Principles of irrigation

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Definition: Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full nourishment of
the crops.
It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water,
by construction of dams & reservoirs, canals & head works and finally distributing the
water to agricultural fields.

Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through the rains. However, the total
rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the
maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain
correct timing of water. This is possible only through systematic irrigation system by
collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crops as when
it is needed.
Generally the following are some of the factors that necessitate irrigation.
inadequate rainfall
uneven distribution of Rainfall
increasing the yield of the crops
growing a number of crops
to insure against drought.
to grow perennial crops.

Scope of irrigation engineering

Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to the land for
raising crops. It includes all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the
agricultural fields. It deals with hydrology, river Engineering, the design and construction
of dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation structures. It also deals
with surface and sub surface drainage system, soil reclamation, water-soil –crop
relationships. Other allied sciences such as flood control, hydropower, and inland
navigation are also studied in IRRIGATION Engineering.

Various aspects of irrigation Engineering is:

1. Water resources and hydrology aspect – to locate various water sources and to
study the hydrology of the region. This includes study of meteorology,
precipitation, stream flow, floods, river engineering, reservoirs and flood control.
The following information are required while designing various irrigation
structures.

1
Principles of irrigation

 The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for storage.
 Maximum discharge at a river site.
 Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for various
purposes.
 Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited
2. Engineering Aspect - involves the development of a source of water for
irrigation and construction of various irrigation structures.
 Dams and water power Engineering
 Diversion and Distribution structures
 Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation Irrigation).
3. Agricultural aspect – Involves irrigation practice and the study of agricultural
Characteristics of the land.
4. Management Aspect- deals with successful implementation and efficient
management of engineering aspects and agricultural works.

1.2 BENEFITS AND ILL-EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION

There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.

- Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields through
controlled and timely supply of water to the crop.
- Optimum benefits: optimal utilization of water is made possible by irrigation.
Optimum utilization implies obtaining maximum crop yield with any amount of
water. In other words, yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in
excess of optimum quantity.
- Elimination of mixed cropping in areas where irrigation is not ensured,
generally mixed cropping is adapted. Mixed cropping is growing two or more
crops simultaneously in the same field. If the weather condition is not suitable to
one of the crops it may be suitable for the other; and thus at least some yield is
obtained. Mixed cropping can be adopted when irrigation facilities are not
available, but if irrigation is assured it can be eliminated. Mixed cropping is
generally not acceptable, because different crops require different types of field
preparations and different types of manures, amount of water etc.
- General prosperity: Revenue returns are sometimes quite high and helps in all
round development of the country
- Generation of hydroelectric power: cheaper power generation can be obtained
on objects primarily designed for irrigation alone. Also falls on irrigation channels
can be utilized to generate electricity which may help in industrializing the rural
area and so in solving the problem of fuel shortage.
- Domestic water supply:- irrigation helps in augmenting the town water supply
where water is available with great difficulty. It also provides water for swimming
bathing, cattle drinking etc.
- Facilities of communication: Irrigation channels are generally provided with
embankments and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a good road
way to the villagers for walking, cycling or even motoring.
- In land navigation

2
Principles of irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly designed and
implemented. Most of these are due to excess irrigation water application. Some of the
common ill-effects are
1. Waterlogging
when cultivators apply more water than actually required by the crops, excess
water percolates in to the ground and raises the water table. Water logging occurs
when the water table reaches near the root zones of the crops. The soil pores
become fully saturated and the normal circulation of air in the root zones of the
crop is stopped and the growth of the crops is decreased. Thus crop yield
considerably reduces. When the water table reaches the ground surface, the land
becomes saline.

2. Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system might
have a negative influence on soil microbar activities, on the quality of surface and
sub surface water resources and the survival of the surrounding vegetation.
Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of pollution. One of
these is the seepage in to the ground of the nitrates that has been applied to the
soil as fertilizer. Sometimes up to 50% of the nitrates applied to the soil sink in to
the underground reservoir. The under ground water thus get polluted.

3. Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of disease
like malaria.

4. Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Some times cheaper water is to be

provided at the cost of the government and revenue returns are low.

1.3 STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER

Every water is not suitable for irrigation. The quality of irrigation water is very much
influenced by the continents of the soil, which is to be irrigated particular water may be
harmful for irrigation on a particular soil but the same water may be tolerable or even
useful on some other soil. Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its
intended use if it contains:
 Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food
 chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture
characteristics
 Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with water.

There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused by the supply of irrigation water
and Salinity caused by the upward movement of water and salts, related to high water
tables and lack of drainage; it is only indirectly related to salts in the irrigation water The

3
Principles of irrigation

general solution to these problems is to remove the salts from the soil by providing extra
water, which dissolves the salts and percolates to the saturated zone. Where it is removed
by drainage. This is one of the reasons why irrigation systems also require drainage
systems.The process is called leaching.

a. Sediment: its effect depends upon the type of irrigated land when fine sediment
from water is deposited on sandy soils the fertility is improved on the other hand
if the sediment has been derived from the eroded areas it may reduce the fertility
or decrease the soil permeability. Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation
canals as it increases their siltation and maintenance costs. In general ground
water or surface water from reservoirs, etc does not have sufficient sediment to
cause any serious problems in irrigation.

b. Total concentration of soluble salts: Salts, when present in excessive quantities,

reduce osmotic activities of the plants and may prevent adequate aeration causing
injuries to plant growth. The effect of salts on plant growth depends largely upon
the total amount of salts in the soil solution. The salinity concentration of the soil
solution (Cs) after the consumptive use (Cu) has been extracted from the soil is
given by
CxQ
Cs=
Q  (Cu  Peff )
where Q is quantity of water applied
Cu is consumptive use of water i.e. the total amount of water used up by the plant
for its growth.
Peff is useful rainfall
Cu-Peff is used up irrigation water
C concentration of salt in irrigation water
CQ is the total salt applied to the soil with Q amount of water.

Concentration of salt is measured in PPM (mg/l). Concentration of salt above 2000

PPM is generally harmful for almost all crops. Salt concentration is measured by
determining electrical conductivity.

Low Conductivity (low salinity) 100-250 micromhos/cm

Medium conductivity 250-750 micromhos/cm
High conductivity 750-2250 micromhos/cm
Very high conductivity >2250 micromhos at 250C

C. Proportion of sodium ions to other cat-ions small quantities of sodium ions are
present in most soils relative to other cat-ions. If its percentage increases it has an
influence on the aggregation of soil grains i.e. breaks down. The soil becomes less
permeable and of poorer tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its PH increases towards
that of an alkaline soil. High sodium soils are therefore, plastic, sticky when wet, and
are prone to form clods and they crust on drying.

The proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is generally measured by a

4
Principles of irrigation

factor called sodium-absorption ratio (SAR) and represents the sodium hazards
of water. SAR is defined as:

SAR=

Na

C
a  M g 
2

Where the concentration of the ions is expressed in equivalent per million (epm)
epm is obtained by dividing the concentration of salt in mg/1 or PPM by its
combining weight (i.e. atomic weight valence)

When SAR between 0-10 it is low sodium water

10-18 medium ,,
18-26 High ,,
>26 very high ,,
Low sodium water is suitable for irrigation except in crops, which are sensitive to
sodium like fruit trees, avocados etc where as medium sodium water is hazardous
in fine textured soils. Very high sodium water is generally not suitable for
irrigation.
SAR value can be reduced by adding gypsum (CaSo4)
d. Potentially toxic elements: elements like Boron, Selenium, etc may be toxic to
plants.
Concentration of Boron exceeding 0.3 PPM may be toxic to certain plants.
>0.5 PPM dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits.
Dates. Beets, asparagus are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant crops its
concentration should not exceed 4 PPM . Boron is present in various soaps.
Wastewater containing soap, etc should be used with great care in irrigation.
Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation water
(FAO,1976)

5
Principles of irrigation

Irrigation problem Degree of problem

No Increasing Severe
problem problem problem
Salinity <0.75 0.75-3.0 >3.0
(affects water uptake)
Ecw (mmhos/cm)
Permeability (affects water
infiltration and availability)
Ecw (mmhos/cm) >0.5 0.5-0.2 <0.2
Adj.SAR
Montmorilonite Hlite- <6 6-9 >9
vermiculite <8 8-16 >16
Kaolimite-sesquioxides <10 16-24 >24
Specific ion toxicity
(affects sensitive crops)
sodium (adj. SAR) <3 3-9 >9
Chloride(meq/1) <4 4-10 >10
Boron (mg/1) 0.75 0.75-2.0 >12
Miscellaneous effects
(affects susceptible crops)
No3-Nor NH4-N(mg/1) <5 5-30 >30
Hco3(meq/1) <1.5 1.5-85 >8.5
PH
(Normal range 6.5-8.4)

6
Principles of irrigation

Chapter 2

2. SOIL- PLANT -WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Soil- Plant Water relationships relate the properties of soil that affect the movement,
retention and use of water. It can be divided & treated as:

 Soil-water relation
 Soil-plant relation
 Plant-water relations

2.1 Soil Suitability for agricultural practices

Soil is a very important agricultural complement with out which no agricultural is

possible. It is important to study the soil characteristics to say a particular soil type is
suitable for agriculture or not. The process whereby the suitability of land for different
uses such as agriculture is assessed is known as land evaluation.

Land evaluation for agricultural purpose provides information for deciding ‘which crops
to grow where’ and other related crops. Hence, before a land is put certain land uses, its
suitability for that particular land use should be evaluated.

Soil map provides us with detailed information on soils that are utilized for land
capability classification. This indicates the suitability or unsuitability of the soil for
growing crops.

Land capability classification is an interpretive grouping of soils based on inherent soil

characteristics, external land features and environmental factors that may restrict the use
of the land for growing varieties of crops.

For land capability classification we need information on:

1) The susceptibility of the soil to various factors that cause soil damage & decrease in its
productivity.(we get this from soil map)
2) Its potential for crop production (obtained by growing crops).
Lands are first tentatively placed in different land capability groups on the basis of slope
of the land, erosion and depth of the soil.

The suitability of soil for agricultural practices may be affected by physical and chemical
soil characteristics. The physical characteristics include

1. Effective soil depth:- The depth of the soil which can be exploited by crops is very
important in selecting soils for agricultural purpose. Experience has shown that many
irrigated crops produce excellent yields with a well drained effective root depth of 90
cm.

7
Principles of irrigation

2. Water Holding capacity:- This refers to the depth of water that can be held in the
soil and available for plants. A good soil from agricultural point of view should have
a very good water holding capacity. Clay soils have large water holding capacity,
because drainage water is high in these soils. Ideally loam soils are the best in this
regard. Since in sandy soils application losses are high and in clay soils drainage and
aeration is difficult.
3. Non – capillary porosity:- High values of non- capillary porosity is desirable,
because lower values of porosity and high values of bulk density hinders root
development and expansion.
4. Topography: - A leveled land is the most suitable for agriculture. Because, the water
for irrigation can easily be conveyed and less conservation and management practices
are required. Where as, in sloppy soils, the more is the land wasted in bunds and
channels in surface irrigation and there fore that cost for land development per unit
area will be high.
5. Texture:- It is the weight percentage of the mineral matter that occurs in each of
the specified size fractions of the soil. It is the relative proportions of sand silt and
clay, (Particles sized groups smaller than gravel i.e. < 2 mm in diameter). It is the
number and size of its mechanical particles after all compounds holding them
together have been destroyed. Loamy soils are the best texture for agriculture.
Deviation either into sandy or clayey texture will reduce the value of the land for
agriculture.
6. Soil Structure: It refers to the manner in which primary soil particles are arranged
into, secondary particles or peds or aggregates. Soil structure determines the total
porosity, the shape of individual pores and their size distribution, hence it affects: -
- Retention & transmission of fluids in the soil
- Germination, root growth,
- Tillage, Erosion etc.

7. Soil Consistence: Is the resistance of the soil to deformation or rupture. It is

determined by the cohesive and adhesive properties of the entire soil mass. Structure
deals with size, shape and distinctness of natural soil aggregates, and consistence
deals with strength and nature of the force between particles. It is important for tillage
or traffic consideration.

Soil Consistence Terms: - Consistence is described for three moisture levels: wet, moist
& dry. For instance, a given soils may be sticky when wet, firm when moist and hard
when dry.
The terms to describe soil consistency include: -
1) Wet soil - non sticky, sticky, non plastic, plastic
2) Moist soil - loose, friable, firm
3) Dry soil - loose, soft, and hard.

8. Soil Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity

8
 Principles of irrigation

Permeability - is the ease with which liquids, gases and roots pass through the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity is the permeability of the soil for water. I.e. the ease with which
the soil pores permit water movement. It controls the soil water movement.

The major factors affecting hydraulic conductivity are texture and structure of soils. E.g.
Sandy soils have higher saturated conductivity than finer textured soils. Soils with stable
granular structure conduct water rapidly than those with unstable structural units, since
they will not break down when get wetted. Fine textured soils during dry weather because
of their cracks allow water rapidly then the cracks swell shut, and drastically reduce
water movement.

1. Salinity (soluble salt content) When the quantity of salts in irrigated land is too high,
the salts accumulate in the crop root zone. These salts create difficulty to crops in
extracting enough water from the salty solution. Thus, for the land to be of high value for
irrigation, the soluble salt content should be low as much as possible.

2. Amount of Exchangeable sodium:-When the amount of exchangeable sodium is

high in the soil, the soil will have large amount of Na+ in the form of colloid. This results
in tremendous reduction of the permeability of the soil. This in turn makes it difficult to
the cop to get sufficient water and causes crusting of seedbeds. Such a soil is called Black
alkali soil. Hence, the amount of exchangeable sodium should be low in agricultural
lands.
3. Soil Reaction (PH) PH of a soil is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. It is a
measure of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a soil. Mathematically,

 1 
PH  log10   
 (H ) 
Excessively low or high pH values are not good for proper growth and adequate yield
production as they bring about acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
In general, in any ecosystem, (a farm, forest, regional water shed etc.) soils have five key
roles
1. Medium for plant growth: It supports the growth of higher plants by providing a
medium for plant roots and supplying nutrient elements that are essential to the entire plant.
2. Regulator of water supplies: Its properties are the principal factor controlling the fate of
water in the hydrologic system. Water loss, utilization, contamination, and
purification are all affected by the soil.
3. Recycler of raw materials: With in the soil, waste products and dead bodies of plants,
animals and people are assimilated, and their basic elements are made available for
reuse by the next generation of life.
4. Habitat for soil organisms: It provides habitats for living organism, from small
mammals and reptiles to tiny insects to microscopic cells.
5. Engineering medium: In human - built ecosystem, soil plays an important role as an
engineering medium. It is not only an important building material (earth fill, bricks)
but provides the foundation for virtually every road, airport, and house we build.

9
 Principles of irrigation

In relation to irrigation:
 The capacity of the soil to accept, transmit or retain relatively large amounts of
water (Water holding capacity of the soil) in a relatively large amounts of water in
a relatively short time should be measured.
 The surface infiltration rates and the case of water movement through unsaturated
and through saturated layers (hydraulic conductivity) need to be measured
quantitively.
 The amount, kind and distribution of clay minerals (Soil chemical properties) are
specially important to water movement, relation and availability of plants.
 Studies of cracking and structural changes under different management practices
(helps surface sealing or a need of pre irrigation)
 Physical properties of soil matrix.

2.2 Soil- water relations

- It means that physical properties of soil in relation to water

- The rate of entry of water in to the soil and its retention, movement and
availability to plant roots are all physical phenomena. Hence it is important to
know the physical properties of soil in relation to water.

Classes of Soil Water Availability

Water can exist in either of the following forms in the soil.

Gravitational water: Water is rapidly drained from the soil profile by the force of
gravity. The term rapid is relative and in soil-water studies normally refers to time
periods of 24 to 48 hours.

Capillary water: is the water remaining after rapid drainage by gravity. This water may
be removed by forces greater than gravity such as those exerted by plant roots.

Hygroscopic water: water which adheres to soil particles which can not generally be
removed by forces generally found in nature. Hygroscopic water can be removed by
oven drying a soil sample, but can not be removed by plant roots.

Water may also be classified as unavailable, available and gravitational or superfluous.

Such a grouping refers to the availability of soil water to plants. Gravitational water
drains quickly from the root zone under normal drainage conditions. Unavailable water is
held too tightly by capillary forces and is generally not accessible to plant roots.
Available water is the difference between gravitational and unavailable water.

Water drains from the soil under the constant pull of gravity. Sandy soils drain readily,
while clay soils drain very slowly. Hence, one day after irrigating a sandy soil, most of
the gravitational water has drained out of the soil, where as clay may require 4 or more
days for gravitational water to drain.

10
Principles of irrigation

2.3 Soil Moisture Constants

The following soil moisture contents are of significance importance in agriculture and are
termed soil moisture constants.

1. Saturation Capacity: - When all the micro and macro pore spaces are filled with
water, the soil is said to have reached its saturation capacity. At field capacity the
water is held loosely and tensions are almost nill. Thus, plants will not have any
difficulty in extracting moisture from soil.

2. Field capacity: - is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained
down. At field capacity, the macro pores are filled with air & capillary pores filled
with water. Field capacity is the upper limit of available soil moisture. It is often
defined as moisture content in a soil two (light sandy soil) or three (heavy soil),
days after having been saturated and after drainage of gravitational water becomes
slow or negligible and moisture content has become stable.

- Larger pore spaces filled with air while the smaller ones with water
- At field capacity Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is b/n 1/10 – 1/3 atm.

Some factors which influence FC.

- Soil texture
- Presence of impending layer (soil profile), arise from plaguing the same depth
yearly  hard pan.

11
Principles of irrigation

The volumetric moisture content at field capacity is given by

fc =  b. m

- Field capacity can be determined by ponding water on a soil surface in an area of

about 2 to 5 m2 and allowing it to drain for one to three days preventing surface
evaporation. Then soil samples are taken from different depths and the moisture
content is determined as usual, which gives the field capacity.

3. Permanent Wilting Point: - is the moisture content beyond which plants can no
longer extract enough moisture and remain witted unless water is added to the
soil. The water beyond the permanent wilting point is tightly held to the solid
particles that plants cannot remove moisture at their normal rate to prevent wilting
of the plants. The soil moisture tension at PWP ranges from 7 to 32 atm,
depending on the soil texture, kinds of crops and salt content in the soil solution.

