no longer tied up by
operations and other events in a computer the data transfer process, allowing
system. for improved overall performance
and faster operation.
DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DM)
4. DMA completion and CPU involvement:
Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a capability
provided by some computer architectures that • Once the DMA transfer is
allows data to be transferred directly from an complete, the DMA module sends
external device (such as a disk drive) to the an interrupt signal to the CPU to
computer's memory without involving the CPU. notify it of the finished transfer.
This helps improve overall computer performance • The CPU then resumes
by freeing up the CPU from being actively involvement, performing any
involved in the data transfer process. Here's a necessary tasks related to the
breakdown of the process :- completion of the DMA transfer.

1. CPU initiates the DMA transfer: In summary, DMA provides a solution to the
limitations of interrupt-driven and programmed
• When the CPU wants to read from
I/O by allowing data to be transferred directly
or write to a block of data, it
between an external device and the computer's
sends a command to the DMA
memory without continuous CPU intervention.
module.
The CPU initiates the DMA transfer and provides
• The command includes information
the necessary information, and the DMA module
such as whether to read or write,
takes over the data transfer process, freeing up
the device address, the starting
the CPU for other tasks. The CPU is involved
address of the memory block for
only at the beginning and end of the transfer,
data, and the amount of data to
resulting in improved transfer rates and overall
be transferred.
computer performance.
 CHAPTER 8 of tasks, leading to improved performance in
handling complex workloads.
INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL Parallel processing involves performing tasks
PROCESSING concurrently or executing instructions
simultaneously to increase efficiency and speed.
Techniques like instruction pipelining, where
In traditional computer systems, one way to
different stages of an instruction execution
improve performance is by using multiple
overlap, have been used for a long time to
processors that can work together to handle a
achieve parallelism. Computer designers have
workload. The most common organization for
been exploring more opportunities for parallelism
multiple processors is called symmetric
as technology has advanced and hardware costs
multiprocessors (SMPs). In an SMP system,
have decreased.
several similar processors are present within the
same computer and are connected by a bus or In summary, parallel processing involves using
other switching arrangement. multiple processors to handle work
simultaneously, resulting in improved
SMPs stands for Symmetric Multiprocessors. It
performance. Symmetric multiprocessors (SMPs)
refers to a type of computer system organization
and multiprocessor systems allow for the
where multiple similar processors are present
execution of multiple tasks concurrently. Parallel
within the same computer and are interconnected
processing techniques like instruction pipelining
by a bus or some form of switching arrangement.
have been used to increase efficiency. As
In simpler terms, SMPs are computer systems that computer technology has advanced, designers
have multiple processors working together to have sought more ways to leverage parallelism
handle tasks and workload. These processors are for improved performance.
of the same type and have equal capabilities.
They share access to the computer's memory and
PARALLEL PROCESSING
I/O devices, allowing them to work in parallel
and divide the computational workload among Parallel processing, also known as parallel
themselves. computing, refers to a method of solving
The term "symmetric" in SMPs implies that each problems by using multiple processing elements
processor in the system has equal access to simultaneously. It is based on the idea that large
resources and can perform the same tasks as any problems can be divided into smaller ones and
other processor. They typically have their own solved concurrently (in parallel). Here are some
cache memory, which is a fast and local memory, key points about parallel processing:
allowing for efficient data access. • In a parallel processing system, multiple
SMP systems are designed to improve calculations or tasks are carried out
performance by leveraging parallel processing. By simultaneously, allowing for faster
distributing tasks among multiple processors, they execution time.
can handle larger workloads, execute multiple • The system may have two or more
tasks simultaneously, and achieve better overall Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs), which are
system performance. responsible for performing calculations,
and can execute two or more instructions
In summary, SMPs are computer systems with
at the same time.
multiple processors that work together in parallel,
• Additionally, the system may have two or
sharing resources and evenly distributing tasks.
more processors working concurrently,
They enable efficient and simultaneous processing
each handling its own set of tasks.
 • The main goal of parallel processing is to PIPELINING
increase throughput, which refers to the
amount of processing that can be Pipelining is an implementation technique used to
accomplished within a given time interval. improve the efficiency of executing multiple
instructions in a computer system. It involves
Parallel processing can be classified based on
breaking down a task into smaller sub tasks and
various factors :-
performing them in a sequential manner. Each
• The internal organization of the sub task is handled by a specific functional unit
processors: How the processing elements within the system.
within the system are structured and
Imagine you have a long line of toys that need to
interconnected.
be sorted into different boxes. Instead of doing
• The interconnection structure between
one toy at a time, pipelining allows you to divide
processors: The way processors
the task into smaller steps and work on multiple
communicate and share data with each
toys at once.
other.
• The flow of information through the Here's how it works :-
system: How data and instructions are
1. Step 1: Compare the toys to see which
transferred between processors and
box they should go in.
memory.
2. Step 2: Align the toys in a specific way to
• The number of instructions and data items
make it easier to put them in the boxes.
manipulated simultaneously: How many
3. Step 3: Put the toys in the correct boxes.
calculations or data operations can be
4. Step 4: Make sure the toys are neatly
performed concurrently.
arranged in the boxes.
In parallel processing, there are two important
Instead of doing each step for one toy and then
streams :-
moving on to the next, pipelining allows you to
• Instruction stream :- It refers to the do each step for different toys at the same time.
sequence of instructions that are read So, while you are comparing the first toy,
from memory for execution by the someone else can be aligning the second toy, and
processors. another person can be putting the third toy in
• Data stream :- It refers to the operations the box. This way, the work gets done faster
performed on the data within the because everyone is doing their part
processors. simultaneously.

