Class note on Spur gear design in brief

Dr. S. K. Parida
April 4, 2025

1 Introduction
Gear drives are mechanical systems (mechanisms) used for torque transmission and speed
variation between rotating shafts. They provide a reliable and efficient means of power
transmission, ensuring precise motion control. Unlike belt and chain drives, gear drives
maintain a constant angular velocity ratio without slip or creep. Gear drives play a
crucial role in various applications requiring accurate and efficient power transmission.
Their ability to maintain a fixed velocity ratio, high torque capacity, and compact design
makes them preferable over belt and chain drives despite higher costs. Proper selection
and maintenance ensure optimal performance in mechanical systems

2 Requirements of Gear Drive

Gear drives are positive drives, ensuring no slip and allowing for precise torque transmis-
sion. They offer the following advantages:

ˆ Efficient torque transmission with minimal power loss.

ˆ Capability to provide different velocity ratios.

ˆ Durability and resistance to wear under high load conditions.

ˆ Compact design with a minimal center distance between shafts.

ˆ Easy shifting of gears for speed variation.

ˆ High reliability with no slip, ensuring accurate motion transmission.

ˆ No slip, ensuring accurate speed ratios.

ˆ Higher efficiency compared to belt and chain drives.

3 Torque Transmission in Different Velocity Ratios

is a Requirement
Since motors and engines operate at fixed speeds (e.g., an electric motor at 1480 RPM),
gear drives enable adaptation to varying speed requirements. Different machines require
different speeds based on operational needs, as illustrated below:

1
 ˆ Drilling Machine: Larger diameter drill bits require lower speeds, whereas smaller
diameter drill bits can rotate at higher speeds.

ˆ Automobile Drive Axle: The vehicle axle must run at different speeds depending
on driving conditions, necessitating variable gear ratios.

ˆ Lathe Machine: Larger workpieces require lower spindle speeds, whereas smaller
workpieces can be turned at higher speeds. Additionally, different materials and
cutting tools require specific spindle speeds for optimal machining performance.

4 Comparison with Other Drives

4.1 Belt Drive
Belt drives suffer from slip and creep, leading to an inconsistent angular velocity ratio
between shafts. This results in reduced efficiency and imprecise motion transmission.

4.2 Chain Drive

Chain drives experience a polygonal effect, causing variations in speed and potential vi-
bration. Though they reduce slip, they do not offer the precision of gear drives. However,
gear drives are generally more expensive due to their precision manufacturing require-
ments.

5 Types of Gear Drives(Figure 1)

Gear drives can be categorized based on the relative orientation of their shafts:

5.1 Parallel Axis Gears

ˆ Spur Gears: These have straight teeth and transmit power between parallel shafts
with high efficiency.

ˆ Helical Gears: Their teeth are cut at an angle, providing smoother and quieter
operation compared to spur gears.

5.2 Intersecting Axis Gears

ˆ Bevel Gears: These gears have conical shapes and are used to transmit motion
between intersecting shafts, commonly at right angles (not necessarily always).

All these gears are manufactured using gear hobbing processes, and the gear blanks are
typically forged from alloy steels to ensure high strength and durability.

5.3 Perpendicular and Non-Intersecting Axis Gears

ˆ Worm Gears: Consist of a worm and worm wheel, providing high reduction ratios
and used where space constraints exist.

2
 Figure 1: Different types of gears

6 Law of Gearing and Gear Terminologies

6.1 Law of Gearing

The fundamental law of gearing states that the common normal at the point of
contact between two meshing gear teeth must always pass through the pitch point
to ensure a constant velocity ratio.

6.2 Important Gear Parameters (Figure 2)

– Circular Pitch (P): The distance measured along the pitch circle from one
tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth, given by P = πD
T
.
– Module (m): The ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth, given
as m = D
T
.
– Diametral Pitch (DP): The number of teeth per unit pitch diameter, given
T
by DP = D .
– Addendum: The radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
– Dedendum: The radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the
tooth.
– Pressure Angle (α): The angle between the common normal at the point of
contact and the tangent to the pitch circle. Typical pressure angles are 14.5°,
20°, and 25°.