- Since the change in moisture content () is insignificant for changes in SMT
from 7 to 32 atm. Hence, 15 atm. is taken as SMT at PWP.
- At PWP the plant starts wilting, and if no water is given to the plant, then it
will die.
-
N. B v(wp) = b m(wp) (volumetric moisture content at Permanent wilting point)

Soil moisture ranges:

Total available water, TAW
The soil moisture b/n field capacity and permanent wilting point is called available water.
This is the water available for plant use. Fine grained soils generally have a wider range
of available moisture than course textured soil.

Moisture content (%) Available Depth of water

Soil type Fc Pwp water (%) per unit depth
(cm/m depth)
Fine sand 3-5 1-3 2 2-4
Sandy loam 5-15 3-8 2-7 4-11
Silty loam 12-18 6-10 6-8 6-13
Clayey loam 15-30 7-16 8-14 10-18
Clay 25-40 12-20 13-20 16-30

TAW = (v(fc) - v (wp))D. where D = Root Depth of the crop

- Not exact because crop roots do not extract water uniformly from the soil
profile.

Management allowed deficit, MAD.

The degree to which the volume of water in the soil is allowed to deplete before
the next irrigation is applied. That is portion of the available moisture which is

12
Principles of irrigation

easily extracted by the plant roots. It is commonly 60 – 80 % of the available

water.
MAD = P*TAW P depends on type of crop and Crop growing stage.

Soil moisture deficit, SMD.

The depletion of soil moisture below field capacity at the time that particular soil
moisture content, v , is measured. That is the amount of water required to bring
the soil moisture back to the field capacity. Deficit = Fc – soil moisture at that
instant.
SMD = (v(fc) - v ) D

13
Principles of irrigation

Fig. Soil moisture levels and available water ranges.

14
3. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Duty – Delta relation ship

Duty of water: is its capacity to irrigate land. It is the relation between the area of the land
irrigated and the quantity of water required. Thus Duty ( D ) is defined as the area of the land
which can be irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of water was applied to the land continuously for
the entire base period of the crop.
- It is expressed in hectares / cumecs.

Base period (B): the base period is the period between the first watering and the last watering.
The base period is slightly different from the crop period which is the period between the time of
sowing and the time of harvesting the crop.

Delta ( ): is the total depth of water supplied to the crop during the entire base period. If the
entire quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth of water
would have been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by dividing
the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop by the area of the land (in ha)

Delta ( ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Total area of land (ha)
The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows. Considering the
area of land of D-hectares. If Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the total quantity of water used in
the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by a continuous flow of 1 cumec for B days.

Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 …. (a)

If Delta ( ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of D- hectares, the quantity
of water is also given by:

Quantity of water = ( D *104)* , m3 ……. (b)

Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s (a) and (b)

1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)*

 D = 8.64 B

= 8.64 B
D
Where D = in ha/cumec
= in m
B = in days

Lecture notes
 Factors affecting Duty

- Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller the losses, the
greater is duty because one cumec of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
 Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
 structure of soil
 Slop of ground
 Climatic condition
 Method of application of water
 Salt content of soil
- Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that decrease it (by
decreasing various losses).

Example: The base period, duty of water and area under irrigation for various crops under
a canal system are given in the table below. If the losses in the reservoir and canals are
respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir capacity.

Crop Wheat Sugar cane Cotton Rice V. table

Base period B (days) 120 320 180 120 120

Duty , D (ha/cumec) 1800 1600 1500 800 700
Area irrigated (ha) 15000 10,000 5000 7500 5000

Soln_ = Calculation is tabulated here below.

Crop Wheat Sugarcane cotton Rice Vegetable Sum

8.64 0.576 1.725 0.972 1.296 1.481 -
= ,m
D
Volume of water = 8640 17280 4860 9720 7410 47910 ha-m
*Airr (ha-m)

Total volume of water 47,910 ha-m

47910
Volume at head of canal =  63,880 ha-m
0.75
63880
Volume of reservoir =  75,150 ha-m
0.85

Definitions of important terms

2

Lecture notes
Every plant or crop requires a certain quantity of water for maturity. No other need is more
essential to the plants than water. As human beings need water so do plants.

1. Crop water requirement:

It is defined as “the depth of water needed to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration
(ETcrop) of a disease free crop growing in large fields under non-restricting soil conditions
including soil water and fertility and achieving full production potential under the given growing
environment”. That is, it is the quantity of water required by the crop in a given period of time to
meet its normal growth under a given set of environmental & field conditions.

The determination of water requirements is the main part of the design and planning of an
irrigation system.

The water requirement is the water required to meet the water losses through
- Evapotranspiration (ET)
- Unavoidable application losses
- Other needs such as leaving & land preparation

The water requirement of crops may be contributed from different sources such as irrigation,
Effective rainfall, Soil moisture storage and ground water contributions.

Hence, WR = IR + ER + S + GW

Where IR = Irrigation requirement

ER = Effective rainfall
S = carry over soil moisture in the crop root zone
GW = ground water contribution

a) Irrigation requirement of Crops

The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the part of water requirement of crops that
should be fulfilled by irrigation In other words, it is the water requirement of crops excluding
effective rain fall, carry over soil moisture and ground water contributions.
WR=IR +ER + S +GW
IR= WR-(ER+S+GW)

b) Effective Rainfall (ER)

Effective rainfall can be defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can be utilized
by crops. All the rainfall that falls is not useful or effective. As the total amount of rainfall
varies, so does the amount of useful or effective rainfall. Some of the seasonal rainfall that falls
will be lost as unnecessary deep percolation; surface runoff and some water may remain in the
soil after the crop is harvested. From the water requirement of crops point of view, this water,
which is lost, is ineffective.

People in different disciplines of course define effective rainfall in different ways. To a canal
irrigation engineer, it is the rainfall that reaches the storage reservoir, to a hydropower engineer,
it is the rain fall that is useful for running the turbines and for Ground water engineers or Geo –
hydrologists, it is that portion of the rainfall that contributes to the ground water reservoir.

Lecture notes
CropWat 4 Windows has four methods for calculating the effective rainfall from entered
monthly total rainfall data.

1. Fixed Percentage Effective Rainfall

The effective rainfall is taken as a fixed percentage of the monthly rainfall;

Effective Rainfall = % of Total Rainfall

2. Dependable Rain
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid and sub-
humid climates. This formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = 0.6 * Total Rainfall - 10 ... (Total Rainfall < 70 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 0.8 * Total Rainfall - 24 ... (Total Rainfall > 70 mm)

3. Empirical Formula for Effective Rainfall

This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see Dependable Rain method above) with some
parameters left to the user to define. The formula is as follows:

Effective Rainfall = a * Total Rainfall - b ... (Total Rainfall < z mm)

Effective Rainfall = c * Total Rainfall - d ... (Total Rainfall > z mm)

where a, b, c, and z are the variables to be defined by the user.

4. Method of USDA Soil Conservation Service (default)

The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by the USDA Soil
Conservation Service which is as follows:

Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall / 125 * (125 - 0.2 * Total Rainfall)

(Total Rainfall < 250 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 125 + 0.1 * Total Rainfall
(Total Rainfall > 250 mm)

c) Ground water contribution (Gw):

Some times there is a contribution from the groundwater reservoir for water requirement of
crops. The actual contribution from the groundwater table is dependent on the depth of ground
water table below the root zone & capillary characteristics of soil. For clayey soils the rate of
movement is low and distance of upward movement is high while for light textured soils the rate
is high and the distance of movement is low. For practical purposes the GW contribution when
the ground water table is below 3m is assumed to be nil.

d) Carry over soil moisture(S):

This is the moisture retained in the crop root zone b/n cropping seasons or before the crop is
planted. The source of this moisture is either from the rainfall that man occurs before sowing or
it may be the moisture that remained in the soil from past irrigation. This moisture also
4

Lecture notes
contributes to the consumptive use of water and should be deducted from the water requirement
of crops in determining irrigation requirements.

2. Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)

After the exact evapotranspiration of crops have been determined the NIR should be determined.
This is the net amount of water applied to the crop by irrigation exclusive of ER, S and GW.

NIR = WR – ER –S –GW

The word ‘net’ is to imply that during irrigation there are always unavoidable losses as runoff
and deep percolation.

NIR is determined during different stages of the crop by dividing the whole growing season into
suitable intervals. The growing season is more preferably divided into decades. The ETcrop during
each decade is determined by subtracting these contributions from the ETcrop.

3. Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)

Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied during irrigation to compensate for the
unavoidable losses. The total water applied to satisfy ET and losses is known as Gross
irrigation requirement (GIR)

GIR =NIR Where Ea =application efficiency

Ea

4. Evapotranspiration:

This includes the water lose through evaporation and transpiration.

a) Evaporation: - is the process by which a liquid changes into water vapour, which is water
evaporating from adjacent soil, water surfaces of leaves of plants. In irrigation this is applied for
the loss of water from the land surface.

b) Transpiration: - is the process by which plants loose water from their bodies. This loss of
water includes the quantity of water transpired by the plant and that retained in the plant tissue.
That is, the water entering plant roots and used to build plant tissue or being passed through
leaves of the plant into the atmosphere.

5. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET): -

This is also called reference crop evapotranspiration and it is the rate of evapotranspiration from
an extensive surface 8 to 15 cm tall, green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing,
completely shading the ground and not short of water”.

Under normal field conditions, the potential evapotranspiration does not occur and thus suitable
crop coefficients are used to change ETo to actual evapotranspiration of the crops.

Lecture notes
3.2 Consumptive use (CU) of water and methods of estimation

Consumptive use (CU) is synonymous to evapotranspiration (ETcrop).

Consumptive use:- is the depth (quantity) of water required by the crop to meet its
evapotranspiration losses and the water used for metabolic processes. But the water used for
metabolic processes is very small & accounts only less than 1 % of evapotranspiration. Hence
the consumptive use is taken to be the same as the loss of water through evapotranspiration.

Note: CU= ET + water used by the plants in their metabolic process for
building plant tissues (insignificant)

It involves:
 Problems of water supply
 Problems of water management
 Economics of irrigation projects

CU use can apply to water requirements of a crop, a farm, a field and a project. However, when
the CU of the crop is known, the water use of larger units can be calculated.

Calculation of crop water requirement

 Prediction methods for crop water requirements are used owing to the difficulty of
obtaining accurate field measurements.
 The methods often need to be applied under climatic and agronomic conditions vary
different from those under which they were originally developed.

To calculate ETcrop a three-stage procedure is recommended.

1) The effect of climate given by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo).

The methods to calculate ETo presented here in are the Blaney-Criddle method,
Thornthwaite method, the Hargeaves class A evaporation method and the penman
method.

These methods are modified to calculate ETo using the mean daily climatic data for
30 or 10 days periods. The choice of the method must be based on the type of climatic
data available and on the accuracy required in determining water needs.

2) The effect of crop characteristics.

This is given by the crop coefficient (Kc) which presents the relationship between
ETo and ETcrop.

ETcrop= Kc . ETo
Values of Kc vary with the
- type of crop
- its stage of growth
6

Lecture notes
 - growing season and the prevailing weather conditions
3) The effect of local conditions and agricultural practices.

This includes:
- the variation in climate over time - size of field
- distance and altitude - soil water availability
- Irrigation and cultivation methods and practices.

Factors Affecting Consumptive Use of Water: -

The consumptive use of water is not constant throughout the stages of the crop and
also varies for different types of crops.

Generally the factors affecting consumptive use of water can be classified as crop
factors & climatic factors.

a) Crop factors

The agronomic feature of the crops is variable, some crops completely shade
the ground while others shade only some part of the ground. To account
these variations in the nature of the crop suitable values of crop coefficient
are used to convert the PET to actual evapotranspiration. So for the same
climatic conditions different crops have different rates of consumptive uses.

b) Climatic factors:
Temperature: As the temperature increases, the saturation vapour pressure also increases and
results in increase of evaporation and thus consumptive use of water.

Wind Speed: The more the speed of wind, the more will be the rate of evaporation, because the
saturated film of air containing the water will be removed easily.

Humidity: - The more the air humidity, the less will be the rate of consumptive use of water.
This is because water vapour moves from the point of high moisture content to the point of low
moisture content. So if the humidity is high water vapour cannot be removed easily.

Sunshine hours: - The longer the duration of the sunshine hour the larger will be the total
amount of energy received from the sun. This increases the rate of evaporation and thus the rate
of consumptive use of crops.

Determination of Consumptive Use of water

Under normal field conditions PET (ETo) will not occur and thus consumptive use (ETcrop) can
be determined by determining the ETo and multiplying with suitable crop coefficients (Kc).
Alternatively it can be determined by direct measurements of soil moisture.

1) Direct Measurement of Consumptive Use:

7

Lecture notes
 A) Lysimeter experiment
B) Field experimental plots
C) Soil moisture studies
D) Water balance method

a) Lysimeter Experiment
Lysimeters are large containers having pervious bottom. This experiment involves
growing crops in lysimeters there by measuring the water added to it and the water loss
(water draining) through the pervious bottom. Consumptive use is determined by
subtracting the water draining through the bottom from the total amount of water needed
to maintain proper growth.

b) Field Experimental Plots:

This is most suitable for determination of seasonal water requirements. Water is added to
selected field plots, yield obtained from different fields are plotted against the total
amount of water used. The yield increases as the water used increases for some limit and
then decreases with further increase in water. The break in the curve indicates the amount
of consumptive use of water.

c) Soil Moisture Studies:

In this method soil moisture measurements are done before and after each irrigation
application. Knowing the time gap b/n the two consecutive irrigations, the quantity of water
extracted per day can be computed by dividing the total moisture depletion b/n the two
successive irrigations by the interval of irrigation. Then a curve is drawn by plotting the rate
of use of water against the time from this curve, seasonal water use of crops is determined.

d) Water balance method:

This method is used for determination of consumptive use of large areas. It is expressed by the
following equation.
Precipitation = Evapotranspiration + surface runoff + deep percolation + change in soil water
contents

Except evapotranspiration, all the factors in the above equation are measured. Evapotranspiration
is determined from the equation.

2) Determination of Evapotranspiration using equations:

1) Blaney- Criddle method

This method is suggested where only temperature data are available. The Blaney- Criddle
method formula to calculate mean value over the given month is expressed as:

ETo = C[ P (0.46T+8)] mm/day

Where ETo= reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the

month considered.
8

Lecture notes
 T= mean daily temperature in oc over the month
P= mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours
obtained from table 1 for a given month and latitude.
C = adjustment factor which depends on minimum relative
humidity, sunshine hours and daytime wind estimates.
Figure 1 can be used to estimate ETo using calculated values of p(0.46T+8) for i) three levels
of minimum humidity (RH min)
ii) three levels of the ratio of actual to maximum possible sunshine
hours (n/N) and
iii) three ranges of daytime wind conditions at 2m height (Uday).

Note:
Minimum humidity refers to minimum daytime humidity
wind refers to daytime wind. Generally Uday/Unight =2 and mean 24 hr wind data should be
multiplied by 1.33 to obtain mean daytime wind.
After determining ETo, ETcrop can be predicted using the appropriate crop coefficient (Kc).

ETcrop= Kc * ETo

Example
Given: Cairo, Egypt,: latitude 300N, altitude 95m, month July.
Calculation
Tmax = Tmax daily values/31 350c.
Tmin = Tmin daily values/31 220c.
Tdaily mean = Tmean/31 or [(Tmax/31) +(Tmin/31)]/2 28.50c
P (from table for 300N) 0.31
P(0.46T+8) = 0.31(0.46*28.5 +8) 6.6mm/day
RH min (from climates of Africa) medium
n/N (from climates of Africa) high to medium
U2 day time (from climates of Africa) moderate
ETo Fig. 1 8.0 mm/day

A more simplified form of Blaney- Criddle equation in which the potential

evapotranspiration ( consumptive use ) depends only in the mean monthly
temperature and monthly day light hours is given as :
u = Kf

Where u= monthly consumptive use ,m

K = empirical crop coefficient
F = monthly consumptive use factor

4.6 * Tm  81.3 
The monthly consumptive use factor , f = P 
 100 

Lecture notes
Where p is monthly day light hours expressed as a percentage of the total day light
hours of the year . It depends on the latitude of the location . Tm is mean monthly
temperature in oC. Obtain values of P from standard tables.

The crop coefficient K depends on the location and type of crop . Values of varies
according to the different stage of crop growth period.This method gives good
results if the value of K is selected judiciously after field test.

The seasonal consumptive use (U) will be the sum of each months consumptive
use (u) for the crop growing period.
n n
 4.6 * Tm  81.3 
U= u
1
=  K * P
1 100


Where n= number of months in crop period
Limitation: This method is an approximate method , since it doesn’t consider a
number of important factors such as humidity , wind velocity and altitude

Example: Determine the consumptive use for wheat from the following data by
Blaney-Criddle method. Take K= 0.7

Month Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.

o
Mean temp. C ,Tm 20 16 14 15
% monthly day light hrs, P 7.19 7.15 7.3 7.03

Solution:
For the month of November, f=P* 4.6Tm +81.3
100
=7.19*(4.6*20+81.3
100
=12.46
u=kf =0.7*12.46=8.72cm
Like wise the values of u for months Dec., Jan.,and Feb. are computed as 7.75,
7.44 and 7.40cm respectively. Thus, seasonal consumptive use,
U=∑u=8.72 +7.75 +7.74 +7.40=31.31cm

2.Thornthwaite method

According to the Thornthwaite equation , based on the data from the eastern
U.S.A , the monthly consumptive use or the potential evapotranspiration is given
by
a

PET = 1.6 b  m 
10T
, cm / month
 I 

10

Lecture notes
Where , Tm = mean monthly temperature in oC.
I = annual heat index , obtained from monthly heat index I of the year
1.514 1.514

i =  m   Tm 
12 12
T
 5 
and I= i =
n 1
  
n 1  5 

The values of the exponents a and b are obtained from the relation
a = (67.5*10-8) I3 - ( 77.1*10-6) I2 + ( 0.01791)I + 0.492

b = maximum number of sun shine hrs in the month

12*30

Example: Estimate the potential evapotranspiration for a crop for the month of
June using the Thornthwaite equation from the following data.

Month Apr. may June July Aug. Sep. Oct.

o
Temp. Tm ( C) 4.5 12.5 20.4 20.2 21.5 10.5 5.5
Max. sun shine hrs 370 380 365 358 355 350 345

Solution:
Step 1. Obtain the monthly heat index, i
Step 2. Calculate the annual heat index , I
Step 3 . Determine the constants a & b and finally estimate PET for each month.

