Derivatives

Donato Martinelli
February 4, 2024
Contents
1 Derivative of a Function 4
1.1 Incremental Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Calculating the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Left Derivative and Right Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function 7

2.1 Stationary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Continuity and Differentiability 7

4 Fundamental Derivatives 9

5 Theorems on the Calculation of Derivatives 12

5.1 Derivative of the Product of a Constant and a Function . . . . . 12
5.2 Derivative of the Sum of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3 Derivative of the Product of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.4 Derivative of the Power of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.5 Derivative of the Reciprocal of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.6 Derivative of the Quotient of Two Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6 Derivative of a Composite Function 17

7 The derivative of [f (x)]g(x) 18

8 The derivative of an inverse function 19

9 Derivatives of order higher than the first 20

10 The differential of a function 21

11 Theorems on differentiable functions 23

11.1 Lagrange’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
11.2 The Rolle’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
11.3 Cauchy’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
11.4 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
Fundamental Derivatives

Powers of x

Dk = 0
D xa = axa−1 , a∈R
Dx = 1
√ 1
D x= √ , x>0
2 x
√ 1
D nx= √ n
, x > 0, n ∈ N
n xn−1
1 1
D =− 2
x x

Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

D ax = ax ln a, a>0
x x
De = e
1
D loga x = loga e, x>0
x
1
D ln x = , x>0
x

Trigonometric Functions

D sin x = cos x
π
D sin x◦ = cos x◦
180◦
D cos x = − sin x
π
D cos x◦ = − sin x◦
180◦
1
D tan x = = 1 + tan2 x
cos2 x
1
D cot x = − 2 = −(1 + cot2 x)
sin x

2
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1
D arctan x =
1 + x2
1
D arccot x = −
1 + x2
1
D arcsin x = √
1 − x2
1
D arccos x = −
1 − x2

Derivative Rules

D [k · f (x)] = k · f ′ (x)
D [f (x) + g(x)] = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x)
D [f (x) · g(x)] = f ′ (x) · g(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x)
D [f (x) · g(x) · z(x)] = f ′ (x) · g(x) · z(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x) · z(x) + f (x) · g(x) · z ′ (x)
D [f (x)]a = a[f (x)]a−1 · f ′ (x), a ∈ R
f ′ (x)
 
1
D =− 2
f (x) f (x)
f (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g ′ (x)
′
 
f (x)
D =
g(x) g 2 (x)
D [f (g(x))] = f ′ (z) · g ′ (x), z = g(x)
D [f (g(z(x)))] = f (u) · g (t) · z ′ (x), t = z(x), u = g(t)
′ ′

g(x) · f ′ (x)
 
D [f (x)]g(x) = [f (x)]g(x) g ′ (x) ln f (x) +
f (x)
1
D [f −1 (y)] = ′ , x = f −1 (y)
f (x)

3
1 Derivative of a Function
1.1 Incremental Ratio
Given a function y = f (x) defined in an interval [a; b] and a point on its graph
A(c; f (c)), let’s increase the abscissa of A by an amount h to obtain the point
B with coordinates:

xB = c + h; yB = f (xB ) = f (c + h)

meaning,
B(c + h; f (c + h))
Let’s consider the increments:

∆x = xB − xA = h and ∆y = yB − yA = f (c + h) − f (c)

∆y
The ratio of the two increments is .
∆x
Note 1. Generally, the notation ∆t is called the increment of the variable t
and indicates the difference between two values t2 and t1 of a quantity t:

∆t = t2 − t1 .

Incremental Ratio
Definition 1.1. Given a function y = f (x) defined in an interval [a; b] and two
real numbers c and c + h within the interval, the incremental ratio of f (relative
to c) is defined as:
∆y f (c + h) − f (c)
=
∆x h
Considering the points A(c; f (c)) and B(c + h; f (c + h)) on the graph of
f , the incremental ratio of f relative to c is the slope of the line passing
through A and B.

1.2 Derivative of a Function

Derivative of a Function
Definition 1.2. For a function y = f (x) defined in an interval [a; b], the deriva-
tive of the function at the point c within the interval, denoted by f ′ (c), is the
limit, if it exists and is finite, as h tends to 0, of the incremental ratio of f
relative to c:
f (c + h) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim .
h→0 h
Remark 1. The derivative of a function at a point c represents the slope of
the tangent line to the graph of the function at its abscissa c.