3
Figure 2: Gear Terminology

4
 – Involute and Cycloidal Profiles: Involute gears are commonly used in
modern applications due to their ability to maintain a constant velocity ratio,
whereas cycloidal gears are used in clock mechanisms for smooth transmission.
– Center Distance (C): The distance between the centers of two meshing
gears, given by C = D1 +D
2
2
.
D
– Teeth Formula: The number of teeth on a gear is given by T = m
.
– Left-Handed and Right-Handed Helical Gears: Helical gears can be
either left-handed or right-handed depending on the helix direction. They
provide smoother engagement and reduced noise compared to spur gears.

7 Effect of Pressure Angle in Gears

The pressure angle (ϕ) significantly influences gear performance.

7.1 Advantages of a Higher Pressure Angle

ˆ Increased Load-Carrying Capacity: A higher pressure angle increases the nor-
mal force component, leading to stronger teeth.
ˆ Reduced Undercutting: Higher pressure angles allow for a lower minimum num-
ber of teeth, preventing undercutting.
ˆ Compact Gear Design: More robust gears with better contact ratios.

7.2 Disadvantages of a Higher Pressure Angle

ˆ Increased Radial Forces: Higher normal forces result in increased bearing loads,
leading to higher wear and noise.
ˆ Higher Friction and Heat Generation: A larger pressure angle increases sliding
contact, leading to more heat.
ˆ Reduced Efficiency: Increased friction can lead to power losses in transmission.

7.3 Minimum Number of Teeth and Pressure Angle Relation-

ship
The minimum number of teeth required to avoid undercutting is given by:
2
Zmin = (1)
sin2 ϕ
For ϕ = 20◦ :
2
Zmin = 2 ≈ 17 (2)
sin 20◦
For ϕ = 25◦ :
2
Zmin = 2≈ 14 (3)
sin 25◦
This shows that increasing the pressure angle reduces the minimum number of teeth
required to avoid undercutting.

5
7.4 Face width of the gear teeth
The face width of gear teeth is determined based on the Lewis equation, assuming that
the tangential force is uniformly distributed across the width, meaning there is no stress
concentration. However, in practical scenarios, factors such as misalignment, elastic
deformation of the shaft, and manufacturing inaccuracies can affect this uniformity. A
smaller face width reduces the gear’s ability to resist shock and vibration, making it less
suitable for heavy-load applications. To balance strength and durability, the optimum
face width is generally chosen within the range of 8 × m to 12 × m, where m is the module
of the gear.

8 Forces on Gears
9 Forces Acting on Spur Gear Teeth

Figure 3: Forces on spur gear’s tooth

The tooth of the gear is subjected to fluctuating bending stress in one direction
(repeated type) only during the contact time where the mean stress σmean = σmax 2
and
σavrage = σmax
2
. But in idler gears (mostly used for changing the direction of rotation)
the bending stress acts in both the direction during the engagement with mating gears
the mean and average stresses are σmean = 0 and σavrage = σmax , respectively. In a spur
gear, the forces acting on the teeth can be decomposed as follows (Figure 3):
ˆ Ft - Tangential Force

ˆ Fr - Radial Force

ˆ FN - Normal Force

ˆ ϕ - Pressure angle

ˆ Ft = FN cos(ϕ); responsible for torque transmission and hence power. It induces

torsional shear stress on the gear shaft.

6
 ˆ Fr = FN sin(ϕ); responsible for inducing bending stress.

As, the forces on the tooth are either repeated or reversed fluctuating type, endurance
limit σe is the criterion of design and endurance limit depends size of the gear, surface
finish, stress component, reliability factor. In practice it is very difficult to get these
parameters for each and every case of gear design. Hence, according to Buckingham an
approximate value of σe = σ3u is considered for all practical design purposes.