The monthly heat index is determined as i=(Tm/5) 1.514

Month Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct.

Heat 0.85 4.00 8.40 8.28 9.10 3.07 1.16

index i
Factor 1.03 1.06 1.01 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.96
b

Now I =∑I =0.85 +4.00 +8.4 + 8.28 + 9.10 + 3.07 + 1.16 = 34.86
And from eq.(iii ) a = 1.051
From eq. (iv ) b = 1.01
Then potential evapotranspiration for the month june is given by
PET = 1.6 b ( 10Tm/I ) n = 1.6* 1.01* ( 10*20.4/34.86)1.051
=10 .35cm

3. Hargreaves class A pan Evaporation

11

Lecture notes
ET or CU is related to pan evaporation (EP) by a constant Kc, called consumptive use
coefficient.

ET = Kc * Ep
Determination of Ep
(a.) Experimentally
(b.) Christiansen formula
Ep = 0.459R * Ct*Cw*Ch*Cs*Ce

Ct = Coefficient for temperature

Ct = 0.393 +0.02796Tc+0.0001189Tc2 Tc= mean temperature, 0c
Cw = Coefficient for wind velocity

Cw= 0.708+0.0034v-0.0000038v2 v=mean wind velocity at 0.5m

above the ground, km/day.

Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity.

Ch= 1.250-0.0087H-0.75*10-4H2 –0.85*10-8H4
H= mean percentage relative humidity at noon
Cs= Coefficient for percent of possible sunshine
Cs= 0.542+0.008S-0.78*10-4S2+0.62*10-6S3
S= mean sunshine percentage
Ce= Coefficient of elevation
Ce= 0.97+ 0.00984E E= elevation in 100 of meters.

4. Modified Penman Method

For areas where measured data on temperature, humidity, wind and sunshine duration or
radiation are available, the penman method is suggested.

The penman equation consists of two terms:

- the energy (radiation) term and
- The aerodynamic (wind and humidity) term.

The relative importance of each term varies with climatic conditions. Under calm weather
conditions the aerodynamic term is usually less important than the energy term. It is more
important under windy conditions and particularly in the more arid regions.

A slightly modified penman equation from the original (1948) is suggested here to determine
ETo involving a revised wind function term.

The method uses mean daily climatic data, since day and night time weather conditions
considerably affect level of ET; an adjustment for this is included.

The modified penman equation is ,

ETo = c ( W.Rn + (1 – W) * f(u). (ea – ed))

Radiation Aerodynamic term
term
12

Lecture notes
Where:
ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration ,mm/day
W = temperature – related weighting factor
Rn = net radiation in equivalent evaporation in , mm/day
F(u) = Wind – related function
(ea-ed) = difference between the saturation vapor pressure at mean air temp. and
the mean actual vapor pressure of the air in mbar.
C = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather
conditions.

Due to the interdependence of the variables composing the equation, the correct use of units in
which variables need to be expressed is important (see example below).

Description of variables and their Method of calculation

a) Vapor pressure (ea-ed)

Air humidity affects ETo. Humidity is expressed here as saturation vapor pressure deficit (ea-ed),
(ea-ed) is the difference between mean saturation water vapor pressure (ea) and the mean actual
vapor pressure (ed).

Air humidity data are reported as:

- Relative humidity (RH max ad RH min in percentage)

- Psychometric readings (T oC of dry and wet bulb) from wet and dry bulb
thermometers, or as a dew point temperature j (Tdew point 0C)

Time of measurement is important, but is often not given. Fortunately actual vapor pressure (ed)
is a fairly constant element and even one measurement per day may suffice.
Vapor pressure must be expressed in mbar. If ed is given in mm Hg multiply by 1.33 to find
mbar.

Tables 5 and 6 give values of ea and ed from available climatic data.

Example:

Altitude is 0 m.
I Given:

T max 350c, T min 22oc , RHmax 80%, RHmin 30%

Calculation

T mean = 28.5 oc
RHmean = 55%
ea at 28.5oc (Table 5) = 38.9 m bar
ed = ea * RHmean/100 = 21.4 m bar
(ea-ed) = 17.5 m bar

13

Lecture notes
In many regions RH during the night is near 100%, Hence Tmin = Twetbulb = Tdawpoint, and ed can
then be determined from ea at Tmin.

b) Wind function (f(u))

The effect of wind on ETo has been studied for different climates resulting in a revised wind
function and is given as:

 U 
f(u) = 0.27 1  
 100 
Where U is 24 – hr wind run in km /day at 2 m height (Table 7).

Where wind data are not collected at 2 m height, the appropriate corrections for wind
measurements taken at different heights are given below:

Height (m)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

1.35 1.15 1.06 1.00 0.93 0.88 0.85 0.83

Correction factor

Example

Given:

Wind speed at 3 m height is 250 km/day

Calculation

U , applying correction = 232 km/day ( 0.93* 250= 232)

f(u) = 0.90 ( from table 7 )
 U 
OR f (u) = 0.27* 1  2 
 100 

C) Weighting factor (1-w)

(1-w) is a weighting factor for the effect of wind and humidity on ETo

W= /( +)

Where = the rate of change of the saturation vapor pressure with temperature, and
 = the psychometric constant.

14

Lecture notes
 Values of (1-w) as related to temperature and altitude are given in Table 8.

Example:
Given:
Altitude 95 m, Tmax =35oC, Tmin = 22oC

Calculation: Tmean = 28.5oC

(1-w) (Table 8) = 0.23

d) Weighting factor (W)

W is the weighting factor for the effect of radiation of ETo. values of W as related to temperature
and altitude are given in Table 9. For temperature use (Tmax + Tmin)/2.

Example
Given :
Altitude 95 m, Tmax 35 oC , Tmin 22oC

Calculation
Tmean = 28.50C

W (Table 9) = 0.77

e) Net radiation (Rn).

Net radiation (Rn) is the difference between all incoming and out going radiation. It can be
measured, but such data are rarely available.

Rn can be calculated from solar radiation or sunshine hours (or degree of cloud cover),
temperature and humidity data. The amount of radiation received at the top of the atmosphere
(Ra) is dependent on
- latitude and
- time of the year only (Table 10).
Part of Ra is absorbed and scattered when passing through the atmosphere the remainder,
including some that is scattered but reaches the earth’s surface is called the solar radiation (R s).
Rs is dependent on Ra and the transmission through the atmosphere that is dependent on cloud
cover.

Part of Rs is reflected back directly by the soil and crop and is lost to the atmosphere. Reflection
() depends on the nature of the surface cover and is approximately 5 to 7% for water and
around 15 to 25% for most crops. (i.e. it depends on crop cover and wetness of the exposed soil
surface). That, which remains is net short-wave solar radiation (Rns).

Additional loss at the earth’s surface occurs since the earth radiates part of its absorbed energy
back through the atmosphere as long wave radiation. This is normally greater than the down
coming long wave atmospheric radiation.

15

Lecture notes
The difference between out going and in coming long wave radiation is called net long wave
radiation (Rn  ). Since outgoing is greater than incoming, Rn  represents net energy loss.

Total net radiation (Rn) = Rns-Rn  .

Radiation can be expressed in different units. It can be given as the energy required to evaporate
water from an open surface and is given here as equivalent evaporation in mm/day.

To calculate Rn the steps are

i) It measured Rn is not available, select Ra value in mm/day from Table 10 for given
month and latitude.
ii) To obtain Rs , correct Ra value for n/N by
iii) For most crops  = 0.25 Table 12 can be used to calculate Ras from the ratio n/N and
 = 0.25.
iv) Not long wave radiation (Rn  ) can be determined from T, ed and n/N. Values for the
function f (T), f(ed) and f(n/N) are given in Tables 13, 14, and 15 respectively.
v) To obtain total net radiation (Rn), the algebraic sum of Rns and Rnl is calculated.
Rnl always constitutes a net loss so
Rn = Rns - Rnl.

Example :
Given : Sunshine n = 11. 5 hr/day.
Calculation
Ra Table Ro
Rs = ( 0.25 + 0.50 n/N) Ra n = 11.5 hr
Table 11 N = 13.9 hr
n/N = 0.83 Hence Rs = 8.4 mm/day
Rns = (1-) Rs Table 12
Rnl = {f(T), f(ed), f{n/N)}
Table 13 f(T) = 16.4
Table 14 f(ed) = 0.13
Table 15 f((n/N) = 0.85 = 1.8 mm/day
Rn = Rns = - Rnl = 6.6 mm/day

f) Adjustment factor (C)

The Penman equation given assumes the most common conditions where
- radiation is medium to high
- RH max is medium to high
- Moderate daytime wind about double the night time wined.
However, these conditions are not always met. For other conditions the penman equation should
be corrected (Table 16 for values of C depending on RHmax , Rs , U day and
U day / U night )

Example
RH max 90% , Rs 12 mm/day U day 3 m/sec U day / U night 3  C = 1.28 (Table 16)
16

Lecture notes
RH max 60% , Rs 6 mm/day U day 3 m/sec U day / U night 2  C = 0.91 (Table 16)

The reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) Can be calculated using

ETo = C { W.Rn + (1 - W). f(u), (ea - ed)}

Example
Given ; Cairo , July

W = 0.77 , Rn 6.6 1 - W = 0.23

f(u) = 0.90 ( ea - ed) = 17.5 C = 1.01

Calculation:

ETo = 1.01 ( 0.77x6.6 +0.23x0.90 x17.5) = 8.8 mm/day

3.3 Irrigation Efficiencies

i) Water storage efficiency

Water storage efficiency (Es), is the amount of water actually stored in the subject area expressed
as a percentage of the volume of water that can be stored.
The general form of the Es equation is given as follows.

Wf
Ec= *100 OR
Wd

L Lov
 Zdx   Zdx  Zr Lov
ES  o o X 100
Zr
Where Z = amount infiltrated (m 3. m -1)
L = channel length (m)
Lov = length of that part of the channel that received an amount of water
equal to or in excess of the perceived requirements (m)
Zr = required amount of application (perceived requirements ) (m3.m-1)

ii- Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along the irrigation run. In sandy soils
there is generally over irrigation at upper reaches of the run when as in clayey soils, there is
over- irrigation at the lower reaches of the run.
17

Lecture notes
  y
Ed  1  x100 Where Ed = water distribution efficiency
 d
d = average depth of water penetration.
y = average deviation from d.

iii- Field Canal Efficiency (Ef)

This is a measure of the efficiency with which the water is conveyed through the field channels
until it feeds the
Wp
Ef  *100 where Ef = Field canal efficiency
Wf
Wp = water delivered to the plot at the head of furrows
and strips
Wf = water delivered to the field channel

iv- Water Use Efficiency

This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used. It may be expressed in
Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm

A. Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to the amount of water
consumptively used by the crop.

Y
Ew 
CU
B. Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the total water requirement
of crops including Cu losses and other needs.

Y
Et 
WR

v- Project Efficiency (Ep)

This shows how efficiently the water source used in crop production. It shows the percentage of
the total water that is stored in the soil and available for consumptive requirements of the crop. It
indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the head work to the final use by plants for
Cu. It is given as
Ep = Ec * Eb * Ea * nw

Example: - A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a
land of area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery to the field channels is
120lit/sec. The stream continued for h hours. The effective root zone depth is 1.80m. The
application losses in the field are estimated to be 440m3. The depth of water penetration was
1.80m and 1.20m at the head and tail of the run respectively. The available water holding
capacity of the soil is 21cm/m and irrigation was done at 60% depletion of Am. Find Ec, ,Ef, Ea,
Es and Ed. The stream size delivered to the plot was 100 lit/sec.
18

Lecture notes
Solution
Wf 120 lit / sec
Ec  x100  x100  80%
Wd 150 lit / sec
Wp 100 lit / sec
Ef  x100  x100  83.3%0
Wf 120 lit / sec
100 x 60 x 60 x8
 2880m3
Water delivered to the plot = 1000

Water stored in the root zone =2880m3 – Application losses

= 2880m3 - 440m3 = 2440m3

Ws 2440m3
Ea  x100  x100  84.7%
Wp 2880m3
Total A.M = 21cm/m x 1.80m = 37.80 cm
60
x 37.80 cm  22.68 cm
RAM = 100

3
22.68
x1.8 x104  4082.4m
In volume, RAM = 100

Ws 2440m3
Es  x 100   59.8%  60%
Wn 4082.4m3
1.8  1.20
Average water penetration d   1.50m
2
Numerical deviation at upper end =1.80 –1.50=0.30m
At lower end = 1.50 – 1.20 =0.30m

2 x 0,30
Average numerical deviation = 0,30m
2
 y  0,30 
Ed 100 x 1    100 x 1   80%
 d  1.50 

3.4 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for successive plant growth

and maturity. Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any quantity.
Irrigation scheduling is the schedule in which water is applied to the field. If in an
important aspect of an efficient operation of an irrigation system. The scheduling
of irrigation can be field irrigation scheduling and field irrigation supply schedules.

Field irrigation Scheduling is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of field
irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation.

19

Lecture notes
 1. Depth of irrigation (d)

This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the
depth of water that can be retained in the crop root zone b/n the field capacity and
the given depletion of the available moisture content. All the water retained in the
soil b/n FC and PWP is not readily available to crops. The readily available
moisture is only some percentage of the total available moisture. Thus, depth of
irrigation is the readily available portion of the soil moisture. In other words, it is
the depth of irrigation water required to replenish the soil moisture to field
capacity.

The depth of irrigation (d) is given by

d(net) = As . D (FC – PWP) . P ,m

Where As = Apparent specific gravity of soil

D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at F.C
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP
P = depletion factor
Because of application lasses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total depth of water
to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
The gross depth of application
d(gross) = As.D(FC-PWP).P ,m
Ea
Where Ea = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above

2. Interval of Irrigation (i)

The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days b/n two successive irrigation applications. It
depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. Thus interval of irrigation
depends on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount of readily available moisture in
the crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the crop varies from crop to crop and also

during different stages of the crop. The RAM moisture also varies from soil to soil depending on
soil water constants. The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by :

As .DFC  PWP  . P
i(days) = , where ETcrop(peak) is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in
ETcrop peak
m/day.

For the same crop and soil science the ETcrop (peak) goes on increasing from the initial stage to the
development and mid season stage the interval of irrigation will go on decreasing and increasing
during rate season stage.

Field Irrigation Supply Schedules (Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area)

20

Lecture notes
 This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or command area. This is a schedule of
the total volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation. It depends on crop and soil
characteristics.
It is expressed as: -

q.t 
10
 AS .D ( Fc  pwp .P. A , m3
Ea
Where q= Stream size (application rate ) lit/sec
t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth ,m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
From the above equation, if either of the application time or the stream size fixed, one of them
can be determined.

In the above equation q.t indicates the total volume of water applied to the field during irrigation
at the head of the field. But the total volume of water diverted at the headwork will obviously be
greater than this value, because there is loss of water during conveyance and distribution canals.
The total volume of water to be diverted is given by :
As .D. FC  PwP , p. A.
10
Q.t = , m3
Ep
Where Q = flow rate at the head work, let/sec.
Ep = project efficiency and others as defined above.

Example 1.
For the data below, determine depth & interval of irrigation during different stages.
Depth of the root zone = 1 m , FC = 20 %, PwP = 8 %
Dry density of soil = 1.6 gm/cm3 and density of water = 1 gm/cm3 . The rates of consumptive
uses during different stages are as follows. A depletion of 50% during initial period, 60 %
during development and mid – season stage and 70 % during late season stage is allowable.
Determine the depth and interval of irrigation during different stages of the crop. The CU during
different stages is as follows.

Month June July August September

Dec 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Stage ini ini In/de dev dev dev mid mid mid Late Late Late
v
ETcrop/mm/day 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.2 5.8 6.50 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.0 5.80
Root 0.30 0.30 0.4 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
depth(m)
D.Factor(p) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.70
Depth of 28.8 28.8 38.4 57.60 69.1 80.6 92.16 92.2 92.2 107. 107.52 107.5
irrigation
(mm)
Interval of 8 8 7 11 11 12 13 13 3 17 17 18
21

Lecture notes
irrigation
(days)
*Irrigation 7 11 13 17
interval (days)

22

Lecture notes
Example 2 .A crop has in effective root zone of 120 cm (1.20 m) prior to irrigation, soil
samples were taken from different depths to determine the moisture status of the soil.

Depth of rootzone (m) Weight soil sample (gm) Weight of oven dry soil (g)

0 – 0.30 m 98.80 94.60

0.30 – 0.60 m 96.60 92.10

0.60 – 0.90 m 95.00 90.60

0.90 – 1.20 m 94.00 89.40

The water holding capacity of the soil at field capacity is 19.60 cm/meter. The
apparent specific gravity of the soil is 1.60. Determine, the moisture content in the
root zone at different depths total depth of water available in the root zone at
different depths, total depth of water available in the root zone and the soil
moisture deficit.

Solution

For depth from 0  0.30 m

Mass of water  98.80 gm  94.60 gm  4.20 gm

4.20 gm
Moisture content , W  * 100  4.44 %
94.60 gm
In depth of water, d = As. D .p =1.6*0.3*0.0444=0.0213m=2.13cm

For depth 0.3-0.6m

Mass of water=96.60-92.10=4.50gm.
W=4.50/92.10 *100= 4.88%
In depth, d = As. D.P = 1.60 * 0.30* 0.0488 = 0.0234 = 2.34 cm

For depth 0.60  0.90 m

Mass of water  95.00  90.60  4.40 gm

4.40
W  * 100  4.86 %
90.60

 In depth of water, d = As.D.P = 1.60 x 0.30* 0.0486 = 0.0233 = 2.33 cm

2
 For depth 0.90  1.20 m
Mass of water  94.00 gm  89.40 gm  4.60 gm

4.60
W  * 100  5.14 %
89.40

In depth, d = As .D.P = 1.60 x 0.30 * 0.0514 = 0.0247 m = 2.47 cm

The total depth of water in the root zone is the total of all the water retained at different depths.

 Total depth = 2.13 cm + 2.34 cm + 2.33 cm + 2.47 cm = 9.27 cm

Water retained at field capacity = 19.60 cm/m

Water in the root zone = 19.60 * 1.20 m = 23.52 cm
The soil moisture deficit prior to irrigation is therefore,
FC – depth of water during sampling
= 23.52 cm – 9.27 cm = 14.25 cm
This deficit is the amount of water which should be added to the soil to bring the
soil moisture content to field capacity. Thus, it represents the depth of irrigation.
Assuming that the peak rate of consumptive use during the stage of the plant is
8mm/day
depth 142.50 mm
Interval, i=   17.8  17 days =
peak cu 8 mm / day

The next watering will be done after 17 days. The interval should not be made 18 days, because
the plant may suffer shortage of water for one day.