4
 A function is said to be differentiable at a point c if the derivative f ′ (c)
exists. For a function to be differentiable at c, the following conditions must be
satisfied:
1. the function is defined in a neighborhood of point c;

2. the limit of the incremental ratio relative to c exists for h tending to 0,

i.e., the right-hand limit and left-hand limit of this ratio exist, and they
coincide;
3. this limit is a finite number.
The derivative of a function y = f (x) at a generic point x is denoted by one of
the following symbols:
f ′ (x); Df (x); y ′ .
If the limit as h tends to 0 of the incremental ratio of a function at a point
does not exist or is infinite, the function is said to be non-differentiable at
that point.

1.3 Calculating the Derivative

Example 1.1. Let’s calculate the derivative of the function

y = (x − 1)2

at c = 3. Let f be the function, applying the definition:

f (3 + h) − f (3)
f ′ (3) = lim .
h→0 h
Calculate the values the function takes at the points with abscissa 3 and 3 + h:

f (3) = (3 − 1)2 = 22 = 4; f (3 + h) = (3 + h − 1)2 = (2 + h)2 = h2 + 4h + 4

Substitute these values into the incremental ratio and simplify:

h2 + 4h + 4 − 4 h2 + 4h
f ′ (3) = lim = lim = lim h + 4 = 4.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Therefore, f ′ (3) = 4.
Note 2. The derivative f ′ (3) is a real number and is the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of f (x) at the point (3; f (3)).
We can also calculate the derivative of a function at a generic point. In this
case, the value f ′ (x) we obtain is a function of x, and for this reason, we also
talk about the derivative function. The derivative function, as x varies, provides
the slope of all tangent lines to the given function.

5
Example 1.2. Let’s calculate the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − x at a
generic point x:

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − (x + h) − (x2 − x)

f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h2 + 2xh − h
= lim
h→0 h
h(h + 2x − 1)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim h + 2x − 1 ⇒ f ′ (x) = 2x − 1
h→0

1.4 Left Derivative and Right Derivative

Left Derivative and Right Derivative
Definition 1.3. The left derivative of a function at a point c is:

′ f (c + h) − f (c)
f− (c) = lim .
h→0− h
The right derivative of a function at a point c is:

′ f (c + h) − f (c)
f+ (c) = lim+ .
h→0 h
A function is differentiable at a point c if the left derivative and the right
derivative exist, are finite, and are equal.

Function Defined on an Interval

Definition 1.4. A function y = f (x) is differentiable on a closed interval [a; b]

if it is differentiable at all internal points of [a; b], and if the right derivative at
a and the left derivative at b exist and are finite.

6
2 Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function
In general, given the function y = f (x), the equation of the tangent line to the
graph of f at the point (x0 ; y0 ), if such a line exists and is not parallel to the
y-axis, is:
y − y0 = f ′ (x0 ) · (x − x0 )

2.1 Stationary Points

Stationary Point
Definition 2.1. For the function y = f (x) and its point x = c, if f ′ (c) = 0,
then x = c is called a stationary point or a point of horizontal tangency.

3 Continuity and Differentiability

Theorem 3.1. If a function f (x) is differentiable at the point x0 , then the
function is also continuous at that point.

Proof.
Hypothesis:
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = f ′ (x0 ).
h→0 h
Thesis:
lim f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0

We write the relation

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + ·h
h
which, after calculations, turns out to be an identity. Calculating the limit for
h → 0 on both sides, remembering that the limit of a sum is equal to the sum
of the limits:
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim f (x0 + h) = lim f (x0 ) + lim · h.
h→0 h→0 h→0 h
In the second term, since the limit of a constant is the constant itself, we have:

lim f (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

h→0

Moreover, since the limit of a product is equal to the product of the limits and
recalling the hypothesis:

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim · 0 = f ′ (x0 ) · 0 = 0.
h→0 h

7
Therefore, substituting in the second term, the limit becomes:

lim f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f ′ (x0 ) · 0

h→0

lim f (x0 + h) = f (x0 .)

h→0

Setting x0 + h = x, if h → 0, it implies x → x0 . Substituting into the previous

relation, we conclude that the function f (x) is continuous at x0 , as:

lim f (x) = f (x0 )

x→x0

Note 3. In the proof of the theorem, we have seen that the expression limx→0 f (x0 +
h) = f (x0 ) is equivalent to limx→x0 f (x) = f (x0 ). We can therefore as-
sume it as the definition of a continuous function: a function is continuous
if limh→0 f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ).
From what we have said, we can assert that the set of differentiable functions
is a subset of the set of continuous functions.

