t o p o l o g y . The t e x t i s w r i t t e n with a d m i r a b l e c l a r i t y .

The l o g i c a l t h r e a d
of the a r g u m e n t i s c a r r i e d by a s e q u e n c e of definitions and t h e o r e m s ,
b u t this is l i b e r a l l y i n t e r s p e r s e d with " a s i d e s 1 ' of a l e s s f o r m a l n a t u r e
giving a d d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n s and m o t i v a t i o n s . E a c h c h a p t e r i s p r e -
ceded by a h i s t o r i c a l and b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l n o t e . N o n e t h e l e s s this t e x t
m a y b e difficult for the a v e r a g e s t u d e n t if he s a t i s f i e s only the p r e r e q u i -
s i t e s s t a t e d by the a u t h o r , n a m e l y k n o w l e d g e of the topology of the r e a l
line and p r o p e r t i e s of r e a l v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s . F o r t h r o u g h o u t the t e x t
(including the e x e r c i s e s ) t h e r e a r e v e r y few c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e s , and i t
would a p p e a r d e s i r a b l e for the s t u d e n t to h a v e s o m e b a c k l o g of e x p e r i e n c e
with s e t s i n E u c l i d e a n s p a c e s to e n a b l e h i m to a p p r e c i a t e the m o r e a b -
stract ideas treated here.

A . H . W a l l a c e , U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a

D i s q u i s i t i o n e s A r i t h m e t i c a e , by C a r l F r i e d r i c h G a u s s , 1 8 0 1 ;
E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , by A r t h u r A. C l a r k e , S . J . Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
New H a v e n and London, 1 9 6 6 . xx + 472 p a g e s . Ç12. 5 0 .

At the b e g i n n i n g of 1795 a young m a n not y e t e i g h t e e n h a p p e n e d

upon a r e s u l t he r e c o g n i z e d a s b e a u t i f u l : an odd p r i m e p is a f a c t o r of
2
x + 1 for s o m e i n t e g e r x if and only if the p r i m e i s of the f o r m
4n + 1 . He s u r m i s e d a c o n n e c t i o n with p r o p e r t i e s e v e n m o r e p r o f o u n d ,
and s t r o v e to d i s c o v e r the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s and to find a p r o o f .
S u c c e e d i n g , he w a s so e n t h r a l l e d he could not let t h e s e q u e s t i o n s b e .
The young m a n w a s of c o u r s e G a u s s ; and the book or s a g a , he w r o t e will
s t i l l be r e a d with d e l i g h t in the y e a r 3 0 0 0 . I c h o o s e t h r e e i t e m s f r o m
G a u s s 1 n o t e s l i s t e d at the end of the b o o k . G a u s s d i s c o v e r e d the quad-
r a t i c r e c i p r o c i t y law, by e x p e r i m e n t , in M a r c h 1795, and c o m p l e t e d i t s
f i r s t proof on A p r i l 8, 1796. He p r o v e d t h a t "a c i r c l e i s g e o m e t r i c a l l y
d i v i s i b l e into 17 p a r t s " on M a r c h 30, 1796; and so s o o n a f t e r m u s t have
solved the 2 0 0 0 - y e a r old p r o b l e m of E u c l i d e a n c o n s t r u c t i b i l i t y of r e g u l a r
p o l y g o n s (included i n S e c t . VII of the D i s q u i s i t i o n e s ) . It w a s t h i s d i s -
c o v e r y , B e l l t e l l s u s , which d e c i d e d the young m a n to c h o o s e m a t h e m a t i c s
r a t h e r than philology.

G a u s s i s v e r y s p e c i a l to m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , and this f i r s t E n g l i s h
t r a n s l a t i o n i s an event, e v e n after 165 y e a r s . One 1 s n a t i v e tongue a l -
w a y s c o m e s e a s i e r , and so now m a n y of us w i l l h a v e a r e a l o p p o r t u n i t y
to b e c o m e m u c h b e t t e r a c q u a i n t e d with a v e r y g r e a t m a n . Myself, e v e n
though I had p r e v i o u s l y plowed t h r o u g h m u c h of the o r i g i n a l L a t i n , the
F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n (1807), and the G e r m a n one (1885), and had r e a d
v a r i o u s a c c o u n t s of p a r t s of G a u s s ' w o r k ( e s p e c i a l l y in H. J. S. S m i t h ' s
R e p o r t on the T h e o r y of N u m b e r s , 1 8 6 0 - 6 5 ) , I found in r e a d i n g this
t r a n s l a t i o n i t e m s I had f o r g o t t e n o r did not know, - and i t w a s j u s t d e -
lightful to b r o w s e t h r o u g h G a u s s ' r e a s o n i n g and h i s a p p r o a c h to v a r i o u s
q u e s t i o n s , h e r e and t h e r e .