2
 Assignment I

1. i. The following data refers to the evaporation from standard class A open pan
evaporimeter (Average over the decade)

Month June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Decade 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Ep 8.0 8.2 8.4 7.5 7.2 7.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.8 6.6 6.4 6.8 7.4 7.8 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.0 8.2
(mm/day)

The pan coefficient (KP) recommended is 0.70

ii. The crops proposed to be suitable in the area are Maize and potato. They have
the following characteristics.

Maize

Stage Initial Development Mid Late Total

Length of stage (days) 20 40 40 20 120
Kc values 0.40 1.00 0.60
Rooting depth (m) 0.60 1.00 1.00
Depletion (P) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70

Potato

Stage Initial Development Mid Late Total

Length of stage (days) 20 30 50 30 130
Kc values 0.55 1.10 0.70
Rooting depth (m) 0.30 0.60 0.60
Depletion (P) 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.50
Planting date for Maize is June 1 and for that of potato is August 1.

iii . The rainfall record for 12 years of each month is the following

Month /year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Jan 62.0 64.3 52.8 53.6 61.0 46.0 55.2 57.6 63.4 66.2 58.5 54.3
Feb 46.2 44.5 48.3 42.8 40.0 38.8 47.7 50.2 49.5 54.5 48.5 49.4
Mar 66.5 65.2 62.4 69.2 68.5 66.2 70.2 72.5 64.2 68.5 72.2 69.5
Apr 70.5 72.6 68.2 75.5 74.2 73.5 79.2 76.8 71.0 70.2 68.5 74.5
May 66.8 68.5 65.4 62.3 61.3 58.2 59.5 61.4 64.8 68.5 67.2 70.2
June 72.3 73.5 76.4 76.3 78.4 79.3 72.5 72.8 68.5 69.2 77.7 79.9
July 78.5 77.8 79.4 80.8 72.4 81.2 76.6 78.8 80.4 85.5 86.7 84.2
Aug 85.8 86.8 84.9 88.2 87.4 90.2 84.4 85.5 82.7 89.4 90.2 83.2
Sept 68.4 69.2 64.5 62.8 63.4 65.5 66.2 67.6 62.2 61.2 59.4 67.8
Oct 56.6 58.2 53.4 52.3 51.2 58.4 56.8 55.5 50.8 50.0 49.8 48.8
Nov 54.2 54.8 53.8 48.6 49.7 45.6 53.3 54.5 50.5 58.6 56.4 53.8
Dec 44.4 52.3 53.8 50.6 60.2 55.6 58.8 47.7 46.2 42.3 41.2 40.8

2
The 80 % dependable rainfall is to be used for computation of effective rainfall and 70 % of 80
% dependable rainfall is effective.

The area under the crops has the following soil properties.

Field capacity = 18 %
Permanent wilting point = 8 %
A parent specific gravity, As = 1.50

a) Calculate the Net irrigation requirement (NIR) on daily basis and on decade basis for
each crop.
b) Schedule the irrigation for each crop & find out the gross depth of application for each
decade and on daily basis assuming 80% application efficiency (Ea). Assume constant
interval during each stage.

2. A main canal has a CCA of 100 ha. The crops proposed in the area are sugarcane and
cotton. The duty of the water for each crop is as follows at the head of the field.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
DSugarcane
ha/cumec 1400 1300 1200 1100 1100 1200
D cotton
ha/ cumec 1000 1000 1000 900 900 900 800 800 800 900 900 900

The area under the crops is as follows

Sugarcane (perennial) = 40 ha
Cotton (seasonal) = 60 ha

The losses in canals & field channels are

15 % and 10% of the discharge at the head of the field for sugarcane
10 % and 6 % of the discharge at the head of the sugarcane field for cotton

a) What is the duty of the canal water for each crop at the head of the main canal?
b) What is the design discharge of the main canal?

3) An area of 2 ha is to be irrigated by lift method, with a pump running 10 hours per day, FC =
19 % , PWP = 10 % and As = 1.60. The rooting depth of the crop= 1.60 m. Application
efficiency = 80 % and a depletion level of 60 % is allowable. The peak crop
evapotranspiration rate is 5 mm/day. Determine
a) The volume of water pumped per irrigation
b) The pump capacity in liters/ second.

2
 4- Surface irrigation Methods & their design considerations

4.1 Surface Irrigation Processes and Methods

Surface Irrigation Processes (hydraulic phases)

In surface irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel located at
the upper reach of the field. Gravity provides the major driving force to spread water over
the irrigated field. Once distributed over the surface of the field and after it has entered
the soil, water is often redistributed by forces other than gravity.

Generally, in a surface irrigation event four distinct hydraulic phases can be discerned:

(1) Advance phase: the time interval between the start of irrigation and arrival of the
advancing (wetting) front at the lower end of the field.

(2) Ponding (wetting storage or continuing) phase: the irrigation time extending
between the end of advance and inflow cutoff. The term “Wetting” phase is
usually used for furrow and border where tail water runoff can occur, whereas
ponding is the preferred term for basin irrigation (no tail water runoff)
.
(3) Depletion (vertical recession) phase: the time interval between supply cut-off
and the time that water dries up at the inlet boundary.

(4) Recession (horizontal recession) phase: the time required for the water to recede
from all points in the channel, starting from the end of the depletion phase. The
time difference at each measuring station between the clock time or cumulative
time for advance and recession is the opportunity time, T, infiltration to occur.

1
2
4.2 Surface Irrigation Methods

Application of surface irrigation water can be accomplished by: wild flooding, basins,
borders and furrows.

1) Wild flooding
In this method, ditches are excavated in the field, and they may be either on the contour
or up and down the slope. Water from this ditches, flows across the field. Since the
movement of water is not restricted, it is called wild flooding. Although the initial costs
of land preparation is low, labor requirement are usually high and application efficiency
is also low. Wild flooding is most suitable to close growing crops, pastures, etc. Contour
ditches called laterals or subsidiary ditches are generally spaced at about 20 to 50 meters
apart depending upon the slope, soil texture, crops to be grown etc. This method may be
used on lands that have irregular topography, where borders, basins and furrows are not
feasible.

2) Basin irrigation
Basin irrigation uses generally a level area surrounded by ridges (bounds, dikes) to guide
water as it flows from one end to the other to prevent from leaving the field. A basin is
typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular (small or
large) configurations. The flow rate must be large enough to cover the entire basin
approximately 60 to 75 percent of the time required for the soil to absorb the desired
amount of water.

Basin irrigation can be used to apply prescribed application depths at design efficiencies
of more than 90%. However, studies on basin irrigation systems in various countries have
documented both extensive over and under-irrigation as the norm, which has resulted in
overall low irrigation efficiencies.

Basin irrigation is suited to different crops , such as, rice, cotton, groundnuts etc. and to
soils of moderate to low intake rate (50 mm/h or less) having smooth, gentle and uniform
land slopes. The method is especially adapted to irrigation of grain and fodder crops in
heavy soils where water is absorbed very slowly and is required to stand for a relatively
long time to ensure adequate irrigation.

3
3) Border irrigation

Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth rides to guide a sheet of flowing water
across a field. The land between two levees is called a border strip, simply called a
border. Border strips, like basins, can be described as rectangular channels (narrow or
wide) in which the width of flow plays a dominant role in affecting the geometric
elements of the channel. The border strip may vary from 3 to 30 meters in width and from
100 to 800 meters in length. Border irrigation is a more controlled version of wild
flooding with additional field ditches that serve as supply sources for applying water to
the field.

Fig. 4 Isometric view of border strips

Border irrigation is generally well suited to soils with moderately high intake rates and to
slopes less than 0.5 percent. The method can be classified as straight or contour borders
depending on weather the borders are running along or across the main slope.

Borders can be grouped into three major categories depending on the management
strategy adopted:
(1) Fixed flow: a system in which the inlet flow rate remains constant throughout the
duration of irrigation, the method is simple and less expensive but
generally of low efficiency.
(2) Cutback: this is a system in which irrigation begins with a maximum or near
maximum non erosive inlet flow rate, which continues for a part of the irrigation
period and then reduced to a level just above what is needed to wet the entire
length of the border.
(3) Tail water reuse: this is a system in which excess surface runoff from the
downstream end is collected in a sump and then pumped back into the same field
to open up more borders or used to irrigate another field.

Field application efficiency is good to excellent if the border strips are designed and
installed properly and good water management practice are followed. Design water
application efficiencies of the order 70 -75 % can be attained for slopes of 0.001 to 0.002
m/m on soils of silty clay to clay with depth of application of 75 - 100 mm. For high

4
efficiencies, the stream size and the resulting rate of advance must be controlled to match
the recession conditions to provide approximately equal infiltration opportunity time at
both the upper and lower ends.

4) Furrow irrigation

Furrow irrigation refers to water that is discharged into and runs down small sloping
channels (called furrows or corrugations) which are cut or pressed into the soil. The two
most common furrow irrigation systems are the straight furrow irrigation and graded
furrow irrigation. Water infiltrates from the bottom and sides of furrows moving laterally
downward to wet the soil and to move soluble salts, fertilizers and herbicides carried in
the water.

The furrows could have one of the following flow geometry configurations.

Fig.6 Geometric elements of a parabolic cross--section

5
 Fig. 7 Geometric elements of a trapezoidal cross--section

Fig.8 Geometric elements of a triangular cross--section

Fig. 9 Typical furrow cross-section

When properly designed and operated, furrow irrigation systems may result in a good
performance. The wide variations in furrow cross-section types as well as the two
dimensional nature of the infiltration process under furrow irrigation complicates
mathematical analysis and field measurement needed to quantify irrigation parameters
compared to other two methods.

Efforts to achieve high application efficiencies for furrow-irrigated systems are limited
by very large spatial and temporal variation in infiltration characteristics. Thus, while
efficiencies of 85 to 90 % are periodically reported from studies incorporating careful soil
moisture monitoring and automation, efficiencies in the order of 50 to 70 % are more

6
common. Moreover, designs could be acceptable if the water application efficiency is
greater than 70 percent, with less than 10 percent deep percolation and 20 percent runoff
losses, while storage efficiency is greater than 85 to 90 percent.

Most crops would be irrigated by the furrow method and is best suited to medium to
moderately fine textured soils with relatively high water holding capacity and
conductivity which allow significant water movement in both the horizontal and vertical
directions. Like border irrigation, furrow irrigation systems, can be grouped into fixed
flow, cutback flow and tail-water reuse system depending on the management strategy
adopted.
Note: Aside from the difference in channel geometry and boundary conditions, the basic
water flow characteristics are much the same in all of the surface irrigation methods.

4.3 Design of Surface Irrigation Systems

The design of a surface irrigation system first involves assessing the general topographic
conditions, soils, crops, farming practices anticipated and farm operators desires and
finance for the field or farm in question. Moreover, the first priorities in agriculture today
is the development of irrigation design that are more efficient in the use of both water and
energy resources for the varieties of crops and farming practices.

One of the purposes of design of surface irrigation systems is to facilitate operational

practices so that the system can be managed and operated according to the plan and the
desired goal can be achieved.

Surface irrigation systems are designed and operated to supply the individual irrigation
requirements of each field on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff,
evaporation and operational losses. Beside this, the objective of any water application is
to uniformly replenish the root zone moisture with enough percolation for the effective
leaching of harmful salts.

Properly designed and operated surface irrigation systems can enhance crop yields.
Often, however, inadequate design and management result in excessive water losses
through deep percolation and/or tail water runoff. It can be also stated that high
efficiencies are not generally attained with surface methods unless design, operation and
management are of a higher standard and distribution. Despite the fact that surface
irrigation is the most widely practiced method of irrigation and feasible under many
circumstances, its low energy requirements and simplicity of operation, it is not only a
major consumer of water but also one of the most inefficient users of water.

For example, the annual project efficiencies of some selected 16 countries (world wide,
by FAO, 1998) ranges from 13 % (Saldana in Colombia) to 99 % (Tadla in Morocco).
Similarly, the over all efficiency of state farms in the Middle Awash was about 40 %
(1986). Generally, FAO (1995) pointed out that only 40% to 60% of the water is

7
effectively used by the crop, the reminder of the water is lost in the system, in the farm
and on the field, either through evaporation, through run-off or by percolation into the
ground water.

Design can be viewed as the process of making decisions concerning the values of flow
rate (Qo), length of channel (L), and time of cutoff (tco), prior to the onset of every
irrigation season and during the project development phase. The available stream size,
and the length and grade of the land units must be combined to achieve acceptable results
without excessive labour, waste of water, erosion and inconvenience to other farming
operations.

Since the performance of a surface irrigation system is dependent on three sets of

variables; design, management, and field variables (system parameters), which are shown
in the following functional relationship, it has of a paramount importance to discuss each
one of them in detail.

P = f (I, So, n, Zr , G, qo , L, tco )

Where P = performance of surface irrigation

I = symbolizes the infiltration parameters
So = channel bed slope
n = hydraulic resistance
G = symbolizes geometry parameters
Zr = required amount of application
qo = unit flow rate at the head end of the channel
tco = time of cut off
L = furrow length

A) Surface irrigation Design inputs (System Parameters and System Variables)

Generally there are two types of design data inputs in surface irrigation: field parameters
and field decision variables. The designer can manipulate decision variables. They
include flow rate, the field dimensions and cut-off time. On the other hand, however, the
designer cannot influence Field parameters; they are measured or assumed properties of
the given situation. They primarily consist of the soil infiltration characteristics, the flow
resistance, the required net application depth, and the field slopes (for borders and
furrows).

A description (explanation) of each design input parameter as related to its influence,

dimensions and the procedures followed to determine each parameter would be presented
in the subsequent sections.

System Parameters

1.Required amount of application (Zr) This parameter represents the amount of water

8
 that needs to be stored in the crop root zone reservoir during every irrigations, in
order to sustain normal crop growth. The crop type, stage of growth, presence or
absence of shallow water table, and limiting soil horizons (such as hard pans),
among other things, determine the effective crop root depth. Soil type is the factor
that determines how much water can be stored per unit depth of soil. These
factors, along with the climatic conditions of an area should be considered to
determine the required amount of application (Zr). For basins and borders the
characteristics width is unit width, i.e. 1m, whereas for furrows it is the furrow
spacing.
Note: Zr is the same as MAD, and is determined as:
Zr = MAD = TAW * f
2. Maximum allowable flow velocity (Vmax) This is used in estimating the non-erosive
flow rate, Qmax, which can be turned on into a furrow or a border or a basin
without causing soil erosion. The value of Vmax is generally dependent on soil
type, and may vary within the range of 8 m/min for erodiable silt to 13 m/min for
more stable clay and sandy soils

3. Manning’s roughness coefficient (n). A parameter in Manning’s equation, known as

the Manning’s n, is used as a measure of the resistance effects that flow might
encounter as it moves down the furrow, border or basin, which is in fact a
representation, in lumped form, of the effect of the roughness of the physical
boundaries of the flow and cultivation practices. Most of the time, the values for
Manning’s n used for furrow, border and basin irrigation are based on the
recommendation of the SCS and are given in the following table.

Table 2 Commonly used values of Manning’s, n in surface irrigation.

Field condition Manning’s n values
Smooth bare soil surface non-cultivated, oil-mulched citrus 0.04
Small grain, drill rows parallel to direction of irrigation 0.10
Alfalfa, mint, broadcast small grain, and similar crops 0.15
Dense sod crops, small grain with drill rows across the border strip 0.25
Source: USDA, 1979

4. Channel bed slope (So). The bed slope of a furrow or a border or a basin needs to be
known in order to estimate maximum non-erosive flow rates as well as flow
cross-sectional area or depth of flow at any given channel section using, say,
Manning’s equation. Bed slope is the average slope in the direction of irrigation
and is an easy parameter to measure. For borders and furrows bed slope should
not be too high to cause scouring and must not too low as to result a very slow
advance with the end outcome being inefficient irrigation. Usually the values
recommended by USDA, which depend on soil (type and profile depth), crop
combination (for borders) and size of individual furrows, are used.( see tables )

5. Infiltration parameter (I). Knowledge of the infiltration characteristics of the soil is

critically important for evaluation, design or management of a surface irrigation
system, without which it is very difficult to accurately judge system performance,

9
 application efficiency and uniformity. Therefore, infiltration parameter, k, a, and
fo should be determined prior to the actual design stage (refer to chapter 2).

6. Channel geometry The geometry of a channel cross-section has a significant effect on

the surface hydraulics as well as infiltration. Generally, basins and borders can be
considered as wide rectangular channels, where the depth of flow is by far less
than their width. Furrows, on the other hand, can have parabolic, triangular or
trapezoidal cross-sections. It is therefore important to take account of channel
geometry in modeling of furrow irrigation processes.

For reasons of simplicity and practical considerations, such as accounting for

irregularities in channel cross-sections, it is customary to assume that a power
relationship holds between the following important channel geometry elements of
a furrow.

A =1y2

Wp = 1y2 Where A = flow area

Wp = wetted perimeter
1, 2, 1 and 2 are regression model parameters

Similarly, furrow spacing depends upon the type of crop, equipment availability
and soil type. Many crops are planted in single rows 75 to 105 cm apart.

Table 3 Area and hydraulic radius calculations for the three channel types
Channel type Area Hydraulic radius
Trapezoidal (b + my)y (b  2 y ) y
b  2 y (1  m2 )
Triangular 2
my my/(2 1 m2 )
2
Semi-circular (parabolic) r /2 r/2

System Variables
1. Channel length (l). The length of a basin or border or a furrow should be determined
considering the soil type, method of irrigation and from previous studies to
estimate advance and recession over the length of the channel, the resulting
distribution of infiltrated water, volume of runoff and the performance indices.
There always exist a certain optimal channel length that would minimize
irrigation water losses yet results in acceptable levels of adequacy and uniformity.
If the above data is not available the following Tables can be used as guides.