8
4 Fundamental Derivatives
Now let’s determine the differentiation formulas for the most commonly used
functions.

Theorem 4.1. The derivative of a constant function is 0:

Dk = 0
Proof. Remembering that if f (x) = k, then f (x + h) = k, calculate:
f (x + h) − f (x) k−k
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Theorem 4.2. The derivative of the function f (x) = x is f ′ (x) = 1;

Dx = 1.
Proof. If f (x) = x, then f (x + h) = x + h. Calculate f ′ (x):
f (x + h) − f (x) x+h−x h
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim = 1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

Theorem 4.3. The derivative of the function f (x) = sin(x), with x expressed
in radians, is f ′ (x) = cos(x):
d
sin(x) = cos(x).
dx
Proof.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin(x + h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin(x) cos(h) + sin(h) cos(x) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) + cos(x) sin(h)
= lim
h→0 h
(cos(h) − 1) sin(h)
= lim [sin(x) · + cos(x) · ]
h→0 h h

9
Using known limits,
sin(x) 1 − cos(x)
lim =1 and lim = 0,
h→0 x h→0 x
we have:
f ′ (x) = sin(x) · 0 + cos(x) · 1 = cos(x)

Note 4. If x is measured in degrees:

d π
sin(x◦ ) = · cos(x)
dx 180◦

Theorem 4.4. The derivative of the function f (x) = cos(x), with x expressed
in radians, is f ′ (x) = − sin(x):
d
cos(x) = − sin(x).
dx
Note 5. If x is measured in degrees:
d π
cos(x◦ ) = − · sin(x)
dx 180◦

Theorem 4.5. The derivative of the function f (x) = ax (a ∈ R+ ) is f ′ (x) =

ax ln(a):
d x
a = ax ln a.
dx
Proof. Applying the definition of derivative to the function f (x) = ax , we get:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
ax+h − ax
= lim
h→0 h
ax (ah − 1)
= lim
h→0 h
ah − 1
= lim ax · lim
h→0 h→0 h
Using the well-known limit
ax − 1
lim = ln a,
x→0 x
we get
ax ln a.

10
 In particular
d x
e = ex .
dx

Theorem 4.6. The derivative of the function f (x) = loga x (a ∈ R+ −{1}, x ∈

R+ ) is f ′ (x) = x1 · loga e:

d 1
loga x = · loga e.
dx x
Proof.

d f (x + h) − f (x) loga (x + h) − loga x

f (x) = lim = lim .
dx h→0 h h→0 h
Using the logarithmic property loga x − loga y = loga xy , we write:
 
x+h h
loga (x + h) − loga x = loga = loga 1 + ,
h x

loga 1 + hx


′
f (x) = lim .
h→0 h
Multiplying and dividing the denominator h by x, we have

loga 1 + hx


1 1
lim h
· = loga e · ,
h→0
x
x x

and therefore:
1
f ′ (x) = · loga e.
x

In particular, for a = e we have:

d 1
ln x = .
dx x

11
5 Theorems on the Calculation of Derivatives
5.1 Derivative of the Product of a Constant and a Func-
tion
Theorem 5.1. The derivative of the product of a constant k and a differentiable
function f (x) is equal to the product of the constant and the derivative of the
function:
D[k · f (x)] = k · f ′ (x).
Proof.
k · f (x + h) − k · f (x) k · [f (x + h) − f (x)]
y ′ = lim = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h
Since k is a constant and recalling the definition of the derivative, we can write:
f (x + h) − f (x)
y ′ = k · lim = k · f ′ (x).
h→0 h