T h e r e a r e , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , e r r o r s in the t r a n s l a t i o n , and t h e s e
d i s t u r b e d m e p e r h a p s m o r e than o r d i n a r i l y b e c a u s e I felt a t r a n s l a t i o n

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 of G a u s s should b e p e r f e c t . I hope the e r r o r s will not k e e p p e o p l e f r o m
r e a d i n g the book, - b u t I hope no one will think the e r r o r s a r e due to
G a u s s . My i m p r e s s i o n of the F r e n c h and G e r m a n t r a n s l a t i o n s i s t h a t
they followed G a u s s ' w o r d s and s t y l e f a i r l y c l o s e l y , c o r r e c t i n g a few
m i n o r e r r o r s and giving p r e f e r e n c e when a c h o i c e had to be m a d e to the
t e r m s w h i c h l a t e r u s a g e e s t a b l i s h e d . G a u s s w r o t e with dignity and c a r e ,
and for a young m a n p i o n e e r i n g , a m a z i n g l y w e l l . He liked to e x p r e s s
h i s thinking in s e n t e n c e s of s e v e r a l l i n e s - which s e e m to m e to r e a d
s m o o t h l y and to show the r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of i d e a s and t h e i r i n t e r -
c o h e r e n c e by the m a n n e r in w h i c h he p l a c e d t h e m . F o r s o m e r e a s o n
the t r a n s l a t o r h a s b r o k e n up m a n y of G a u s s ' s e n t e n c e s into t w o . F o r
e x a m p l e the 32 s e n t e n c e s in G a u s s ' d e d i c a t i o n and p r e f a c e have b e c o m e
5 6 . In s e v e r a l c a s e s t h a t I h a v e studied the c o h e r e n c e and e m p h a s i s of
G a u s s ' thought h a v e b e e n l o s t .

I give one e x a m p l e . G a u s s h a s in A r t . 1 1 , " G e n e r a l i t e r p e r s p i c u u m

e s t . , a e q u a t i o n e m X = 0 , quando X functio i n c o g n i t a e x , huius f o r m a e
n A n-1 ^ n-2 A ^ _
x + Ax + Bx + e t c . + N , A, B , C, e t c . m t e g r i , atque n i n t e g e r
p o s i t i v u s , (ad q u a m f o r m a m o m n e s a e q u a t i o n e s a l g e b r a i c a s r e d u c i p o s s e
c o n s t a t ) r a d i c e m r a t i o n a l e m n u l l a m h a b e r e , si c o n g r u e n t i a e X = 0
s e c u n d u m u l l u m m o d u l u m s a t i s f i e r i n e q u e a t . Sed hoc c r i t é r i u m , quod
h i c s p o n t e s e n o b i s obtulit, in S e c t . VIII f u s i u s p e r t r a c t a b i t u r . " I t r a n s -
l a t e a l m o s t l i t e r a l l y : "In g e n e r a l it is c l e a r t h a t the equation X = 0 ,
w h e r e X i s a function of the unknown x of the f o r m . . . with A, B, C,
e t c . , i n t e g e r s and n a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r , (to w h i c h f o r m a l l a l g e b r a i c
e q u a t i o n s c a n be r e d u c e d ) , h a s no r a t i o n a l r o o t if the c o n g r u e n c e X = 0
c a n n o t b e s a t i s f i e d for any one m o d u l u s . But this c r i t e r i o n w h i c h i s
given us h e r e by itself will be r e p e a t e d l y applied in S e c t . VIII. " C l a r k e ' s
t r a n s l a t i o n : " S u p p o s e X i s a function in unknown x of the f o r m . . .
w h e r e A, B, C, e t c . , a r e i n t e g e r s , n a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r (it is c l e a r
t h a t a l l a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s c a n be r e d u c e d to this f o r m ) . In g e n e r a l it
is c l e a r t h a t in the e q u a t i o n X = 0 t h e r e e x i s t s no r a t i o n a l r o o t u n l e s s
the c o n g r u e n c e X = 0 can b e s a t i s f i e d for s o m e m o d u l u s . B u t t h i s
o m i s s i o n will be d i s c u s s e d m o r e fully in Section VIII. " Thus G a u s s h a s
b e e n m a d e to say s o m e t h i n g silly; and even if " s o m e " i s m a d e " e v e r y " ,
we a r e not h e a r i n g G a u s s .