10
Table 4 Typical border slopes, length and width for different soils
Soil type Slope Length ranges Width ranges
ranges (M) (M)
(%)
Sandy to sandy loams 0.25-0.6 60-120 15-20
Medium loam 0.2-0.4 100-180 20-25
Clay to clay loam 0.05-0.2 150-300 25-35

Table 5 Maximum furrows lengths for given slopes, depth of water application and soils.
Furrow Average depth of water applied (mm)
Slope 75 150 225 50 100 150 50 75 100
Clays Loams Sands
Percent ………………………………….Meters………………………………………
0.1 340 440 470 180 340 440 90 120 190
0.3 400 500 620 280 400 500 150 220 280
0.5 400 500 560 280 370 470 120 190 250
2.0 220 270 340 180 250 300 60 90 150

2. Unit inlet flow rate (Qo). This is the discharge diverted into a furrow, or a unit width
border or a basin. Inlet flow rate is one of the key variables in influencing the
outcome of an irrigation event; it affects, the rate of advance to a significant
degree and also recession to a lesser but appreciable extent. Thereby having a
significant effect on uniformity, efficiency and adequacy of irrigation. It should
not be too high as to cause scouring and should not be too small as otherwise the
water will not advance to the down stream end.

3. Cutoff time (tco). Cutoff time is the time at which the supply is turned off, measured
from the onset of irrigation. The ideal time of cutoff occurs when the infiltrated
depth in the least-watered portion of the field is equal to the irrigation
requirement. The most important effect of cutoff is reflected on the amount of
losses, deep percolation and surface runoff, and hence efficiency and adequacy of
irrigation. In general for any given factor level of combination the selection of an
appropriate value of tco is made on the basis of the target application depth and
acceptable level of deficit.

B) Surface irrigation system performance

Ideally the best surface irrigation scenario (event) is one that can apply the right amount
of water over the entire subject area and without loss, a situation which requires that
equal amount of water be applied over the entire reach of the channel. In practice
however there exist no surface irrigation system or operation scenarios that can apply
water without loss and with perfect uniformity. In any case making uneven application of
water over the length of run of a channel is unavoidable. The inevitable consequence of
this is that in order to apply a certain target amount of water at a point, say down stream
end of the subject area, a larger amount must be applied at another point. What all these

11
indicate is that in real life systems uneven and excess application of irrigation water are
the “twins facts of life’ that engineers and irrigators ought to live with. We cannot do
without them but we ought to strive to minimize them. That is what system design and
management is all about. The merit of an irrigation scenario (event) is judged in terms of
indices that “measure how close an irrigation scenario is to the ideal one”. These indices
are collectively referred to as performance indices. The performance of a surface
irrigation event can be evaluated from three distinct but complementary perspectives.

(1) Excess application of irrigation water, though unavoidable in real life situation must
be minimized (minimum loss). Application efficiency (Ea), is the index which is used as a
measure of how effective an irrigation is in minimizing unavoidable losses.

(2) Adequacy of irrigation, evaluated in terms of a perceived requirement is necessary to

sustain normal crop growth and result in satisfactory yield. Water storage efficiency (Es)
uses how close the applied amount is to the perceived requirement (right amount).

(3) Uniform (even) application of irrigated water over the entire subject area not only
enhances productive use of available water by spreading deficit, if any, over the subject
area but also helps minimize losses. Distribution uniformity (DU) and Christiansen`s
uniformity coefficient (UC) are the most commonly used indices in surface irrigation
application. Moreover, deep percolation and run-off losses are vital in constraining as
well as guiding operational decision making processes. It nonetheless is appropriate to
threat them as performance term as per se.

N.B Water application efficiency, Water storage efficiency, Deep percolation

fraction and Run-off fraction are covered previously

Irrigation uniformity
Uniformity of infiltration under surface irrigation depends on the spatial and temporal
variability of surface and sub-surface hydraulic characteristics such as field slope, furrow
geometry, surface roughness, field length, flow rate and soil pore size distribution.

Two parameters are used to evaluate distribution uniformity.

a) The first parameter is distribution uniformity coefficient DU, and is defined
as the
ratio of the minimum infiltrated amount expressed as percentage of the
average infiltrated amount over the subject area.
Z
A general expression for DU is: DU  min 100 .
Zav
Where Zmin = minimum infiltrated amount over the length of the run of the
subject area (m3. m-1).
Zav = average infiltrated amount over the length of the run of the subject
area (m3. m-1) and

12
 ov
L
 Zdx
Zav is expressed as , Zav  o

L
b) The second parameter is Christansen `s uniformity coefficient, (UCC),
defined as the ratio of the difference between the average amount applied and
the average deviation from the average amount applied to the average amount
applied.

It is given by the equation:

  Z Z 
N

UCC  1  i  1 i   100
av
 Zav N 
 

Where Zi = infiltrated amount at point i ( m3. m-1)

N = number of points used in the computation of UCC

Design Procedures

The specific procedures followed during the design of furrow, border and basin irrigation
systems are below.

Design of furrow irrigation System

Non erosive stream size
To maintain proper furrow shape and reduce sediment loss from the head of the field and
deposition at the tail of the field or adjacent water way, it is desirable to operate the
furrow at a velocity that is non erosive.
- The empirical relation developed by USDA-SCS for the maximum non-erosive
stream size is
C
Qmax =
S
Where S = ground slope down the furrow in %
C = empirical constant (= 0.6  )
s
- This relationship doesn’t account for soil type and therefore limited in accuracy.
Relation of maximum non erosive flow rates to critical slopes of furrows (after Boo her,
1974)
Furrow slope Maximum flow rate,
S (%) 
Qmax ,
s
0.1 6.0
0.3 2.0
0.5 1.2
2.0 0.3

13
Table 6-6 intake family and advance coefficients for depth of infiltration in mm, time in
minutes and length in meters.

Intake family a b c f g
0.05 0.5334 0.618 7.0 7.16 1.088*10-4
0.10 0.6198 0.661 7.0 7.25 1.251*10-4
0.15 0.7110 0.683 7.0 7.34 1.414*10-4
0.20 0.7772 0.699 7.0 7.43 1.578*10-4
0.25 0.8534 0.711 7.0 7.52 1.741*10-4
0.30 0.9246 0.720 7.0 7.61 1.904*10-4
0.35 0.9957 0.729 7.0 7.70 2.067*10-4
0.40 1.064 0.736 7.0 7.79 2.230*10-4
0.45 1.130 0.742 7.0 7.88 2.393*10-4
0.50 1.196 0.748 7.0 7.97 2.556*10-4
0.60 1.321 0.757 7.0 8.15 2.883*10-4
0.70 1.443 0.766 7.0 8.33 3.209*10-4
0.80 1.560 0.773 7.0 8.50 3.535*10-4
0.90 1.674 0.779 7.0 8.68 3.862*10-4
1.00 1.786 0.785 7.0 8.86 4.188*10-4
1.50 2.284 0.799 7.0 9.76 5.819*10-4
2.00 2.753 0.808 7.0 10.65 7.451*10-4

The average intake over the length of the furrow is given by

1
I= (Vin - V0ut – Vs) ----------- (2)
LP
Where i = equivalent depth infiltrated over wetted surface area of field, mm
L= distance between inflow and outflow measurements, m
P = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
V = volume of water (inflow, outflow, storage) in liter.
The adjusted wetted perimeter in given by the following equation
0.425
 Qn 
P = 0.265  0.5   0.227 --------- (3)
S 
Where Q= volumetric inflow rate, 
s
N =Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = furrow slope or hydraulic gradient, m
m
In most cases, after the flow has stabilized and gets uniform, the hydraulic gradient is
equal to the furrow slope. A roughness coefficient of 0.04 is normally used for design of
furrow irrigation system.
The volume of channel storage is given by
L  
0.735
 Qn 
Vs = 2.947 0.5   0.0217 ……… (4)
0.305  S  

14
 - The required depth of infiltration for a furrow system must be expressed as an
equivalent depth over the total field area. Infiltration depth is given by:
  p
i = at b  C …….. (5)
w
Where a, b, c are intake family coefficients
t = time, min
W = furrow spacing, m
p = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
The advance time for stream of water moving down the furrow is given by
x  gx 
Tt = exp  0.5  ………… (6)
f  QS 
Where Tt = advance time, min
X = distance down the furrow, m
F = advance coefficient (Table 6.6)
g= advance coefficient
Q= volumetric inflow rate, 
s
S = furrow slope, m
m
The infiltration opportunity time is equal to the time of water application minus the
advance time plus the recession time.
To = Tco – Tt + Tr min ………… (10

The cut-off time, Tco, reflects an irrigation management decision made by the farmer and
designer. It should be an adequate length of time to infiltrate a satisfaction depth of water
over the length of the furrow with out causing excessive deep percolation. Tco is normally
set equal to the time to advance to the end of the furrow plus the required net infiltration
time less recession time. Letting in equal the desired net depth of infiltration, the net
infiltration time is determined by
1
  w  b

 n 
i   C 
  p  ………………. (8)
Tn =
 a 
 
 
The recession time is assumed Zero for open- ended gradient furrows (i.e for furrows
whose slope is not equal to zero) with out loss of accuracy.
For gradient furrows, To = Tco – Tt .. ………………..(9)
but Tco = Tt + Tn
Where Tt = advance time required to reach end of the field at distance L, min.
gx
Let B=
QS 0.5
The average infiltration opportunity time over distance x down the furrow is given by:

15
 To-x = Tco -
0.0929
  1 exp(  )  1
 0.305 
2

f ( x)  
 x 
The average infiltration time for the full furrow length, To-L, is obtained by substituting L,
in to egn (10) for x. the average depth of infiltration for the entire furrow length, iavg, is
therefore determined by substituting To-L in to egn (5) for t.

The gross depth of water application, ig, is defined as the required net depth of irrigation,
in, divided by the product of the application and distribution pattern efficiencies.
In
Ig = ……………….. (11)
Ea Ed
If evaporation is neglected, Ea is assumed to be equal to 100%

in
Ig = …………… (12)
Ed
The equivalent gross depth of application as a function of inflow rate and field geometry,
is
60Q Tco 
Ig = ……………….. (13)
WL
Ig= gross depth of application in mm
Q = inflow rate, 
s
W = furrow spacing, m
The equivalent depth of deep percolation, ddp
Ddp = iavg – in ………… (15)

Example: Given the following information,

Intake family, If = 0.3
Furrow length, L = 275m
Furrow slope, s = 0.004 m/m
Roughness coefficient, n = 0.004
Net irrigation depth, in = 75mm
Inflow rate, Q = 0.6 
s
Compute the desired time to cut – off, Tco , the equivalent depths of surface run off and
deep percolation, dro, ddp, and the distribution pattern efficiency.

16
The following modifications are necessary to solve the hydraulic equation for the cut –
back conditions. The adjusted wetted perimeter under the cut – back conditions is
computed by substituting Q2 in to egn (3). The required net infiltration time at length L is
solved for by substituting P2 in to egn (8). The average opportunity time for infiltration
during the advance period is given by the absolute value of the second term on the right
hand side of equation (10) with X set equal to L.
Tavg =
0.0929
  1 exp(  )  1
 0.305 
2

f L  
 L 
The average infiltration under the cut – back condition is
 b
 P

Iavg = aTco  Tavg   C 2  aTavg   c 1
w

b P  P2
w
……………….. (17)
The gross depth of application is given by
Ig =
60
Qt Tt   Q2 Tn  ………………………………………….. (18)
WL
Example: Given the same condition as example problem 6-3, compute the same
information required for that problem, if a cut back system is used and Q is reduced by
half.
Level Basin System Design
Fields to be irrigation by a level basin system are divided in to level rectangles of limited
extent by ridges of adequate height to retain the depth of flow. The entire field is flooded
and the water is allowed to infiltrate in to the root zone after pending on the soil surface.
Level basin systems are designed on the basis of water application rate, soil intake
family, and field dimensions.
As with furrow systems, empirical relations have been developed for the design of level
basin of level basin systems based on reasonably successful designs in field situations.
These relationships are a compromise between available stream sizes, soil intake family,
basin size and irrigation efficiency.

Table 6.8: suggested basin area for different soil types and rates of water flow
( taken from Booher ,1974)
Area in hectares
Soil type
Flow rate sand Sandy loam Clay loam clay
l/s m3/s
30 108 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.2
60 216 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.4
90 324 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.6
120 432 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.8
150 540 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.0
180 648 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.2
210 756 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.4
240 864 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.6
270 972 0.18 0.54 1.08 1.8
300 1080 0.20 0.60 1.20 2.0

17
Hydraulic relationships

The hydraulic relationships described in this section are based on design procedures
developed by the soil conservation service and will use the intake family concept the
equations in this section can be derived by application of the continuity equation,
infiltration equation, and Manning’s with limited depth of flow.
The net time of infiltration, Tn, in a level basin system is computed using equation
1
i  C  b
Tn =  n  …………………… (19)
 a 
The required advance time, Tt, is determined by multiplying the net infiltration time by
T
the fractional advance ratio, t , which is a function of distribution pattern efficiency.
Tn

Table 6-9 Ratio of Tt ;to Tn for various distribution efficiency values.

Ratio Tt to Tn  t 
Distribution pattern Efficiency (Ed) T
 Tn 
95 0.16
90 0.28
85 0.40
80 0.58
75 0.80
70 1.08
65 1.45
60 1.90
55 2.45
50 3.20
0.5
T 
Ed = 105.81 – 32.676  t 
 Tn 

Table: values of the roughness coefficients used in level basin and graded border
systems.

Smooth, bare soil surfaces non cultivated, citrus 0.04

Small grain, rows parallel to border strip 0.10
Alfalfa, broad east small grains, and similar crops 0.15
Dense sod crops, small grains with rows across the border strip 0.25

The relationship between the advance time, basin length, L, and inflow rate will apply the
unit inflow rate concept.

18
 6 *104 Qu Tt
L=
aTt 
b
 c  1798n 8 Qu  16 Tt  16
3 9 3

1 b
Q
Where Qu= , w = basin width
W
The time to cut-off, Tco, is the time required to put the gross depth of irrigation, ig on to
the basin is given by
in L
Tco = ………………… (21)
600Qu ed
Where: Tco = time to cut-off, min
in = net depth of irrigation, mm
ed = distribution pattern efficiency, percent.
The maximum depth of flow in the basin, dmax, is an important parameter in basin design
in that it governs the minimum ridge height. The ridge height should be equal to 1.25
times the maximum side slope ratio of 2.5:1
dmax = 2250 n318 Qu 9/16 Tco 3/16
Where dmax = maximum flow depth, mm

Example: Given the following information

Intake family If = 0.5
Targed distribution pattern efficiency ed = 80%
Unit flow rate Qu = 0.005 m2/s
Net irrigation depth in = 100mm
Roughness coefficient n = 0.05
Assuming 100 percent application efficiency, compute the net infiltration time, basin
length, time – to – cut off, and maximum depth of flow.

Graded Border System Design

- Graded border systems are similar in concept to level basin systems except that
there is a slope down the border and there may be limited cross slope. Graded
border systems may be more conveniently applied to soils of limited depth than
level basin systems because of reduced leveling requirements.
- Graded border systems are most applicable to soils with moderately low to
moderately high in take rates. This method is best suited to lands with slopes less
than 0.5%. It can be used on lands of slopes up to 2% for non grassy crops and up
to approximately 4%for sod crops.

19
Hydraulic Relationships
The hydraulic relationships applied are complicated Relative to level basins in that the
water applied is contenuously moving down slope. The hydraulic relationships are
derived by consideration of the continuity relationship, manning equation and the
assumption that the amount of water infiltrated in to the soil may be approximated by the
volume of a section with a triangular cross-sectional shape as the recession curve moves
down the field.

Graded border systems are designed on the principle that any point in the field should
have water applied to it for a time equal to that required to infiltrate the net depth of
irrigation.
Recession lag time: The time between cut- off of water at the head of the filed and the
disappearance of water at the head of the field.
- Time to cut- off, Tco = Tn - Trl
The term high gradient borders is used to denote borders with a surface slope greater then
approximately 0.004m/m.In such borders, the water surface slope is assumed equal to the
field slope and the normal flow depth, that is, the depth of flow under conditions of uniform
flow is assumed equal to the depth of flow at the head of the border. Under such conditions,
the recession lag time is given by:
0.2
Qu n1.2 = recession lag time, min
Trc where Trl
120S 1.6
Qu = unit flow rate, m2/s
N= Manning’s roughness coeff.
S = surface slope, m/m
- For low gradient borders with surface slopes less than 0.004m/m
0.2
Qu n1.2
Tre = Tn = net infiltration time, min.
0.175 1.6
 0.0094nQu 
120 S  0.88 
 Tn S 0.5 
-The inflow rate per unit width of border strip is given by
0.00167in L
Qu= where:
Tn  Trl ed
in = net depth of irrigation
L = border length, m
ed= distn eff. , %

The maximum depth of flow in the In the border strip is determined by the border
ridge height. The border ridge height is normally established at 1.25 times the
maximum flow depth. Maximum flow depths of less than 150 mm are generally
acceptable. In erosion resistant soil, flow depths in the range of 200mm may be
acceptable.

20
 Normal depth for uniform flow, (mm)
0.6
100Qu n0.6
dh  for high gradient border.
S 0.3
dn= 2454 (Trl)0.1875 Qu 0.5625 n 0.1875 -------for low gradient border

- The maximum flow rate criterion has been established to have a non – erosive
stream size.
Qumax = ……. For alfalfa and small grains
1.765 * 10 4
50.7 5

3.53 *104
Qumax = ……. For dense crops, posture
S 0.75
- A minimum depth of flow criterion is required to ensure that the water stream is
large enough to spread over the entire border.
5.95 *106 LS 0.5
Qumin =
n
- the theoretical relationship for maximum slope is given by
Q ed Tn  Tre 
Smax = unax ……. Ed = %
0.00167in

21
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

2. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

2.1 Introduction

Application of water to the cropped land can be done in different forms in addition to the
natural rainfall. It can be applied through surface irrigation methods that deliver water
through channels with aid of gravity action. The other application pattern may be through
pressurized irrigation which delivers water under high pressure to the point of interest.
With this respect either a power supply system or an optimum elevation difference
between the critical points to create suitable head for the water to flow is required. Water
sources, Energy sources (Gravity, Mechanical, Internal combustion) and distribution
network (pipe or canal) are basic irrigation components.