5.2 Derivative of the Sum of Functions

Theorem 5.2. The derivative of the algebraic sum of two or more differen-
tiable functions is equal to the algebraic sum of the derivatives of the individual
functions:
D[f (x) + g(x)] = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x).
Proof. Let’s calculate the limit of the incremental ratio of f (x) + g(x):

[f (x + h) + g(x + h)] − [f (x) + g(x)]

y ′ = lim =
h→0 h
[f (x + h) − f (x)] + [g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim =
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim + lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
= f ′ (x) + g ′ (x)

5.3 Derivative of the Product of Functions

Theorem 5.3. The derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is
equal to the sum of the derivative of the first function multiplied by the second
non-derivative and the derivative of the second function multiplied by the first
non-derivative:

D[f (x) · g(x)] = f ′ (x) · g(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x).

12
Proof.
f (x + h) · g(x + h) − f (x) · g(x)
y ′ = lim .
h→0 h
In the numerator, let’s add and subtract the product g(x + h) · f (x) to the first
term:
f (x + h) · g(x + h) − g(x + h) · f (x) + g(x + h) · f (x) − f (x) · g(x)
y ′ = lim .
h→0 h
Factor out g(x + h) from the first two terms and f (x) from the last two terms:

g(x + h) · [f (x + h) − f (x)] + f (x) · [g(x + h) − g(x)]

y ′ = lim .
h→0 h
The limit of a sum is equal to the sum of the limits, so:
   
′ f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
y = lim g(x + h) · + lim f (x) · .
h→0 h h→0 h

The limit of a product is equal to the product of the limits:

f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)

y ′ = lim g(x + h) · lim + lim f (x) · lim .
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
Since f (x) and g(x) are differentiable and hence continuous by assumption, we
have:
y ′ = g(x) · f ′ (x) + f (x) · g ′ (x).

Extending the theorem to the product of more functions, it can be shown

that, for example, given the function y = f (x) · g(x) · z(x), its first derivative is:

y ′ = f ′ (x) · g(x) · z(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x) · z(x) + f (x) · g(x) · z ′ (x).

In general, the derivative of the product of multiple differentiable functions is

the sum of the products of the derivative of each function by the other non-
derivative functions.

5.4 Derivative of the Power of a Function

Theorem 5.4. The derivative of the n-th power of a differentiable function
(with exponent n ∈ N and n > 1) is equal to the product of the exponent n and
the function raised to the power of n − 1, multiplied by the derivative of the
function itself:
D[f (x)]n = n[f (x)]n−1 · f ′ (x).

13
Proof.
y = f (x) · f (x) · f (x) · ... · f (x)
| {z }
n factors

Using the theorem of the derivative of the product of multiple functions, we

have:

y ′ = f ′ (x) · f (x) · ... · f (x) +f (x) · f ′ (x) · ... · f (x) + ... + f (x) · f (x) · ... ·f ′ (x).
| {z } | {z }
(n−1) factors (n−1) factors

In each of the n terms, the factor f (x) appears (n − 1) times. Therefore:

y ′ = n · [f (x)]n−1 · f ′ (x).

It can be shown that the above theorem is also valid when the exponent of
the power is any rational number.

D[f (x)]a = a · [f (x)]a−1 · f ′ (x), a ∈ Q.

Derivative of a Power of x If f (x) = x, since the derivative f ′ (x) = 1, we

have:
Dxa = a · xa−1 , a ∈ Q.

5.5 Derivative of the Reciprocal of a Function

Theorem 5.5. The derivative of the reciprocal of a non-zero differentiable func-
tion is equal to a fraction where:
ˆ the numerator is the opposite of the derivative of the function;

ˆ the denominator is the square of the function.

1 f ′ (x)
D =− 2 , with f (x) ̸= 0.
f (x) f (x)
Proof.

1 1 f (x) − f (x + h)
−
f (x + h) f (x) f (x)f (x + h)
y ′ = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
 
f (x + h) − f (x) 1
= lim − · =
h→0 h f (x)f (x + h)
f (x + h) − f (x) 1
= − lim · lim .
h→0 h h→0 f (x)f (x + h)

14
Since f (x) is differentiable, we have:

f ′ (x)
y′ = − .
f 2 (x)

Note 6. The function value must be different from 0 at the points where we
calculate the derivative.

