Chapter Two

2. Literature Review

Moideen Kutty et al carried out an investigation through a series of tests using different

vegetable oil extracts for killing adult and larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus (house mosquito).

The population of Culex quinquefasciatus was very high in and around Ellupuram, a village in

Cuddalore, Tanjore, in Dravidian Nadu. A characteristic mosquitocidal property was noticed in

the vegetable oils extracted from seeds of Carum Carvi, seed coats of cigar, seeds of groundnut,

seed kernels of Kabur neem (Azadirachta indica), and seeds of thevetia (Thevetia peruviana) as

against other commonly utilized oils. This article deals with their lethal properties against adult

mosquitoes. The leaf extract of Moringa Oleifera (moringa) kills only larvae of such mosquitoes

in laboratory conditions. From the escalation of their normal concentrations, 2, 1.5, and 1.0

percent, as amounts against water by 100 percent, all concentrations are possible levels for the

effective control of that insect vignette.

Studies done elsewhere indicated that Moringa, scientifically acknowledged as Moringa oleifera

and Moringaceae as its family name, commonly known by local people as Zogala in Hausa, has

been traditionally used to induce water coagulation and reduce turbidity in water during the

absence of appropriate household treatment. Results further indicated that a compact, robust, and

sustainable technology appropriate for simple, acceptable remote households can be developed to

alleviate waterborne diseases. The study also shows that it is of utmost significance to establish

what is known as local parameters such as pot and field nutrient, which can be used to determine

filter efficiency and sustainability of the proposed technology.(Nhut et al.2021)(Kitheka et

al.2022)(Yamaguchi et al.2021)
2.1. Insecticidal Properties of Moringa Oleifera

Ethno-veterinary medicinal plants have been locally devised in many corners of the world for the

purpose of protecting livestock from pests and diseases. Attempts were made to identify and

catalog such plants in the present study area. As a result, orally administered powders from the

dried leaves of the neem and drumstick plants were observed to be regularly used for keeping a

substantial number of skin pests at bay. In addition, Moringa oleifera possesses actellic, which

makes it more suitable for use as a prophylactic against a number of insect vectors that feed not

only on the skin but also on bloodsucking flies (keds) such as Zipporah tenebrosa and

Myocoptesmusculinus, and mites like Sarcoptes scabiei.

Moringa oleifera, a multipurpose tree with exceptional nutritional and medicinal properties, has

the potential to provide effective and sustainable pest management strategies in many parts of the

world. The leaves of this plant can be used to control pests of stored goods. When cleaned leaves

coated with dry lime powder are packed in jute or sisal bags and hung in granaries, they can

repel stored product pests such as rice weevils, flour beetles, and red flour beetles. The

application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract as a pesticide and its use to protect crops from

economic pests in stored products and in the field have been reported in Nigeria, Senegal, and

India.

2.2. Previous Studies on Insecticidal Activity of moringa Oleifera

Certainly, given the vast array of plant materials available, it is indisputable that their utilization

in various aspects of our economy holds immense economic significance. Accordingly,

conducting a meticulous examination of plant materials exhibiting insecticidal properties, a

staggering number of precisely 127 distinct plant materials (99 originating from terrestrial
environments and 28 emanating from aquatic habitats) were identified. Nonetheless, it is crucial

to highlight that a mere ten of these specimens underwent a rigorous evaluation, specifically to

determine their potential insecticidal prowess against the ubiquitous common housefly,

scientifically classified as Musca domestica. Nevertheless, in the final stages of this

comprehensive investigation, it is unequivocally stated that the application of plant materials to

effectively govern the population of houseflies is decidedly on the rise. Furthermore, it is worth

noting that a further elucidation on the insecticidal effectiveness of these materials, along with an

extensive description of the indispensable procedures, can be found in not one, but eight

supplementary scholarly articles that specifically concentrate on crop pest control. However, it is

regrettable that these remarkable publications were not incorporated within the current review,

due to certain constraints and limitations.