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to the surface of the soil in the form of a
spray, which is similar to natural rainfall. This method of irrigation was started at about
1900. The first agricultural sprinkler systems were an outgrowth of city lawn sprinkling.
Before 1920 sprinkling was limited to tree crops, nurseries and orchards. Most of these
systems were stationary overhead perforated pipe installations or stationary over tree
systems with rotating sprinklers. These systems were expensive to install but often fairly
inexpensive to operate. Portable sprinkler systems developed with the introduction of
light weight steel pipe and quick couplers in the early 1930`s, resulted in reduction of
equipment cost and increased number of sprinkler installation. The number of sprinkler
installations has increased rapidly since 1950 owing to the development of more efficient
sprinklers, light weight aluminum pipe, more efficient pumps, and to the wide spread
distribution of low cost electrical power and fuels for internal combustion engines.
Sprinklers have been used on all soil types and on lands of widely different topography
and slopes and for many crops.

Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed

into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the
ground. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed
to enable a uniform application of water.

Sprinkler systems are used to irrigate crops to increase crop production as are all
irrigation systems. However, sprinkler systems may also have other uses; some of them
are unique to this type of water application device. Sprinkler systems may be used for
disposal of municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes. It is used to lightly wet the soil
surface after seeding to improve germination. Fertilizers may be applied to a crop
through a sprinkler system if the uniformity of the application system is sufficient.
Sprinkler systems may also be used for frost protection under adverse weather condition
which bud freezing may bring serious economic damage to a crop. When such systems
are use for frost protection, the bud is covered with a thin layer of frozen water.

Sprinkler Irrigation System in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia Sprinkler Irrigation is practiced to a limited extent for growing horticultural

crops around Ziway, in Tanabeles irrigation project and for development of 6000 ha
irrigated sugarcane plantation for Fincha sugar factory. Now a days it has been
becoming the major component in supplementing the natural rainfall for food and

1
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

industrial raw material production and for production of market based agricultural
products, such as flower farms owned by private sectors.

Considering prospects of sprinkler irrigation systems development in Ethiopia, few of the

conditions which favour the development or which calls for the system are:

1. The undulating topography of wide arable areas of the country,

2. Marginal soils of peripheral regions of the country , shallow soils with low water
holding capacity and which prevent proper leveling for effective surface irrigation
methods, land having steep slopes and easily erodable soils , irrigation streams
too small to distribute water efficiently by surface methods in arid and semi- arid
areas of the nation which otherwise are suitable for large scale commercial
production
3. Growing hydropower generation, etc

The major bottlenecks were:

1. No or little domestic production of system components- pumps, quick couplers,
light weight pipes, hose etc. Almost all components are imported.
2. Individual farmers can not afford the installation costs.
3. Poor infrastructure and marketing which could support production of paying
perishable crops and vegetables for export and domestic consumption.
4. Lack of skilled manpower for project identification, planning, design and
implementation.

2.2 Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation

Some of the conditions which favor sprinkler irrigation are as follows.
 Soils too porous for good distribution by surface methods.
 Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper leveling for surface
irrigation methods.
 Land having steep slopes and easily erodable soils.
 Irrigation stream too small to distribute water efficiently by surface irrigation.
 Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for good surface irrigation.
 Land needs to be brought in to top production quality. Sprinkler systems can be
designed and installed quickly.
 Soils with low water holding capacities and shallow rooted crops which require
frequent irrigation.
 Automation and mechanization are practical.
 Labour available for irrigation is either not experienced in surface methods of
irrigation or is unreliable, good surface irrigation requires trained reliable labour.
 Higher application efficiency can be achieved by properly designed and
operated systems.
For optimum crop growth sprinkler irrigation is suitable under the following conditions.

Suitable crops

Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed
over or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for
irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by
the sprinklers may damage the crop.

2
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Suitable slopes

Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating.

The lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be laid out along the
land contour whenever possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the
sprinklers and provide a uniform irrigation.

Suitable soils

Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is
always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil so that surface
ponding and runoff can be avoided.

Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is the
only method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers
producing larger water droplets are to be avoided.

Suitable irrigation water

A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid

problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.

Other uses of Sprinkler irrigation

Sprinkler systems have several secondary agricultural uses which are important in
addition to the primary use for distributing irrigation water to be stored in the soil. Light
frequent irrigations so easily managed by using sprinklers, are helpful in many situations,
such as, shallow rooted crops, germination of new plants, control of soil temperature and
humidity.

The other uses of sprinkler irrigation are:

 Frost protection
 Application of fertilizers , pesticides and soil amendments
 Crop cooling

Sprinkler Irrigation versus Surface irrigation

When comparing sprinkler and surface methods of irrigation, the following points should
be considered:
Sprinkler systems can be designed so that less interference with cultivation
and other farming operations occurs and less land is taken out of production
than with surface methods.
Frequent and small depth of water can readily be applied by sprinkler
systems.
Higher water application efficiency can normally be obtained by sprinkler
irrigation.

3
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

For areas requiring in frequent irrigation, sprinkler irrigation can be provided

at a lower capital investment per acre of land irrigated than can surface
irrigation.
Water measurement is easier with sprinkler than with surface methods.
Whenever water can be delivered to the field under gravity irrigation,
sprinkler irrigation is particularly attractive.
When domestic and Irrigation water come from the same source, a common
distribution line can be frequently used.

Limitations of sprinkler Irrigation:

 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of water

 Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water.
 Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large amount of dissolved
salts.
 High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation.
 High power requirements
 Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate can not be irrigated efficiently in hot
windy areas.
 In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation
losses of water may take place.

2.3 Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems

Various types of sprinkler systems have been developed in response to economic and
labour conditions, topographic conditions, special water application needs and the
availability of water and land resources. Sustained development of sprinkler system
began in the Pacific Northwest of the United States where land and water resources
were available for irrigation along with low cost hydroelectric power. Several types of
sprinkler irrigation systems will be introduced here in with.

Based on the arrangement for spraying irrigation water sprinklers may be classified
as fixed nozzles attached to the pipe, perforated pipe, and rotating sprinklers.

Fixed Nozzle: Parallel pipes are installed at about 15 meters apart and supported on
rows of posts. Water is discharged at right angles perpendicularly from the pipe line. The
entire 15 m width between pipe lines may be irrigated by turning the pipes through about
135°.
Perforated sprinkler: Generally application rates exceeding 20 mm/hr for this system
and pressure heads less than 25m, often as low as 7m . They do not cover a very wide
strip.

Rotating sprinklers: Extensively used due to its ability to apply water at a slower rate.
It uses relatively large nozzle openings which are favorable in water containing silt and
debris since less stoppage of sprinklers is experienced. Application rates less than 2
mm/hr are possible with sprinklers (advantageous for soils with low infiltration rates).
Pressure heads vary from 20m to 70m for large units.

Classification based on the method of developing pressure:

4
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

 Pump powered system

 Gravity sprinkler system
 Hybrid systems (Pumps + Gravity)

Classification based on portability and make-up of units:

Sprinkler system may be classified broadly as conventional systems (Periodic move

and fixed systems) and mobile sprinkler machines (periodic move and continuous
move system.
1. Conventional system ( Periodic move and fixed systems)
Different types under this group based on portability and mobility of the different
components are indicated.

 Permanent system
 Solid set system
 Portable system
 Hand move (semi portable system)

Permanent System: Fully permanent systems consist of permanently laid mains, sub
mains, laterals and stationary water sources with pumping plant. mains, sub mains and
laterals are usually buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located in
each riser, thus to irrigate the field sprinklers only need to be cycled on and off. These
systems are suited for automation of the system usng moisture sensing devices.
Generally good for perennial crops and ideal for fertilizer and chemical applications.

Hand move sprinkler (Semi- portable system): The original sprinkler systems were
hand move types. The water source and the pumping plants are fixed and the mains and
sub mains are usually buried or laid on the surface with valve outlets at various spacings
for the portable laterals, which are aluminium tubing with quick couplers with risers and
sprinklers portable (Periodic).This system is the basis from which all the mechanized
systems were evolved. These systems are placed in the field with the pipe lines which
deliver water to the sprinkler nozzles running parallel to the cropped rows. The sprinkler
nozzles rotate such that each nozzle wets in a circular pattern. The uniformity of
application comes from the over lapping of these circular patterns both along the
sprinkler line and between successive positions of the lines.

5
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Fig. Lay out of Hand move sprinkler System @ position -1

Solid-set system: This is similar to the hand move type except for the pipe lines are left
in a fixed position for the entire growing season. Because there are no lines to be
moved, the entire field must be covered by application patterns of the overlapping
sprinkler nozzles.

Portable system: It has a portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping plant.
Here all system components can be moved periodically from one field to another
including pumping unit. This system is commonly used in supplemental irrigation system.
Comparatively, the initial investment on this type of sprinkler system is not high but the
labor cost is more.

6
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

2. Mobile sprinkler machines

These are self propelled machines or which are external power unit , designed
mobile with all required system components to irrigate larger area. In these
systems labour requirement is very less. How ever mechanical break down is
more likely. Therefore it is advisable to allow some reserve capacity (time) and
use that same system capacity as for conventional system.
 Side roll system
 Self propelled gun travelers - Big Gun sprinkler
 Center pivot system
 Linear move system
 Boom sprinkler system

Side-roll system: It is made up of a series of aluminum wheels which serve to elevate

the sprinkler line. This type of system essentially evolved out of a labor shortage to move
the hand-move lines.
An entire length of side- roll line is moved by a small derive motor installed in the center
of the line. After the line has finished irrigation in one position in the field, the motor is
turned on to move it into position for the next irrigation. The elevated distribution line
serves as an axle about which the wheels rotate.

Center pivot system: This is a further development in labour-saving sprinkler system.

The water source for this system, whether a well or buried pipeline, is located at the
center of the field and delivers water to the pivot arm. The pivot arm is rotated by
hydraulic or electric derive motors connected to the wheels at the intermittent towers.

The rotation of the pivot arm results in the pattern of circular irrigated areas. Specially
designed linear move system is adopted to irrigate the corners of irrigable land left
unirrigated with the center pivot system.

Linear move system: requires the source of water to be available all along one edge of
the field. This is accomplished either by an open canal or by using buried mainline which
is coupled to the linear move at different locations down the field by a flexible hose. The
water supply system is more complex for a linear-move system than a center pivot
because the distribution system delivers water along the entire length of one side of the
field instead of only at the center.

Big Gun system: Gun traveler sprinkler is a high capacity sprinkler fed with water
through a flexible hose; it is mounted on self- propelled chassis and travels along a
straight line while watering. It has a single large diameter nozzle which sprays large
volumes of water reaching 40 – 120 m3/hr in a circular pattern. The nozzle is connected
to a flexible hose which is pulled along a straight line so a strip of field is irrigated on one
pass.

Boom sprinkler System: This system is carried by a trailer and can be folded during
transportation.

7
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Pressure heads

Sprinkler systems operate under a wide range of pressure heads from 3.5m to over
70m. The desirable pressure head depends up on power costs, area to be covered, type
of sprinkler used, sprinkler spacing and crop being irrigated.

Water for all sprinkler systems must be pressurized, whether a high pressure (830 to
1035 kpa) for the big gun system, moderate pressure (275 to 485 kpa) for the impact
sprinklers or relatively low pressure (105 to 210 Kpa) for rotating nozzles. There fore,
pressurized water source, whether developed by the gravitational head available from an
elevated water source or the output pressure of a pump, is an integral part of any
sprinkler system.

Sprinklers in the low pressure head range have small areas of coverage and relatively
high sprinkling rates for the recommended spacing of the sprinklers. Their use is
confined to soils whose infiltration rate exceeds 12 mm/hr during irrigation.

Medium pressure head sprinklers cover larger areas and have a wide range of
precipitation rates and water drops are well broken up.

High pressure head sprinklers cover large areas, and precipitation rates for
recommended spacing are higher than for the medium pressures. Distribution patterns
are usually good but are easily disrupted by winds because of high water trajectories.
They have high application rate (> 20 mm/hr).

2.4 Sprinkler System Components

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components:

 Pressure generating units(Pump unit)

 Water carrier units (Mainlines , sub mainlines, Laterals)
 water delivery units (riser pipes and Sprinklers)
 Quality improvement sub units ( Screens , Desilting basins)
 Ancillary units ( Fertilizer and other chemical applicator)

The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and
provides adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system.

Mainline: a line between the source of pressurized water and the point at which water is
delivered to the field is the next component. Generally the mainline is buried or above-
ground pipeline. In the linear move system the mainline can be an open channel and
requires a pressurizing device, pump.

Lateral line: This comes out of the mainline to deliver water to the sprinkler nozzles.
The position of the lateral may be permanent, as in a solid set, or moveable as in the
hand move and side- roll systems. The spacing between the successive positions of the
lateral along the mainline spacing and is designated as Sm.

8
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

The distance between sprinkler nozzles along a lateral is termed as the lateral spacing
and designated as Sl.

To get a uniform rate of water application, the nozzle size, nozzle spacing or both are
varied along the length of the pivot arm.
The spray area which is wet by each sprinkler nozzle at a particular operating pressure
is designated as the wetted diameter, DW. The wetted diameters are overlapped along
the lateral to promote a more uniform distribution of water application.

A common problem with sprinkler irrigation is the large labour force needed to move the
pipes and sprinklers around the field. In some places such labour may not be available
and may also be costly. To overcome this problem many mobile systems have been
developed such as the hose reel rain gun and the centre pivot.

Fertilizer applicator:

Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected in to the sprinkler system; the fertilizer is
easily placed at the desired depth in a soluble and readily available form to plants, with
out any danger of being leached away. The two operations, irrigation and fertilizer
application, are done simultaneously thus saving the labour required for fertilizer
application.

Fertilizer can be introduced in to the system either through the suction side of the pump
via a pipe and regulated by a valve, another pipe is connected from the discharge side of
the pump to the fertilizer container for the required water supply in the tank or a venture
fixed in the mainline creates a differential pressure and allows the fertilizer solution to
flow in the main water line. In some designs the applicator could have separate injection
pump.

Introducing fertilizers through the suction side of the pump via the pipe is simpler but
pump impellers are likely to be corroded due to the fertilizer solution, unless the
impellers are made of corrosion resistant materials. When applying the fertilizer through
the sprinkler system, it is desirable to operate the system long enough with out turning
on fertilizer injector valve, to wet the soil and the plant foliage. The ratio of water to
fertilizer by weight is about 30:1 and timed to be injected with in half an hour. After
injection the system has to operate for about 20- 30 minutes to flush it out from toxic
effects of the fertilizer solution.

The Quantity of fertilizer to be injected is calculated for the area according to the
recommended rate of fertilizer application in kilograms per hectare, using the formula,

S l * S m * N s * Pn * W f
WF 
10,000

Where: W F = Amount of fertilizer per setting , Kg.

Sl = Distance between sprinklers , m
Sm = Distance between laterals , m
Ns = Number of sprinklers
Pn = Number of positions a given sprinkler can serve ( In solid set system)

9
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

W f = recommended fertilizer dose, Kg /ha

Desilting basin (Settlement Reaches):

Desilting basins may be required to trap and or suspended silts when the water comes
from streams, open ditches or well water having silt. Some times desilting basins and
debris screen are built as a combination structure. Desilting basin should be large
enough to provide protection for at least one full day.

Debris screen:

Debris screen are usually needed when surface water is used as the source of irrigation.
The function of screens is to keep the system free of trash that might plug the sprinkles
nozzles. Screens should be fine enough to catch weed seeds and other small particles.
Two or more screens, of progressively finer mesh, can be used when heavy loads of
debris are expected. The accumulated trash must be removed from the screens before
water flow to the pump becomes restricted.

Booster pumps:

Booster pumps are used when additional pressure is required in some particular place of
the already pressurized system. They could be used to provide adequate pressure for
small areas that lie at elevation considerably above the principal area to be irrigated, to
derive the turbine in a hose reel of self-propelled gun travellers. The use of booster
pumps under such conditions removes the need to carry high pressures from the main
pumping plant for relatively small fraction of the total pressure that is needed on high
pressure or discharge area.

10
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

11
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Fig. Definition sketch for components of sprinkler system

2.5 Operating Sprinkler System

The main objective of a sprinkler system is to apply water as uniformly as possible to fill
the root zone of the crop with water.

Wetting patterns

The wetting pattern from a single rotary sprinkler is not very uniform. Normally the area
wetted is circular (see top view). The heaviest wetting is close to the sprinkler (see side
view). For good uniformity several sprinklers must be operated close together so that
their patterns overlap. For good uniformity the overlap should be at least 65% of the
wetted diameter. This determines the maximum spacing between sprinklers.

12
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Figure --- Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (TOP VIEW)

Wetted Depth

Figure --- Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (SIDE VIEW)

The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water pressure.
Spray from sprinklers is easily blown about by even a gentle breeze and this can
seriously reduce uniformity. To reduce the effects of wind the sprinklers can be
positioned more closely together.

13
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Figure…. Overlapping wetting pattern.

Sprinklers will only work well at the right operating pressure recommended by the
manufacturer. If the pressure is above or below this then the distribution will be affected.
The most common problem is when the pressure is too low. This happens when pumps
and pipes wear. Friction increases and so pressure at the sprinkler reduces. The result
is that the water jet does not break up and all the water tends to fall in one area towards
the outside of the wetted circle. If the pressure is too high then the distribution will also
be poor. A fine spray develops which falls close to the sprinkler.

Application rate

This is the average rate at which water is sprayed onto the crops and is measured in
mm/hour. The application rate depends on the size of sprinkler nozzles, the operating
pressure and the distance between sprinklers. When selecting a sprinkler system it is
important to make sure that the average application rate is less than the basic infiltration
rate of the soil. In this way all the water applied will be readily absorbed by the soil and
there should be no runoff.

Sprinkler drop sizes

As water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm
in size. The small drops fall close to the sprinkler where as the larger ones fall close to
the edge of the wetted circle. Large drops can damage delicate crops and soils and so in
such conditions it is best to use the smaller sprinklers.

Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle size. When the pressure is low,
drops tend to be much larger as the water jet does not break up easily. So to avoid crop
and soil damage use small diameter nozzles operating at or above the normal
recommended operating pressure.