5.6 Derivative of the Quotient of Two Functions

Theorem 5.6. The derivative of the quotient of two differentiable functions
(with a non-zero divisor function) is equal to a fraction with:

ˆ the numerator as the difference between the derivative of the dividend mul-
tiplied by the non-derivative divisor and the non-derivative dividend mul-
tiplied by the derivative of the divisor;
ˆ the denominator as the square of the divisor.
f ′ (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g ′ (x)
 
f (x)
D = , g(x) ̸= 0
g(x) g 2 (x)
Proof. Consider the quotient function as the product of two functions:
1
y = f (x) · .
g(x)

Apply the product rule of differentiation:

     
f (x) 1 1 1
D = D f (x) · = f ′ (x) · + f (x) · D .
g(x) g(x) g(x) g(x)

Apply the rule of differentiation of the reciprocal of a function:

   ′ 
f (x) ′ 1 −g (x)
D = f (x) · + f (x) · .
g(x) g(x) g 2 (x)

Combine with a common denominator and conclude:

f ′ (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g ′ (x)
 
f (x)
D = .
g(x) g 2 (x)

From the above theorem, we can derive the derivatives of the tangent and
cotangent functions as special cases.

15
 sin(x)
Tangent Function Derivative Express y = tan(x) as y = and,
cos(x)
applying the quotient rule, we have:

cos(x) · cos(x) − sin(x) · (− sin(x)) sin2 (x) + cos2 (x)

y′ = = .
cos2 (x) cos2 (x)

This result can also be written in the following ways:

1
y′ = or y ′ = 1 + tan2 (x).
cos2 (x)

Cotangent Function Derivative Similarly, since we can rewrite y = cot(x)

cos(x)
as y = , we can derive that:
sin(x)
1
y′ = − 2 or y ′ = −(1 + cot2 (x)).
sin (x)

16
6 Derivative of a Composite Function
Let z = g(x) be a function of the variable x, from domain A to codomain B,
and let y = f (x) be a function of the variable z, from domain B to codomain C.
The composite function y = f (g(x)) is a composite function (or function of a
function) because y is a function of z, which in turn is a function of x. The two
functions z = g(x) and y = f (x) are called the components of the composite
function.

Theorem 6.1. If the function g is differentiable at the point x and the function
f is differentiable at the point z = g(x), then the composite function y = f (g(x))
is differentiable at x and its derivative is the product of the derivatives of f with
respect to z and g with respect to x:

D[f (g(x))] = f ′ (z) · g ′ (x), z = g(x).

Generalizing for a polynomial P (x):

D[P (x)]n = n[P (x)]n−1 P ′ (x).

The derivative of a composite function can also be calculated directly without

making substitutions. The above theorem can be extended to the derivative of
a function y dependent on the variable x through any number of component
functions.
For example, in the case of three functions, being

y = f (g(z(x))),

setting
t = z(x), u = g(t), y = f (u),
the formula for the derivative of the composite function can be written as:

Df (g(z(x))) = f ′ (u) · g ′ (t) · z ′ (x).

17
7 The derivative of [f (x)]g(x)
Using the formulas related to the derivative of a composite function and the
derivative of a product, we can study a method for calculating the derivative of
the function
y = [f (x)]g(x)
where f (x) > 0 and f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions.
Given the function
y = [f (x)]g(x) ,
since f (x) > 0, it is also f (x)g(x) > 0, so we can calculate the logarithms of
both sides:
ln y = ln[f (x)]g(x) .
Applying the property of the logarithm of a power, we have:

ln y = g(x) · ln[f (x)]

If we now apply the theorems for the derivative of composite functions and the
product of two functions to both sides of the equation, we obtain
1 ′ 1
· y = g ′ (x) · ln[f (x)] + g(x) · · f ′ (x),
y f (x)
from which, considering y different from 0:
g(x) · f ′ (x)
 
y ′ = y · g ′ (x) · ln[f (x)] + .
f (x)

Since y = [f (x)]g(x) , we can write:

g(x) · f ′ (x)
 
′ g(x) ′
y = [f (x)] · g (x) · ln[f (x)] + .
f (x)
In conclusion, we can highlight the following formula for the derivative of the
function y = [f (x)]g(x) :
g(x) · f ′ (x)
 
g(x) g(x) ′
D[f (x)] = [f (x)] · g (x) · ln[f (x)] + .
f (x)

If in the function [f (x)]g(x) we take g(x) = a (a ∈ R), and apply the previous
rule, we get:
a · f ′ (x)
D[f (x)]a = [f (x)]a · = a · [f (x)]a−1 · f ′ (x).
f (x)
So the derivative rule for powers of a function is true for every a ∈ R.
In particular, if x > 0 and a ∈ R, we have:

Dxa = a · xa−1 .