The torque T transmitted by the gear can be calculated from the power equation:
2πN T
Power (W) = , where T is in N-m and N is in r.p.m.
60
The tangential force Ft can then be determined from the torque:
d mZ
T × 1000 N mm = Ft × = Ft ×
2 2
where m is the module (in mm) and Z is the number of teeth in the spur gear under
consideration. The driver and driven gears are subjected to torque variation in a working
cycle. That is the average torque and the peak torque are different. For an i.c engine
the torque varies in a cycle. This is accounted by multiplying a service factor Cs i.e.
P eaktorque
Cs = ratedtorque . So, the effective load is increased by multiplying the service factor
during the calculation of tangential force Ft .
Finally, the radial force can be computed using:
Fr
tan(ϕ) =
Ft

10 Forces Acting on Helical Gear Teeth

In a helical gear, the forces acting on the teeth can be decomposed as follows (Figure 4):

ˆ Ft - Tangential Force

ˆ Fr - Radial Force

ˆ Fa - Axial Force

ˆ FN - Normal Force

These forces are related to each other through the pressure angle ϕn and the helix
angle ψ. For spur gear take helix angle ψ = 0◦ .

10.1 Force Relations

The tangential force, which transmits power, is given by (normally obtained from power
transmission equation ):
2π × N × T
P ower = (4)
60
where T is the transmitted torque in N.m, N is r.p.m and P is the power to be transmitted
in watt.

7
 Figure 4: Forces on helical gear’s tooth

2T
Ft = (5)
d
where Ft is tangential force where T is the transmitted torque and d is the pitch diameter
(in meter) of the gear. The normal force FN (Figure 4) acts perpendicular to the tooth
surface and is given by (Equation 4.6)and the radial forces Fr and axial force Fa , in terms
of tangential forces Ft as follows:
Ft
FN = ; or Ft = FN cos ϕn cos ψ (6)
cos ϕn cos ψ
.
The radial force acts perpendicular to the shaft and is given by:

Fr = FN sin ϕn (7)

8
The radial force in terms of Ft is given by
Ft Ft × tan ϕn
Fr = sin ϕn = (8)
cos ϕn cos ψ cos ψ

The axial force (or thrust force) acts along the axis of the shaft due to the helix angle:

Fa = Ft tan ψ (9)

An Example: Calculation of tangential force on gear

A gear drive with :

ˆ module m: 4 mm

ˆ Number of teeth Z: 21

ˆ Power to be transmitted 15kW at N=960 r.pm.

ˆ 20 degree pressure angle

Calculate the tangential force:

Solution:
2πN T
Power = 15 kW = 15000 W =
60
2π × 960 × T
15000 W =
60
60 × 15000 d 4 × 21
T = × 103 N.mm = Ft × = Ft × , Ft = 3553 N
2π × 960 2 2

11 Effects of Forces on the Shaft

ˆ The tangential force Ft produces a **torque** in the shaft, causing rotational mo-
tion.

ˆ The radial force Fr causes **bending stresses** in the shaft.

ˆ The axial force Fa induces **axial loading**, which generates **compressive or

tensile stresses** and may lead to buckling in slender shafts.

12 Types of Stresses Induced in the Shaft

The forces acting on the shaft result in the following stresses:

ˆ Torsional Shear Stress: Due to torque T from Ft .

Tr
τ= (10)
J
where J is the polar moment of inertia and r is the radius of the shaft.

9
 ˆ Bending Stress: Due to the radial force Fr .

Mb y
σb = (11)
I
where Mb is the bending moment, I is the moment of inertia, and y is the distance
from the neutral axis.

ˆ Axial Stress: Due to the axial force Fa .

Fa
σa = (12)
A
where A is the cross-sectional area of the shaft.

ˆ Combined Stress: The shaft experiences a combination of torsional, bending, and

axial stresses, which can be analyzed using von Mises stress criteria:
q
σeq = σb2 + 3τ 2 (13)

13 Forces and Stresses on a Cantilevered Shaft in

Helical Gear
Given that:

ˆ Power Transmitted: P = 2 kW = 2000 W

ˆ Pressure Angle: ϕn = 25◦

ˆ Helix Angle: ψ = 30◦

ˆ Rotational Speed: N = 1200 rpm

ˆ Module: m = 3

ˆ Number of Teeth: Z = 21

ˆ Shaft Diameter: ds = 25 mm

ˆ Overhang Length: L = 100 mm

Calculation of Pitch Diameter

The pitch diameter d is given by:

d = mZ (14)

d = 3 × 21 = 63 mm (15)

10
Calculation of Torque
Torque T is calculated using the power equation:
2πN T
P = (16)
60
Solving for T :
P × 60
T = (17)
2πN
2000 × 60
T = (18)
2π × 1200