14
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

2.6 Design of sprinkler systems

2.6.1 General
A sprinkler irrigation system, to suit the conditions of a particular site, is especially
designed in order to achieve high efficiencies in technical performance and economy. A
complete farm sprinkler system planned exclusively for a given area of farm unit on
which sprinkling will be the primary method of water application. Planning for complete
systems includes considerations of crops and crop rotations used, water quality, and the
soil found in the specific area, possible considerations for future expansions etc. The
step-by –step procedure in the planning and design of a sprinkler irrigation system is
enumerated below.
Inventory of available resources and operating conditions

At the project identification and preliminary planning stage a comprehensive inventory of

available resource is made on physical resources, this include: collecting information on
soils, topography, water supply, source of power, crops and farm operation schedules.
For promising areas, soil survey (scale 1:10,000 or bigger) are undertaken to delineate
the extent and distribution of soil types, together with their chemical and physical
characteristics particularly water-related properties such as soil depth, water holding
capacity, infiltration rate, permeability and drainage, erosion and salinity hazards.
Evaluation of climate would include temperature, humidity, wind sunshine duration or
radiation, evaporation, rainfall, occurrence of night frost, and others; on which crop
selection and crop water needs will be based. Criteria on production potential under
irrigation must justify development not only from agronomic, technical and economy but
also from a sociological point of view. Knowledge of present farming systems including
among others farm equipment use, social amenities (feature or facility of a place that
make life easy or pleasant), credit facilities and farming incentives, will therefore be
required in selecting a development plan. Infrastructure and human resources in the
area have to be evaluated including communication, markets, population, labour and
employment, and power source.
Topographic map of the area

It is essential that a map of the area concerned is prepared and drawn to scale with
sufficient accuracy to show all dimensions so that length of main and laterals can be
scaled there from. It should be a contour map or, at least, should show all relevant
elevations in the fields to be irrigated. It should be possible to generate information

15
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

generally needed like direction of land slope to locate laterals and mains, changes in
elevations along lateral-line settings, to design a system that controls between irrigated
areas and the water source. The elevation differences, together with friction losses in the
mains and laterals and the pressure requirements of the sprinklers, determine the
pressure that must be developed by the pump.
If slopes are gentle and fairly uniform, checking the elevation at a few points along the
side of the field, at control points along possible mainline locations, and at water source
is enough.
Water supply – source availability and dependability

It is important that an irrigation system of sufficient size (capacity) is available to meet

the maximum demand of crops. The quantity available should also meet the seasonal
and annual requirements of the crops and the area to be irrigated. The water should be
chemically suitable for irrigating the crops and soils of the area. It should not have any
corrosive effect on the equipment. The water should be relatively clean and free of
suspended impurities so that the sprinkler lines and nozzles are not clogged
Climatic Condition
The consumptive use of a crop depends upon the climatic parameters such as
temperature, radiation intensity duration, humidity and wind velocity. Sprinkler system is
designed for the daily peak rate of consumptive use of the crops irrigated. For example,
a peak demand in the range of 2 to 10 mm depth per day is equivalent to a continuous
flow of 0.23 to 1.16 lt/sec/ha.

Power source

The source of power to operate the pump is to be known in advance. Electric power is
most convenient when the pump is stationary. Electric pumping sets are cheaper in
initial cost and maintenance cost. Portable diesel pumping sets are the most suitable
and practical for fully portable sprinkler systems.
Based on the knowledge of available resources, the choice of the production system
under irrigation must be made some important parameters are:
Crop Selection: Here, in addition to water available, climate and soils, the preference of
the farmer, labour requirements and markets among others must be considered. These
are otherr site-specific conditions such as limited water available restricting high water-
consuming crops. Unsuitable soils for some crop limited labour for highly intensified
production and processing, and area wide marketing constraints. The cropping pattern

16
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

may need to be adjusted to the available water supply over time, to avoid peak
requirements of various crops occurring simultaneously.
Water Supply level:
An acceptable level of supply, of irrigation norm, must be selected based on a certain
probability that water needed for a selected cropping pattern and cropping intensity will
be meet to each portion of the growing season. Of particular importance are periods
when water shortages have a pronounced effect on yields or germination (critical periods
for soil water stress of crop flowering, vegetative growth, head formation and/of
enlargement etc). A detailed evaluation of water supply available and water demands
over time is therefore required.
Given a certain supply, in turn cropping pattern may need to be adjusted to avoid peak
requirements of various crops occurring simultaneously. This must include consideration
of dormancy periods, shifting of sawing dates, transplantation practices, shortening of
growing seasons, and others. Knowledge of the crop response to water during the
different growing stages will greatly assist in reducing the risk of possible crop failure or
yield depression due to periods of limited water supply.

2.6.2 Sprinkler characteristics

When we design sprinkler system we should know different characteristics of sprinklers.
The actual selection of the sprinkler is based largely up on design information furnished
by manufacturers of the equipment. The essential parameters are sprinkler discharge,
distance of through, application rate and distribution pattern together with application
uniformity and efficiency.

1. Discharge of Sprinkler nozzle (q)

Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle size and pressure available. It may be
computed from the following orifice flow formula derived by Torricelli.

q  ca 2 gh
where,
q = nozzle discharge, m3/s
a = cross sectional area nozzle, orifice, m2
h = pressure head at the nozzle, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2

17
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

c = coefficient of discharge which is a function friction and contraction

losses ( It varies from 0.75 to 0.98) depending on the shape of the
nozzle , c = 0.95 to 0.96 for good nozzles.

2. Distance of throw
Diameter of through governs spacing between sprinklers or laterals. It has direct
relationship with the operating pressure.The radius of wetted area covered by the
sprinkler may be estimated by the following formula suggested by Canvazza.
R = 1.35 dh
Where R = radius of wetted area covered by the sprinkler, m
d = diameter of nozzle, m
h = pressure head at the nozzle, m.
Maximum coverage is attained when the jet emerges from the sprinkler at an angle of
30o to 32o above the horizontal. Most rotating sprinklers are standardized at 30o.

The design of sprinkler system is aimed at replacing the water used by the plant during
the peek period of the growing season to avoid crop stress. The required depth of
application is dependent up on the peak period evapotranspiration rate, the water
holding capacity of the root system and the management allowed depletion.
In addition to meeting the crop water requirement, the sprinkler system must be
designed in balance with the intake rate of the soil. Sprinkler systems are normally
designed to avoid all run off from the irrigated field. The intake rate of the soil relative to
sprinkler application must therefore be measured and the sprinkler application rate
chosen accordingly. The sprinkler application rate will depend on the nozzle size,
operating pressure, and spacing of sprinklers.

The maximum reasonable uniformity of application is required to minimize losses due to

deep percolation. The uniformity of application will partially depend on the velocity of the
prevailing wind during sprinkler operation and sprinkler spacing. It will also depend on
pressure variations along the sprinkler line. Pressure variations will be influenced by the
system design criteria, topography and pump selection. The final design must balance
the physical and biological requirements of the system with a reasonable economic cost
and convenience for the cultivator.

2.6.3 Uniformity of application

Pressure effects
Uniformity of application depends on matching operating pressure with the selected
sprinkler nozzle diameter, wind effects and sprinkler spacing. If the pressure is too low,
the water stream is not adequately broken up and a donut-shaped application pattern
results. If the pressure at the nozzle is too high, the stream is broken up in to excessively
small droplets and the water doesn’t carry to the extent of the design wetted diameter.
Excessive amounts of water are instead deposited in the vicinity of the nozzle.

With proper operating pressure an application pattern close to triangular shape (in cross
sectional view) is produced by most sprinkler nozzles. When this pattern is overlapped
with the nearby sprinklers, a fairly uniform application pattern can be attained.

18
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Figure… Effects of system operating pressure on sprinkler distribution pattern.

Wind effects prevailing wind condition can have a tremendous effect on the application
pattern of a sprinkler system. Consistent high velocity winds can in fact rule out the
effective use of sprinkler irrigation or limit operations to times of relatively low winds such
as night

Uniformity coefficient
A measurable index of the degree of uniformity obtainable for any size sprinkler
operating under given conditions has been adopted and is known as the uniformity
coefficient (Cu). The uniformity coefficient is affected by the pressure nozzle size

19
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

relations, sprinkler spacing, and wind conditions. The coefficient is estimated from field
observations.
1. Christiansen’s Uniformity coefficient

CuC = (1 -
x i x
) * 100
nx
where xi = depth caught in can i, mm
x = mean depth caught in mm
n = no of sample
If Cu = 100, absolutely uniform obtained from overlapping sprinklers where as the
water application is less uniform with the lower coefficients. However , Cu of about
85% is satisfactory.
2. Hawaiian Sugar planters Formula
s
UcH = 1  2  
  x
Where UcH = Hawaiian Sugar planters association coefficient, fraction
S =standard deviation of depth caught, mm

The standard procedure for making a uniformity test for a single sprinkler involves
setting up a square grid with a minimum of 80 collectors with in the wetted diameter. The
minimum collector diameter is 80 mm. The sprinkler to be tested is placed at the center
of the grid, that is , midway between four adjacent collectors at a height of 0.6 m above
the average elevation of the tops of the four nearest collectors. Nozzle pressure, flow
rate, and speed of rotation must be accurately measured.

Example:
Determine the Christiansen’s uniformity coefficient from the following data obtained
from a field test on a square plot bounded by four sprinklers.

* 8.9 7.6 6.6 *

8.1 7.6 9.9 10.2 8.3
8.9 9.1 9.1 9.4 8.9
9.4 7.9 9.1 8.6 9.1
* 7.9 6.6 6.8 *
Note : * indicates sprinkler positions
Solutions:
Mean of observations: 178/21 = 8.48
Calculate the numerical deviations from the mean for each observations and sum
up.
Thus x i  x = 17.76
 17.76 
Cu = 100* 1   = 90.03 %
 21 * 8.48 
Tips: The data on uniformity coefficient are useful as a basis for selecting the
combination of spacing, discharge, nozzle size and operating pressure
to obtain high irrigation efficiency.

20
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

2.6.4 Adequacy of application

Concept of adequacy:
The net irrigation requirement at a given time is equal to the crop water requirement
since the last irrigation minus the amount of precipitation which infiltrated in to the
soil profile – that is effective precipitation. No sprinkler system is perfectly uniform;
some parts of the field receive greater depths of applied water than others due to
superposition of sprinklers.

The concept of adequacy addresses the question of what portion of the field received
the net irrigation requirement. A portion of the field received an amount equal or
greater than the net irrigation requirement is said to be adequately irrigated and the
remaining portion is under irrigated. Any depth of applied water equal to more than
the net irrigation requirement goes to deep percolation. If 25 % of the field receives
at least the net depth of irrigation, then the field is said to have an adequacy level of
25 percent. The relationship between adequacy and uniformity determines the
amount of deep percolation for sprinkler irrigation.

2.6.5 Losses in a sprinkler system

In calculating the capacity of sprinkler installation, it is essential to know the losses

occurring during sprinkling. In practice these can be done for a particular soil, climate
and sprinkling method.
1. Wind drift and evaporation losses: These losses are influenced by the same
factors affecting the evaporation of the crops .Viz, the radiation, wind velocity,
temperature and relative humidity of the air. The size of droplets is also
important. More water evaporates as the size of the droplets is smaller. The size
of the droplets is determined by the size of the nozzles and the pressure. Wind
drift and evaporation losses are less than 5 % when irrigating crop with full
vegetative canopy in low winds. More commonly, wind drift and evaporation
losses range between 5 and 10 percent. However, under very sever conditions,
they can be considerably great.
2. Interception: When sprinkling is stopped the crop is still wet. The water
remaining on the crop after sprinkling is called interception water. The
interception in a grass crop is approximately 2mm; these may be some what
more in tall crops. The interception should not be considered as a loss, because
a wet crop has a lower transpiration. Transpiration by the crop may be greatly
reduced during application but will be compensated by increased evaporation
from wet leaves and soil surface. The combined effect do not greatly exceed the
predicted ETo
3. Percolation losses: larger losses than the preceding section is observed as a
result of the irregular distribution of water. The distribution depends on the quality
of the sprinklers , their spacing , pressure ,application rate and especially the
wind velocity. An increase in wind velocity of 1 m/s will decrease the uniformity
coefficient about 4%.
The distribution pattern of the sprinkler is different in each subsequent sprinkling
because of a different wind direction & velocity and positions of sprinklers. Irregular
distribution of water is also caused by pressure losses in the lateral , resulting in the
pressure head as well as the discharge of the first sprinkler is greater than that of

21
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

the end sprinkler. The discharge ratio is equal to the square root of the pressure
ratio.
q1 h1

qn hn
It is essential to keep variation in pressure at a practical minimum level. In a good
design this variation should not exceed 20% of the average operating pressure and
h1 is maximally 1.2hn.
4. Other losses: Such as fringe losses, leakage losses ( 1%)

The equation to estimate vapour pressure deficit is given by Trimmer ( 1987) as

 17.27T 
es  ea  0.61exp  1  RH 
 T  237.3 
Where es  ea = vapour pressure deficit , KPa
T = air temperature, OC
RH = Relative humidity in fraction
The final equation for evaporation and wind drift is given by

Ls  1.98D
0.72
 0.22es  ea 
0.63
 3.6 *10 4 h
1.16
 0.14U  
0.7 4.2

Where ,
Ls = evaporation and wind drift , percent
D = nozzle diameter , mm
H = nozzle operating pressure, Kpa
U = wind velocity , m/s
The combined efficiency is the volume of water stored in the root zone compared to the
volume delivered to the application devices. The application devices for the sprinkler
system are the sprinkler nozzles. The combined efficiency must account for both deep
percolation and evaporation and wind drift.
Ec = 1  Ld 1  Ls 
Where Ec = combined application and distribution pattern efficiency, fraction
Ld = Deep percolation, fraction
Ls = evaporation and wind drift, fraction.

2.6.6 Components of system Design

Application Rates
The application rate to the soil surface must therefore be less than the intake rate of
the soil. The lower limit of the application rate must take in to account that there will
be safe evaporation and wind drift of water from the nozzle. Thus, the discharge rate
of the nozzle should be high enough that adequate water remains after evaporation
and wind drift to enable a reasonable amount of water to be infiltrated in to the root
zone.
The gross application rate,

360 * q
dg=
S l .S m

22
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

where dg = gross application rate , cm/h

q = nozzle discharge l/s
Sl = lateral spacing, m
Sm= mainline spacing, m
Part of the gross application will go to evaporation and wind drift and the remainder will
be applied to the soil surface.

The net application rate,

da= dg (1-Ls)

where da= net application rate

Ls= evaporation and wind drift, fraction

23
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Where H = Water Distribution Coefficient, fraction

E = Water Storage Coefficient, fraction

24
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

25
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle diameter, model and operating

pressure.
q = KP0.5
where q=nozzle discharge , l/s
p= nozzle operating pressure
k = non linear proportionality constant dependent on nozzle model and diameter.
Manufacturers of sprinkler nozzles have contributed to proper design procedures by
developing tables of nozzles characteristics for various nozzle models. These tables
indicate the nozzle discharge and wetted diameter as a function of the operating
pressure for different sprinkler models and nozzle diameters.

26
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

27
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Irrigation interval
The key parameter to the design irrigation interval is the total allowable depletion, TAD.

TAD=TAM*MAD*Dr

Where TAM = total allowable moisture mm/m

MAD =management allowed depletion, fraction
Dr = depth of active root zone

TAM= FC-CEW
where FC= field capacity, mm/m
CEW=crop extractable water, mm/m

Guidelines for the total available moisture

Light sandy soil, AM = 80mm/m

Medium loam soil, AM=140mm/m
Heavy clay soil, AM=200mm/m

Guidelines for management allowed depletion:

High value- shallow rooted crop----MAD=33%

Medium value – Medium rooted crop—MAD = 50%
Low value- deep rooted crop-----MAD =67%
The time between successive irrigations, the irrigation interval, is given by
TAD
Ti=
ETcrop
Where Ti = irr. interval, day
ETcrp= peak CWR, mm/d

28
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Sprinkler Nozzle selection criteria

The equation q= KP0.5 indicates that there is a relationship between nozzle operating
pressure and discharge. A nozzle operating at a low pressure will have reduced
operating costs compared to one at higher pressure. However the lower pressure nozzle
will have a smaller wetted diameter and lower discharge rate. Single nozzle sprinklers
tend to perform better in high wind conditions than double nozzle sprinklers. In other
than high wind conditions, double nozzle sprinklers generally have a higher uniformity
coefficient than single nozzle system.
The nozzle selection process is one of balancing the operating characteristics of the
nozzles with the physical requirements of the irrigation system. The nozzle discharge
has to be high enough to meet the required gross application rate. The net application
rate must be less than intake rate of the soil.
Nozzle selection is always a trial-and-error procedure in which previous experience is
helpful in making decisions regarding nozzle diameter, operating pressure, and sprinkler
spacing.

29
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

30
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Practical Example

31
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

32
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

33
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

System capacity

The capacity of the system is the continuous flow rate required to irrigate the specified
area within the selected operating schedule. It may be estimated as a function of the
gross irrigation requirement, area, and operating schedule as follows.
2.778 i g .A
Q=
N op.TOP
Where Q= continuous flow rate required, l/s
ig= gross irrigation requirement, mm
A= total irrigated area, ha
Nop= number of days of operation per irrigation interval, d
Top= hours of operation per day, h/d
The required number of sprinklers can be estimated by dividing the system capacity by
design discharge for the nozzle selected. This is given by
Q
n=
q
Where n= number of sprinkler
q= design discharge per nozzle
The final solution for the number of sprinklers will be decided based on the lateral and
mainline spacing. The lay out of the laterals and mainline will determine the actual
number of sprinklers. The number of nozzles to be operated simultaneously times the
design discharge per nozzle will determine the final system capacity.

Distribution (pipeline) system Design and Lay out

Introduction:
The water to the sprinkler system is conducted through pipelines from the source, where
the pressure is applied, to the fields. On these fields the water is sprayed by means of
sprinklers. The lines to the fields are called mainline or sub-mainline. On the field
hydrants are placed in the mainline, the sprinkler lines/laterals can be connected to the
hydrants. The movement of water in the sprinkler pipes is governed by energy.

As water moves a substantial part of the energy is lost because of the friction between
water and the pipes, fittings, tanks etc through which it passes. These friction losses
occurring in the pipe network should stay with in the limits to assure proper operation of
sprinklers.

The purpose of pipeline and sprinkler system design is to properly calculate frictional
energy losses so as to move the design flow through the system, by conserving energy
at some points and by burning it off (through friction) at other points. This is
accomplished by a thorough understanding of the water demand , a detailed survey of
the local topography , a careful selection of the pipe and pump sizes and a strategic lay
out of the whole system.