Parallel processing can occur in the instruction In computer terms, pipelining works similarly. It
stream, the data stream, or both, depending on breaks down tasks into smaller steps and allows
the system design and the nature of the problem different parts of the computer to work on those
being solved. steps simultaneously. This helps computers
process information faster and improves their
In summary, parallel processing is a
overall performance.
computational approach that utilizes multiple
processors or processing elements to solve So, pipelining is like sorting toys into different
problems simultaneously. By dividing tasks into boxes by dividing the task into smaller steps and
smaller parts and executing them concurrently, working on them at the same time to get things
parallel processing aims to achieve faster done faster.
execution times and increase overall processing
In the context of arithmetic operations, such as
capacity.
floating-point addition or multiplication of fixed-
point numbers, pipelining is commonly used in
high-speed computers. Here's an example using In summary, pipelining is a technique used to
floating-point addition and subtraction: enhance the efficiency of executing multiple
instructions or performing arithmetic operations.
Inputs:
It involves dividing a task into smaller subtasks
• X and Y are normalized floating-point and processing them in a sequential manner. In
binary numbers, where X = A x 2^a and the context of arithmetic pipelines, operations
Y = B x 2^b. such as floating-point addition and subtraction
• A and B represent the mantissas are broken down into sub-operations and
(fractions), and a and b represent the performed using different segments. This allows
exponents. for concurrent processing of multiple instructions,
leading to improved performance in high-speed
The pipelined arithmetic unit performs the
computers.
following sub-operations using four segments:
INSTRUCTION PIPELINE
1. Compare the exponents:

• The exponents (a and b) are Imagine you have a set of instructions that you
compared to determine the need to follow in order to build a LEGO
appropriate alignment for the structure. Instead of doing one step at a time,
mantissas. you can use an instruction pipeline to speed up
the process.
2. Align the mantissas:
Here's how it works :-
• The mantissas (A and B) are
1. Step 1: Read the first instruction from the
aligned based on the exponent
instruction booklet.
comparison from the previous
2. Step 2: Understand what the instruction is
step, ensuring that they have the
asking you to do.
same exponent for accurate
3. Step 3: Figure out the specific pieces you
computation.
need and where to find them.
3. Add or subtract the mantissas:
4. Step 4: Retrieve the required LEGO pieces
• The aligned mantissas are added from the storage area.
or subtracted based on the specific 5. Step 5: Perform the action instructed by
arithmetic operation (addition or the step, such as connecting two LEGO
subtraction). pieces together.
4. Normalize the result: 6. Step 6: Put the completed part of the
structure in its designated place.
• The computed result is normalized
to ensure proper representation, Now, with an instruction pipeline, you can have
taking into account any carry or multiple people working on different steps
borrow generated during the simultaneously. For example, while one person is
addition or subtraction. reading the next instruction, another person can
be searching for the required LEGO pieces, and
By breaking down the arithmetic operation into
someone else can be connecting the previous
these sub-operations and processing them in a
pieces together. This way, the process is faster
pipeline, multiple instructions can be overlapped
because each person is focused on their specific
in execution. This overlapping allows for
task.
improved performance and increased throughput,
as each segment can work on different In computer terms, an instruction pipeline works
instructions simultaneously. similarly. Instead of processing one instruction at
a time, the computer can fetch (read) the next
instruction while the previous instructions are
being executed in different stages. Each person can be performing the action of the
instruction goes through the following steps: previous puzzle piece, and someone else can be
fetching the instruction, decoding it to understand retrieving the necessary additional pieces. This
what it means, calculating any necessary way, the puzzle is assembled faster because each
addresses, retrieving operands (data) from person is focused on their specific task.
memory, executing the instruction, and storing
In computer terms, a RISC processor pipeline
the result in the appropriate location.
operates similarly. The processor breaks down
By using an instruction pipeline, computers can instructions into different stages and performs
perform these steps simultaneously for different them simultaneously for different instructions.
instructions, which helps to improve overall The stages include fetching instructions from
processing speed and efficiency. memory, decoding them to understand their
meaning, executing or calculating based on the
So, an instruction pipeline is like following a set
instruction, accessing operands from data
of LEGO instructions with multiple people
memory, and storing the result in registers.
working on different steps at the same time,
making the process faster. In a computer, it RISC instructions are designed to be simpler and
allows the CPU to work on multiple instructions of the same length, making them more suitable
simultaneously, fetching, decoding, executing, and for pipelining. Ideally, each stage in the pipeline
storing results, which helps to speed up the takes one clock cycle, allowing the processor to
overall computation. finish one instruction per clock cycle and achieve
an average of one cycle per instruction.

RISC PIPELINE RISC processors are known for their efficient

instruction pipelines, as they can perform
Imagine you are assembling a puzzle, and each
multiple instructions simultaneously, leading to
piece represents a specific task. With a RISC
improved processing speed and efficiency.
(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processor
pipeline, you can work on different puzzle pieces So, a RISC pipeline is like assembling a puzzle by
simultaneously to complete the puzzle faster. working on different puzzle pieces simultaneously.
In a RISC processor, instructions are processed in
Here's how it works :-
stages, allowing for faster execution of
1. Step 1: Fetch the next puzzle piece instructions by performing different steps
(instruction) from a box (memory) that simultaneously. This makes RISC processors
holds all the pieces. efficient in terms of instruction pipelines.
2. Step 2: Look at the puzzle piece and
understand what it's asking you to do. VECTOR PROCESSING
3. Step 3: Perform the action or calculation
instructed by the puzzle piece. Imagine you have a list of numbers that you
4. Step 4: Retrieve any necessary additional need to perform calculations on, such as adding
pieces (operands) from a different box them together. With scalar processing, you would
(data memory). do the calculations one number at a time.
5. Step 5: Put the result of your action or However, with vector processing, you can
calculation back into the puzzle (store the perform calculations on the entire list of numbers
result in a register). all at once.

Now, with a RISC processor pipeline, you can Here's how it works:
have different people working on different puzzle
1. Step 1: Imagine you have a row of
pieces simultaneously. For example, while one
numbers, like [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
person is fetching the next puzzle piece, another
 2. Step 2: Instead of performing calculations
on each number individually, you can
treat the entire row of numbers as a
single entity, like a super number.
3. Step 3: Now you can perform calculations
on this super number, such as adding all
the numbers together in one operation.
4. Step 4: The result will be a new super
number that represents the sum of all the
numbers in the original row.

Vector processing is particularly useful in

scientific applications where large arrays of
numbers, such as vectors and matrices, need to
be processed. It allows for efficient and parallel
computation on these arrays.

In computer terms, a vector processor operates on

arrays of data rather than individual data points.
It can perform operations on multiple data
elements simultaneously, resulting in faster
processing for tasks that involve large datasets or
mathematical calculations.

A vector is simply an ordered set of numbers

arranged in a specific format, such as a row
vector where the numbers are listed horizontally.

So, vector processing is like performing

calculations on a whole row of numbers at once,
treating them as a single entity. In computers,
vector processors excel at performing operations
on arrays of data, leading to faster and more
efficient computation, especially in scientific
applications.