The study of essential oils from aromatic plants for their repellent or insecticidal activities

against a wide range of insects, horticultural and field crops pests, or stored grains is some of the

potential areas that can be economically exploited for pest control. Since the 1940s, when

synthetic insecticides became affordable and readily available, chemical control of insect pests

became, for many agricultural-practice-oriented experiments with plant materials, almost a

historical footnote. After a brief revival of interest in plant materials with the recent calling into

question the long-term safety of a few commercial products using plant-derived insecticides have

been sold. This is either as insecticides, insect repellents, insect feeding deterrents, applications

to clean horticultural crops to control insect pests, or as formulation additives to synthetic

insecticides.(Yaméogo et al.2021)(Wandjou et al.2022)(Aouini et al.2024)

Mosquitoes play a significant role as vectors of pathogens for humans and animals. There are

about 3000 different species of mosquitoes worldwide, and out of these species, 130 are malaria

vectors. The significant species include all Anopheles species, some Culicine species, and the

recently recognized various species of Aedes and Aideon. Mosquitoes belong to the family

Culicidae of the order Diptera and class Insecta. In general, they are medium-sized, two-winged

insects, with most of them having a narrow body that widens at the head. Mosquitoes feed on

blood in both their mature larval and pupal stages, while adults of the majority of the species

feed on nectar and fruit juice for sustenance and energy.(Ogunah et al., 2020)(Dagen, 2020)

(HASSAN, 2021)

Housefly (Musca domestica) belongs to the family known as Muscidae of the order Diptera and

class Insecta. They are exceedingly prevalent insects that pose an imminent threat to the well-

being of both humanity and animals alike. Not only are these bothersome creatures a perpetual

annoyance, but they also harbor the worrisome capability of transmitting perilous and potentially

deadly diseases. With their proclivity for contaminating food and various other critical articles,

houseflies serve as harbingers of disease, making them an ardent concern for both human and

animal health.

2.4. Environmental and Health Consideration

It thus indicates that at least it is safe for the producers and consumers. It is also mentioned that

at least 90% concentration did result in complete larval mortality within 24 hours. This would

indicate that for obtaining effective mortality in larvae, either a threshold concentration and/or

time factor needs to be applied. For certain of these consider 10% concentration was observed to
affect success of oviposition and adult emergence on 24-hour post-treatment basis therefore

implicating that achieving complete and successful efficiency in control is possible. Sugar in any

of Moringa potential pesticidal ivy Hedges botanical walks may also be an important

consideration as attractant at certain concentration this is known in case flies 45 from Brazil.

Peaceful settlement of these later consideration would attest to reflect the belief-meticulously

working of nature event that occur as species increase in number.(Kaur et al.2021)(Ogbonna et

al.2021)(El-Gendy et al.2024)

There are numerous potential advantages of it containing have given some natural insecticides

and other pesticidal, without obvious reduction in plant vigour or photosynthetic capacity.

Possible advantage of repellent or anti feedant activity may be overridden by overwhelming

presence insect. For these to be effectively used at field level, all these factors will have to be

critically balanced by parallel consideration to environmental and human health. In this regard

the finding that 10% concentration applied as sprays did not affect oviposition and adult

emergence of C. macellaria at all in present study is important.

2.5. Chemical composition of Moringa Oleifera Extract

In order to identify the presence of the chemical compositions of the moringa leaf extract,

preliminary phytochemical screening of the M. oleifera leaf extract was carried out in order to

identify the presence of either group of compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols,

saponins, tannins, terpenoids and glycosides that might be responsible for the bioactivity of the

leaf extracts based on the method of Brain et al. (1986). The potent control agents of insects from

plants are found to be rich in chemicals such as alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, terpenoids and

tannins. The secondary metabolites from plants therefore have become a source of insecticidal
chemicals that might be more potent to control the pests and vectors at GabuganPonorogo,

Indonesia. Therefore, the aim of preliminary phytochemical screening was to look for the

presence of these classes of compounds in the moringa leaf extract that were prepared and

applied to investigate the mortality and knockdown effect of housefly and mosquito at.(Bagheri

et al.2020)(Kurniawan, 2021)(Oladeji et al.2020)

The present study was an evaluation of insecticidal activity of Moringa oleifera leaf extract

against housefly and mosquito and was carried out in Yan Mangwarora bypass area, Gusau