34
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Pipeline Hydraulics
Head:
In Hydraulic practice, rather than always having to calculate the water pressure it is
much easier to simply use the equivalent height of the water column. For example 4.3
kg/cm2 is equal to 43 meters of water column. In technical terms this water column is
called the head. The head represents the gravitational energy contained in the stationary
water. The head in an irrigation system is composed of many heads, Viz; static head,
pressure head, velocity head, and friction head.
1. Static or elevation or datum head: is the head due to elevation difference
(vertical distances) between two water surfaces and is not affected by variations
in the horizontal direction.
2. Pressure / peizometric head: is the head due to the height of the water column
above that point.
3. Velocity head: is the energy required to accelerate water at a point from rest.
The velocity head in an irrigation system is very small because velocity seldom
greater than 2.5m/s.
4. Friction head: is the energy required for the water to flow between two points
overcoming friction .For a given sprinkler the operating pressure requirement is
fixed. The static head which is a function of the topography is also fixed. What we
need is the friction loss.

I- Static Equilibrium (Water at rest)

Water pressure at any particular point is directly related to the vertical distance of that
point to the free water surface and is not affected by variations in the horizontal direction.
In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is termed as being in static
equilibrium. The level of water is called static water level (SWL) and the pressure is
termed as static head. As long as no water is flowing, there is no energy lost to friction
and the static level is perfectly horizontal.

II- Dynamic Equilibrium (Moving water)

If there is a flow of water through a pipeline and as a result of friction loss in the pipe
line, the water pressure or dynamic head in the pipe will be less than the static head.
This head in moving water is called Dynamic head. More friction loss will occur as more
water flow through the pipe.

Hydraulic Grade line:

The Hydraulic grade line (HGL) represents the energy level as a result of friction losses
in the pipeline. For any constant flow through a pipe, there is a specific and constant
HGL. The vertical distance from the pipeline to the HGL is a measure of pressure head
(i.e. energy) and the difference between the HGL and SWL represents the head lost due
to friction, hf.

The HGL any pipeline’s outlet is called the residual head and represents the excess
water pressure over the atmospheric pressure. The residual pressure at the nozzle
outlet in sprinkler system is called the operating pressure.

35
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Lateral System Design

The equation q = kp0.5 indicates that nozzle discharge is a function of the square root of
the nozzle operating pressure. Previous relationships for uniformity, gross application
rate, and net application rate all assumed that each nozzle was discharging at same flow
rate.

In all but the rarest conditions, it is not possible to have the same operating pressure
available for every nozzle on a lateral. The concept of lateral design is therefore based
on limiting pressure differences along a lateral so the variation of nozzle discharge is
with in acceptable range.

The usual criterion applied for the design of laterals is that the difference in nozzle
discharge along a single lateral is less than ±10%. To accomplish this goal, the
difference in nozzle operating pressure is typically constrained to a variation of less than
± 20% along the lateral.

The procedure for lateral design requires that a balance be developed between the
length of the lateral, the head loss due to friction in the lateral, and the change in
elevation head due to topographic effects.

These factors are kept in balance so the pressure variation between the two critical
sprinklers on a lateral is limited to ±20 %
The governing equation for the maximum allowable head loss due to friction between the
 H a   H e
two critical sprinklers is given by HL  ………….(1)

Where
HL = maximum allowable head loss due to friction, m/m
 = maximum allowable pressure difference, fraction
Ha = nozzle design pressure expressed as head, m
He = increase in elevation in direction of water flow between the two critical
Sprinklers, m
 = distance between the two critical sprinkler, m
Note : He is negative for downhill sloping laterals.

Example- 1 A trial configuration of a hand- move sprinkler system has a lateral running
down slope form a mainline along a constant grade of 0.005m/m. the design operating
pressure of the nozzle is 310 kpa. the trial length of the lateral results in a distance of
400m between the first and the last sprinkler. Compute the maximum allowable head
loss to friction as m/m.
P 310 *103 Pa
Soln
Ha   31.61m
g 103 kg 3 * 9.81m 2
m s
- since the elevation decreases along the lateral, the increase in elevation is –ve
He = -s*  = -0.005 m/m * 400m = 2.0m
- Setting the allowable pressure difference between the critical sprinklers equal to
20%.
0.2 * 31.61m   2.0m
Hc = = 0.021m/m
400m

36
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

- The allowable head loss due to friction computed in the above manner must be
compared with the actual head-loss in the lateral.

HL-ac = F. HL-P …………………………………………(2)

Where HL-ac = actual head loss due to friction, m/m

F = Friction factor to account for decrease in flow along the lateral.
HL-P = equivalent head loss due to friction = hf/L

Friction Head loss

Any convenient friction head loss formula (Analytical or Graphical method) may be
applied to compute the equivalent head loss for a through-flow pipe.

1. Darcy –Weisbach Equation:

This equation states the actual head loss, (hf) as a function of the pipe diameter,
roughness, length of the pipe and flow velocity and is given as:
L V2
hf = f. ……………………………………………………. (3)
D 2g
where hf = head loss due to friction ,m
f = friction factor, which among others, dependent on the viscosity of the
fluid and the roughness of the inside of the pipe, dimensionless
L = length of pipe or tubing over which head loss is evaluated, m
D = Diameter of piping or tubing, m
V2
= velocity head of flow, m
2g

Q Q
V  , substituting in equation (3) above, gives
A 1 D 2
4
8 f LQ 2 1
hf  , therefore, hf  Q 2  5  L , Doubling the diameter of the pipe
g D
2 5
D
reduce hf by 32.

hf
The dimensionless friction factor, f which is given by the equation f 
 L  V 
2
  
 D  2 g 
is estimated using equations or Moody Diagram. From the Moody diagram it is evidient
that the friction factor is a linear function of Reynold’s number and in laminar flow and a
nonlinear function of the Reynold’s number in partially turbulent flow or transition zone.
In fully turbulent flow, the friction factor is constant regardless of the value of the
Reynold’s number. A flow regime can not be maintained in the unstable or critical zone
in a field installation. This zone of flow regime is not important in design situations other
than the fact that it is to be avoided because the flow is unstable.
64
f= , for laminar flow
Re

37
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

The friction factor, f for turbulent flow can be estimated using the Colebrook‘s equation.
 
1  2.51 
 2 log  D   …………………………………………….(4)
f  3.7 Re f 


VD
Where Re = , Reynold’s Number, dimensionless

 = wall roughness of the pipe,m
 =Kinematic Viscosity of the fluid, m2/s

2. Hazen – William’s equation

Many empirical formulas are used for pipe flow analysis in engineering practice.
These formulas have been obtained from experiments on flow of water under
turbulent conditions. Use of such formulas for flow of other liquids is therefore not
likely to give reliable results. The Hazen- Williams formula is typical of such formula
and is probably the most widely used. The formula is written as:
1.852
Q
KL 
hf = C  …………………………………………………(5)
D 4.87
Where: hf =friction loss expressed as head, m
K = conversion constant = 1.22*1010
L = length f pipe, m
Q = Volumetric flow rate, l/s
C = Hazen – William friction coefficient (C= 135 for aluminum pipes)
D = Pipe diameter, mm
In order to use Hazen William’s formula, however one must know the value of the
roughness coefficient C to be used. The following table gives typical values of the
roughness coefficient.

Pipe material Hazen William coefficient

Plastic 150
Asbestos Cement 140
Galvanized steel 135
Aluminum 130
Steel (New) 135
Cast iron coated 130
Cast iron (old ,moderate corrosion, 30yrs age) 100

hf
HL-p = , when expressed per unit length.
L
The Christiansen friction factor, F, for the first sprinkler at distance Sl from the
mainline:
1 1 m 1
F =   …………………………………..(6)
m  1 2N 6N 2

Where N = Number of sprinklers along the lateral

38
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

m = exponent on velocity related term in friction headloss formula

= 1.852 , for Hazen- William equation
= 2.0 , for Darcy Weisbach equation

Sl
If the first sprinkler is at distance from the main line then,
2

2N  1 m 1
F=    …………………………………………….(7)
2N  1 m 1 6N 2 

Example 2- Determine the required pipe diameter to maintain actual head loss with in
the allowable limit for conditions indicated in example -1 . The sprinkler spacing s =
12m and the first sprinkler is at a distance Sl from the mainline. The design discharge
per nozzle is 0.315 l/s
Solution: Compute the number of sprinklers on the lateral and volumetric flow rate.
L 400m
N= =  33
Sl 12m
Q = N (q) = 33 ( 0.315 l/s ) = 10.395 l/s
Assuming (C= 135) , set up the Hazen- William equation for as a function of pipe
diameter.
Head loss per unit length,
1.852
 l
 10.395 
1.852 1.22 * 1010  s
Q  135 
K   
H L-P =
hf
=
C  =   =
1.057 *108
4.87
L D 4.87 D D 4.87
Compute the F – factor for the case where the first sprinkler is at a distance Sl from
the mainline.
1 1 m 1 1 1 1.852  1
F =   =   = 0.366
m  1 2N 6N 2
1.852  1 2(33) 6(33) 2
The results for the through-flow pipe friction head loss and actual lateral head loss as a
function of a range of available inside pipe diameter is indicated in the following solution.

Diameter ( mm) HL-P ( m/m) HL-ac (m/m)

50.8 0.521 0.1907

76.2 0.072 0.0264
101.6 0.018 0.0068
127.0 0.006 0.0022

The maximum allowable head loss from example – 1 is 0.021 m/m , based on 20 %
pressure variation , Dmin. = 101.6 mm.

Check flow velocity at the entrance to the lateral. (Vmax < 1.5 m/s)

39
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

m
10.395 * 10 3
Q s = 1.282 m/s < 1.5 m/s .Thus, the Velocity constraint is met.
V= = 2
A  0.1016m 
 * 
 4 
Determination of maximum number of laterals operating
Simultaneously.
To determine the total discharge and pressure head on sub-mains and mains we need
to know the total number of laterals that will operate simultaneously. To this effect we
need to know the pressure and discharge requirement at the head of each lateral,
<water requirement, irrigation cycle, number of daily irrigation, operating hours, spacing
between laterals etc.
The following example better explain the procedure.

Example: Installation is required for a level field in which three crops are to be
grown for three successive years. Data for soil and crops are given as
follows.

Soil : Field capacity (FC) = 25%

Permanent wilting point (PWP)= 15%
Bulk Density (  b ) = 1.2
Crop:
Crop type Root zone(m) Daily consumptive Management allowed
use (mm/day) depletion (MAD) %
A 1.2 6 80
B 0.6 6 60
C 0.9 6 70
Efficiency of the system is 70%.Adopt 1.2m spacing between laterals along the 360m
sub-main placed in the centre of the field. The water is available for 18 hours per day.
The selected sprinkler has the following operating characteristics.
Sprinkler discharge , qs = 1.7 m3/hr
Operating pressure , hs = 20m
Sprinkler application rate, I = 11.8 mm/hr
Required: 1. maximum number of laterals required to operate the system
2. Total number of lateral settings, settings per day, Number of
laterals that should operate simultaneously.

Solution:
Design for a crop A
 Net crop water requirement, dnet =  b (FC-PWP) *Drz*MAD
= (0.25- 0.15)+1.2*1.2*0.8 = 115 mm
readily .available.depth d net 115mm
 Computed Irrigation interval= = =
daily .consumptive.use CU 6mm / days
= 19days
Taking the number of days free of irrigation for other operation as 4 days, the maximum
net time for an irrigation cycle is
TN max = 19-4 = 15 days

40
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

d net 115mm
 Gross water requirement , dgross=   164mm
efficiency 0.7
 Duration of application, required daily operating hours for a given set
d gross 164mm
t=   14hrs
sprinkler.applicatio n.rate 11.8mm / hr
available.daily .operating .hhours
 Number of application per day , Nappl =
required .operating .hours. for .a.setting
18hrs
=  1.3  1
14hrs
This implies we can do only one operation per day.
 Total number of lateral settings
length .of .submain 360m
Nlat = * field .sides  * 2  60
lateral .spacing 12m
 Number of laterals required daily
total .number.of .lateral .settings 60
Nlat. daily =   4laterals / day
design. int erval 15
 Number of laterals operating simultaneously
required .daily .settings 4
Nsimult =   4 laterals
No.of .applicatio n. per.day 1
Applying similar procedure to crops B and C, the results are summarized as
follows.
crops NWR,mm T(days) TN.max GWR t Nappl N lat. daily Nsimult
A 115 19 15 164 4 1 4* 4
B 43.2 7 5 61.7 5 3 12 4
C 75.6 11 8 108 9 2 7 4

Note: A selected free day for other operations is 3 days for crop C and only 2 days for
crop B. This is subjective. Here this is made purposefully so that we could operate 4
laterals simultaneously, no matter which crop is grown. This decreases the management
complications.

Mainline System Design

Design procedures and friction calculations for mainline are worked similar to that of
pipeline system.

Pressure required at mainline entrance to laterals

Adequate pressure must be available at mainline take-out for the lateral to provide the
correct operating pressure for the selected nozzle. The pressure required must also
account for elevation changes along the lateral and the height of the connecting riser
between the lateral line and the sprinkler nozzle.

The pressure requirement at the mainline entrance to the lateral is calculated by the
following equation.
Hm = Ha + [0.75( Hf +He) + Hr ]*9.807 ,KPa

41
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Where: Hm = required entrance pressure at the mainline, KPa

Ha = Design nozzle operating pressure , KPa
Hf = Total friction head loss in the lateral , m
He = Increase in elevation of lateral from inlet to position of critical
sprinkler, m
0.75 = factor to produce the average operating pressure near the mid
point of the lateral
Hr = Height of the sprinkler riser, m
The critical sprinkler is that with the minimum operating pressure. It is normally the last
sprinkler on the lateral unless there is a point of maximum elevation between the inlet
and the end of the lateral or the down hill slope is significant relative to the friction head
loss gradient. Minimum sprinkler riser heights are required to produce uniform flow
conditions at the nozzle and to clear the crop canopy.

Example 3: Determine the required entrance pressure at the mainline to serve the
lateral in example 1 and 2 . Nozzle operating pressure is 310 KPa. The line is to be laid
on the ground surface. Assume riser height is 1m to clear the crop canopy.

Solution: compute actual friction head loss in the lateral using results of the previous
example ( lateral diameter, D = 101.6 mm).
Hf = Hl-ac (L) = 0.0066m/m * 400m = 2.640 m
Considering an increase in elevation head of -2.0m ( given), required entrance pressure
will be:

Hm = Ha + [0.75(Hf +He) + Hr ]*9.807

=310KPa + [0.75(2.640m-2.0m) +1m]*9.807 = 324 KPa
This is the required pressure in the mainline at the point of the lateral take-out.

Critical Pressure Requirement On mainline

The pressure required at any point of interest on the mainline is the sum of the following
quantities.
a) Pressure required at the next point on the mainline in direction of flow.
b) Friction head loss between the point of interest and the next point on the
mainline.
c) Increase in elevation head between point of interest and the next point on the
mainline.
d) Increase in velocity head between point of interest and the next point on the
mainline.
This relationship is expressed by the following equation in which the point of interest is
designated as i and the next point in the direction of flow is designated as n .
Hi = Hn + hf-in + He-in + Hv-in

Where: Hi = pressure head required at point i , m

Hn = Pressure head required at point n , m
hf-in = Friction headloss from point i to n , m
He-in = increase in elevation head from point i to n , m
Hv-in = increase in velocity head from point i to n , m

Vi 2
The velocity head , Hv-in = where V – in m/s
2g

42
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

The velocity head are usually very small and can be neglected with out loss of accuracy.
The calculation of the head required at any point i requires the calculation of the
pressure required at the next point n. Therefore pressure calculations are started at the
end of the line and worked back towards the pump. The critical point on the mainline is
the point with the highest pressure requirement taking in to account all pressure losses
starting from the pump. The pump must deliver adequate head at the critical point for the
proper operation of the system.
The pressure head required at the pump is equal to the sum of the following
components.
a) Pressure head required at the critical point in the mainline.
b) Total friction head loss from the pump to the critical point in the mainline.
c) Elevation head from the water source to the critical point in the mainline.
d) Friction head loss from the pumping water level to the centerline of the pump.
e) Velocity head at the critical point in the mainline.
The summation of these quantities equals the total dynamic head requirement of the
pump. The total dynamic head required must theoretically be calculated for each
point in the mainline, and the point with the highest requirement is the critical point.
In equation form the total dynamic head,
Vi 2
TDHi = Hi + hf-pi + He-si +Hf-s +
2g
Where : TDH = Total dynamic head required for point i , m
hf-pi = Friction headloss from pump to point i , m
He-si = increase in elevation from source to point i , m
Hf –s = friction headloss on suction side of pump , m
The pump must be able to produce the maximum calculated total dynamic head at the
design flow rate to develop the required pressure distribution in the main line. If the
pressure required at the critical point in the mainline is adequate all other points in the
mainline with lower pressure requirements will have sufficient pressure.
In some cases development of adequate pressure at the critical point will produce
exceedingly high pressure at other points in the distribution system. These high
pressures could cause excessively high discharges in sprinkler laterals connected at
these points. There are two correction procedures for this condition.
1. Installing pressure regulators at the lateral take-outs from the
mainline.
2. adjusting the opening of the hydrant valve at the inlet to achieve
the same effect.
The regulators or valve adjustments maintain the pressure at the inlet to the lateral at the
level computed above (pressure requirement at the entrance).This is the normal method
of correction for high pressure in parts of the mainline on small or moderate size
irrigation systems.

In more extensive systems, it may be advisable to produce the advisable pressure at the
critical points in stages. This is done by installing a booster pumps at intermediate
locations in the mainline to produce the proper pressure head at the critical point. Use of
booster pumps avoids the cost of producing high pressure in certain sections of the pipe
line only to have it controlled by a pressure regulator.

General Example:
A distribution system is to be designed for a sprinkler system on which five laterals will
be operated simultaneously. Each lateral is to have 30 nozzles with 0.360 L/s discharge

43
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
 Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

per nozzle. The required pressure on the mainline at the inlet to each lateral is 393 KPa.
The elevation of each point on the line and distance between points are given in the
following table.
point Elevation
(m) Distance between
points(m)

pump 48.41
A 47.55 36.58
B 48.46 18.29
C 48.77 18.29
D 47.85 18.29
E 47.24 18.29

The mainline is made of 20.32 cm inside diameter aluminum pipe with a Hazen-Williams
C factor of 144. The friction loss and elevation head from the water surface to the
centerline of the pump is +0.333m. Laterals are to operate on points A through E
simultaneously. Determine the critical pressure point in the mainline and the total
dynamic head requirement of the pump.
Solution: see separate sheet.

44
Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009