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8 The derivative of an inverse function
Theorem 8.1. Consider the function y = f (x) defined and invertible in the
interval I, and its inverse function x = f −1 (y). If f (x) is differentiable with a
derivative different from 0 at every point in I, then f −1 (y) is also differentiable,
and the following relationship holds:
1
D[f −1 (y)] = , with x = f −1 (y).
f ′ (x)

Assuming that both derivatives exist, to justify the relationship between

them, we recall that
f −1 [f (x)] = x.
Differentiating both sides of this equation, we have

D[f −1 (y)] · f ′ (x) = 1,

from which we obtain:

1
D[f −1 (y)] = .
f ′ (x)
Of particular interest is the application of the theorem in calculating the
derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. The function
h π π yi = arcsin x, defined
for x ∈ [−1, 1], is the inverse of x = sin y, with y ∈ − ; .
2 2
π π
Furthermore, the sine function is differentiable in ] − ; [ with a non-zero
2 2
derivative. By the previous theorem, the function arcsin x is differentiable in
] − 1; 1[ and we have:
1 1 1 1
D arcsin x = = =p =√ .
D sin y cos y 2
1 − sin y 1 − x2

1
D arcsin x = √ .
1 − x2
Similarly, the following formulas can be obtained:
1
D arccos x = − √
1 − x2
1
D arctan x =
1 + x2
1
D arccotx = −
1 + x2

19
9 Derivatives of order higher than the first
Consider the function:

y = f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − x − 1, x ∈ R.

Its derivative,
y ′ = 3x2 + 4x − 1,
is, in turn, a function of the variable x, defined for x ∈ R. We can also calculate
the derivative of this function:

Dy ′ = 6x + 4.

This derivative is called the second derivative of the function f (x) and is
denoted by the symbol:
y ′′ or f ′′ (x).
The obtained second derivative is also a function that we can differentiate;
differentiating it, we get the third derivative:

y ′′′ = 6.

In general, given a function y = f (x), with the examined procedure, we can

obtain the second, third, fourth derivatives, and so on. These are called higher-
order derivatives of the given function.
Note 7. From the fourth derivative onwards, we use the number in parentheses:

y (4) , y (5) , y (6) , . . .

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10 The differential of a function
Let f (x) be a differentiable and therefore continuous function in an interval,
and let x and (x + ∆x) be two points in that interval.

Differential
Definition 10.1. The differential of a function f (x), relative to the point x and
the increment ∆x, is the product of the derivative of the function calculated at
x and the increment ∆x. The differential is indicated by df (x) or dy:

dy = f ′ (x) · ∆x.

Note 8. Note that the differential depends on two elements: the point x where
we calculate the differential and the increment ∆x we consider.
Example 10.1. The differential of the function

y = 2x3 + 3

is
dy = 6x2 · ∆x,
which for x = 1 and ∆x = 0.3 is

dy = 6 · (1)2 · 0.3 = 1.8,

while for x = 2 and ∆x = 0.2 is

dy = 6 · (2)2 · 0.2 = 4.8.

Consider the function

y=x
and calculate its differential:
dy = 1 · ∆x.
Therefore:
dx = ∆x.
This means that the differential of the independent variable x is equal to the
increment of the variable itself.
Substituting into the definition of the differential, we can write

dy = f ′ (x) · dx,

which means that the differential of a function is equal to the product of its
derivative and the differential of the independent variable.

21
 From this last relation, by solving for f ′ (x), we have:

dy
f ′ (x) = .
dx
The first derivative of a function is thus the ratio of the differential of the func-
tion to that of the independent variable.