Zamfara State, Nigeria. Fresh samples of M. oleifera leaves were collected from Sultan Usman

Arab College where the tree was planted. The leaves were sorted, washed, dried and milled into

powder using an electric grinder to increase the surface area for effective extraction. The dried

and milled leaves were extracted with different solvents using a soxhlet extractor. An aqueous

leaf extract was prepared by soaking 100g of powdered leaves in 200ml of distilled water for 12h

according to the method described in Argawal et al. (1987) and filtered using muslin to remove

solid particles. The crude aqueous extracts of moringa leaf were tested in vitro for insecticidal

activities such as knockdown effect and mortality effect against housefly (Musca domestica) and

mosquito (Anopheles gambiae).

2.6. Yan mangwarora area of Gusau Zamfara State Nigeria

Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) is one of the most widely cultivated species in the family

Moringaceae and is commonly known as Horseradish Tree, also known as "the drumstick tree,

*Bamungu*, *Balungi*, *Ngailoata*, *Sinemen*, *Shihamba*, and Zogale. Moringa oleifera is

a perennial multipurpose tree species, providing food, medicine, fuel, and local procurement and

construction materials. The leaves, bark, fruits, and the root of the tree have insect repellent
and/or antifeedant properties. In this way, such plants can be used as prospects of biodegradable,

more friendly control of plagues. Plant extracts have given promising results when tested in the

field on important crop pests. The present study was therefore aimed at evaluating the

insecticidal effect of the crude leaf extracts of Moringa oleifera against two important insect

pests: the housefly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera; Muscidae) and the mosquito, Culex

quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera; Culicidae) in the 'Yan Mangwarora Bypass area of Gusau-

Zamfara, Nigeria.(El-Gendy et al.2024)(Ullah et al.2021)(Wandjou et al.2022)

The inhabitants of 'Yan Mangwarora Bypass Area of Gusau-Zamfara State, located in Gada biyu

area where the geographical survey was carried out. Agriculture is absolutely a crucial sector of

the national economy, therefore contributing to economic development via earnings from

agricultural produce. Agriculture, on the other hand, is hindered by pests, among which include

housefly and mosquito. The losses due to pests are considerable. To reduce this problem, the

farmers are forced to apply insecticides which are expensive and non-targeted but which often

degrade the environment, pollute water bodies, and some may harm humans and cause the

development of resistant strains of the target pests. Chemists and researchers have discovered

various plant species rich in secondary metabolites that show insect repellent and/or feeding

deterrent activity as means of pest management.

2.7. Conclusion

The extract was found to be significantly less toxic than the standard drugs in the studies and

found to possess some chemotherapeutic properties. This present study, as well as similar

studies, present findings supporting this species' long-standing use as a traditional medicine. The

bioactive compounds of the Moringa Oleifera L. plant have been used in many traditional
medications due to its numerous medicinal properties, such as antitumor, antidiabetic, antifungal,

antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory. Preliminary phytochemical screening of the

extracts produced by various solvents revealed that the insecticidal and mosquito larvicidal

activities may be due to the presence of potent phytochemical compounds that include saponins,

tannins, glycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids, and some unspecified compound present in the plant.

Inhibition of Be. Ol and C. An populations, the mosquitoes responsible for the transmission of

malaria disease. Based on these results, this study suggests that Moringa Oleifera L. should be

taken into consideration for the development of a new plant-based commercial insecticide.

In conclusion, this study revealed that M. oleifera leaf extract has insecticidal activity against

mosquitoes causing malaria and houseflies. This species can be considered as an alternative for

chemical control, which is harmful to humans, animals, and the environment. The use of

medicinal plants also shows positive results in studies of acute toxicity and histological

microscopy. Our results brought important data that not only help in the development of natural

products, eco-friendly and with great perspectives in the market, but also contribute to the

reduction of the indiscriminate use of chemical substances used in the control of vectors of great

importance to public health. These results should draw attention to health professionals because

they are a viable alternative for the control of these insects. M. oleifera is very effective in

solving the problems brought by these insects, such as the transmission of diseases, and also

indicates ecological problems associated with the uncontrolled use of synthetic insecticides,

which are available to many households in the area investigated.