As I r e a d the e a r l y p a r t s of the book I c o n s u l t e d the L a t i n w h e r e v e r

the E n g l i s h or r e a s o n i n g s e e m e d a s k e w , and thus d r e w up the following
l i s t of " c o r r e c t i o n s " - m o s t of t h e m m i n o r . P e r h a p s the p u b l i s h e r s will
a r r a n g e for a l i s t of c o r r e c t i o n s w h i c h could be s e n t to r e a d e r s of the
book upon i n q u i r y . I a b b r e v i a t e A r t , h, line k, a s (h;k), and c h a n g e p
to Q a s p -*• q . (1;5) append of one a n o t h e r ; (5;5) m a n y -»• s e v e r a l ;
(7;6) and (22;8) m a k e a new s e n t e n c e beginning F o r , ; (16;6) many-
v a r i o u s -> m o r e than one; (17;7) i n s e r t p r i m e ; (22;7) equal-** unchanged;
(3 2;24) when none of the a u x i l i a r y c o n g r u e n c e s i s s o l v a b l e -> when any of
the a u x i l i a r y c o n g r u e n c e s is not s o l v a b l e ; (36;15) m o r e -*• s e v e r a l ;
(38;12) p m «• p m " (twice); (39;20) We m a y s u p p o s e ; (42;9) f o r m »
t e r m s ; (42;10) m a n y -* m o r e ; (42;24, 34 et s e q . ) n e e d s r e c a s t i n g with
e x p o n e n t ( G a u s s ' d i m e n s i o ) i n s t e a d of p o w e r ; (46;6) as long a s it i s

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 finite -+ as soon a s e n d e d . A l s o n e e d i n g r e v i s i o n a r e (8;6, 7), .(39;24-27),
( 6 l ; 3 - 6 ) . The book h a s 366 a r t i c l e s .

I noticed in A r t . 9 the p h r a s e s "in the i n d e t e r m i n a t e x " and "in

s e v e r a l i n d e t e r m i n a t e s " (which C l a r k e t r a n s l a t e d "with u n d e t e r m i n e d x "
and "of m a n y u n d e t e r m i n e d v a r i a b l e s " ) . I had long had the i m p r e s s i o n
t h a t the word i n d e t e r m i n a t e , to d e s i g n a t e the l e t t e r by m e a n s of w h i c h a
p o l y n o m i a l is e x p r e s s e d , o r i g i n a t e d l a t e in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . It
now s e e m s t h a t t h i s i m p o r t a n t t e r m i s due to G a u s s .

While e v e r y o n e will r e c o g n i z e G a u s s 1 a b b r e v i a t i o n Q . E . D . , p e r -
h a p s s o m e would a p p r e c i a t e a t r a n s l a t i o n of Q . E . F . (quod e r a t f a c i e n d u m )
and Q . E . A . (quod e s t a b s u r d u m ) .

It m a y s e e m a s m a l l thing, b u t a l t e r a t i o n s of f a m i l i a r t e c h n i c a l
t e r m s c a n be annoying: i t would h a v e sounded b e t t e r to m e if the t r a n s -
l a t o r had t u r n e d G a u s s ' p r i m u s ad m into the f a m i l i a r p r i m e to m
r a t h e r t h a n p r i m e r e l a t i v e to m ; if he had p r e f e r r e d to the m o d u l u s m
or m o d u l o m ( p h r a s e s e v e r y o n e a s s o c i a t e s with G a u s s ) i n s t e a d of
r e l a t i v e to the m o d u l u s m ; if he had t r a n s l a t e d i n c o n g r u u s a s i n c o n g r u e n t
r a t h e r than n o n c o n g r u e n t ; and if, in A r t . 157 et s e q . , he had one f o r m
containing a n o t h e r i n s t e a d of i m p l y i n g it, e v e n though G a u s s did u s e
implicans.

F a t h e r C l a r k e h a s done a g r e a t s e r v i c e to a l l of u s in m a k i n g
G a u s s ' book a v a i l a b l e . I hope a l l m a t h e m a t i c i a n s w i l l p a r t a k e of the
d e l i g h t to b e found in t h i s g r e a t b o o k .

G o r d o n P a l l , L o u i s i a n a State U n i v e r s i t y

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