22
11 Theorems on differentiable functions
11.1 Lagrange’s theorem
Lagrange’s theorem

Theorem 11.1. If a function f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a; b] and

is differentiable at every interior point, there exists at least one point c in the
interval [a; b] such that the relation holds:

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c).
b−a
y

f (b) B

f (a) A
x

From Lagrange’s theorem, the following theorems follow.

Theorem 11.2. If a function f (x) is continuous on the interval [a; b], differen-
tiable on ]a; b[, and such that f ′ (x) is zero at every interior point of the interval,
then f (x) is constant throughout [a; b].

A B
f (a) = f (b)

x
a b

Proof. Hypotheses:
1. f (x) is continuous in [a; b];

2. f ′ (x) = 0 in ]a; b[.

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Thesis:
f (x) = k in [a; b].
Applying the Lagrange theorem in the interval [a; x], where x is any point
in [a; b] different from a, we can write, with c ∈]a; x[:
f (x) − f (a)
= f ′ (c) = 0 → f (x) − f (a) = 0 → f (x) = f (a).
x−a
Therefore, f is constant throughout [a; b].
Theorem 11.3. If f (x) and g(x) are two functions continuous in the interval
[a; b], differentiable in ]a; b[, and such that f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) for every x ∈]a; b[, then
they differ by a constant.
Proof. Hypotheses:
1. f (x) and g(x) are continuous in [a; b];
2. f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) in ]a; b[.
Thesis:
f (x) − g(x) = k in [a; b].
Calling z(x) the difference between the given functions, i.e., z(x) = f (x) − g(x),
we have z ′ (x) = f ′ (x) − g ′ (x). By hypothesis f ′ (x) = g ′ (x), so z ′ (x) = 0, for
every x in ]a; b[. According to the previous theorem, z(x) = k throughout [a; b],
and thus f (x) − g(x) = k.

11.2 The Rolle’s Theorem

If in the Lagrange theorem we add the hypothesis f (a) = f (b), then f ′ (c) = 0.
The following theorem is obtained.

Rolle’s Theorem
Theorem 11.4. If, for a function f (x) continuous in the interval [a; b] and
differentiable at the interior points of this interval, the condition f (a) = f (b)
holds, then there exists at least one point c inside the interval such that f ′ (c) = 0.
y

m = f ′ (c) = 0

f (a) = f (b) A B

x
a c b

24
11.3 Cauchy’s Theorem
Cauchy’s Theorem
Theorem 11.5. If the functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous on the interval
[a; b], differentiable at every interior point of this interval, and furthermore,
g ′ (x) ̸= 0 for all x in ]a; b[, then there exists at least one point c in the interval
[a; b] such that:
f (b) − f (a) f ′ (c)
= ′ .
g(b) − g(a) g (c)
In other words, the ratio of the increments of the functions f (x) and g(x) in the
interval [a; b] is equal to the ratio of their respective derivatives calculated at a
particular point c within the interval.

11.4 L’Hôpital’s Rule

The calculation of derivatives and the theorems studied so far are also useful
for computing certain limits that appear in an indeterminate form such as 00 or
∞
∞ . This is possible thanks to the following theorem.

L’Hôpital’s Rule
Theorem 11.6. Given a neighborhood I of a point c and two functions f (x)
and g(x) defined in I (excluding possibly c), if:
ˆ f (x) and g(x) are differentiable in I with g ′ (x) ̸= 0,
ˆ both functions tend to either 0 or ∞ as x → c,
f ′ (x)
ˆ the limit of the ratio g ′ (x) of their derivatives exists as x → c,

then the limit of the ratio of the functions exists and is:
f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ .
x→c g(x) x→c g (x)

The theorem also extends to the limit as x → +∞ (or −∞). In this case,
the conditions of the theorem do not have to be true for a neighborhood of a
point; instead, there must exist a value M > 0 such that these conditions are
satisfied for all x > M (or x < −M ). The relation is then:

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ ,
x→+∞ g(x) x→+∞ g (x)

and a similar relationship holds for x → −∞.

In cases where the limit of the ratio of derivatives itself appears as an in-
∞
determinate form like 00 or ∞ , and the functions f ′ (x) and g ′ (x) satisfy the
assumptions of the theorem, one can proceed to the limit of the ratio of second
derivatives, and so on for successive derivatives.

25