T = 15.92 Nm (19)

Calculation of Tangential Force

The tangential force Ft is given by:
2T
Ft = (20)
d
2 × 15.92
Ft = (21)
0.063

Ft = 505.08 N (22)

Calculation of Normal Force

The normal force FN is:
Ft
FN = (23)
cos ϕn cos ψ
505.08
FN = (24)
cos 25◦ cos 30◦
505.08
FN = (25)
0.9063 × 0.866

FN = 647.96 N (26)

Calculation of Radial Force

Ft tan ϕn
Fr = (27)
cos ψ
505.08 tan 25◦
Fr = (28)
cos 30◦

Fr = 271.95 N (29)

11
Calculation of Axial Force
Fa = Ft tan ψ (30)

Fa = 505.08 × tan 30◦ (31)

Fa = 291.56 N (32)

13.1 Calculation of Stresses in the Shaft

Torsional Shear Stress
Torsional shear stress is given by:
Tr
τ= (33)
J
ds 25 πd4s
where r = 2
= 2
= 12.5 mm and J = 32
.

π(25)4
J= (34)
32

J = 191134.5 mm4 (35)

15.92 × 103 × 12.5

τ= (36)
191134.5

τ = 1.04 MPa (37)

Bending Stress Due to Radial Force

Bending moment due to Fr at the shaft section:

Mb = Fr × L (38)

Mb = 271.95 × 100 (39)

Mb = 27195 Nmm (40)

Bending stress is given by:
Mb y
σb = (41)
I
ds πd4s
where y = 2
= 12.5 mm and I = 64
.

π(25)4
I= (42)
64

I = 95567.3 mm4 (43)

12
 27195 × 12.5
σb = (44)
95567.3

σb = 3.553 MPa (45)

Axial Stress Due to Fa

Fa
σa = (46)
A
where A = π4 d2s .
π
A= (25)2 (47)
4

A = 490.87 mm2 (48)

291.56
σa = (49)
490.87

σa = 0.727 MPa (50)

14 Analysis of Gear Design: Strength and Wear Ap-

proaches
Gear design is primarily governed by two considerations:
1. Strength-based approach (Bending Strength - Lewis Equation): Ensures
the gear teeth withstand bending stresses.
2. Wear-based approach (Surface Durability - Buckingham Equation): En-
sures the gear teeth resist wear and pitting failure.
With advancements in computational methods (e.g., Finite Element Analysis - FEA) and
improved material properties, these traditional approaches have been supplemented with
more precise methodologies.

15 Strength-Based Design Using Lewis Equation

A gear tooth is considered as a cantilever beam with the following parameters:
ˆ Width of the tooth: b

ˆ Height of the tooth: h

ˆ Thickness at the root: t

ˆ Tangential load on the tooth: Ft

ˆ Bending moment at the root:

Mb = Ft × h (51)

13
15.1 Bending Stress Calculation
The section modulus for a rectangular section at the root of the tooth is given by:
bt2
Z= (52)
6
The bending stress at the root of the tooth is given by:
Mb Ft × h
σb = = bt2 (53)
Z 6

Simplifying,
6Ft h
σb = (54)
bt2
Rearranging for Ft :
t2
 
Ft = mbσb (55)
6hm
Considering the form factor Y , we express Ft as:

Ft = bmσb Y (56)

Thus, the tangential load Ft is expressed in terms of the bending moment, bending
stress, root thickness, height of the tooth, and the form factor Y .
The Lewis equation provides an estimate of the maximum allowable bending stress
in a gear tooth, assuming it behaves as a cantilever beam, it shows the relationship
between tangential force Ft on the teeth and corresponding bending stress σb induced in
it
Ft
σb = (57)
bmY
where:
ˆ σb = Bending stress (MPa)

ˆ Ft = Tangential load acting on the gear tooth (N)

ˆ b = Face width of the gear (mm)

ˆ m = Module (mm)

ˆ Y = Lewis form factor (depends on the number of teeth and pressure angle)
Sb = bm(σallowable )Y (58)
The maximum bending strength or beam strength Sb is calculated using the σallowable
stress, this indicate the maximum beam strength of the gear tooth. To avoid failure
Sb ≥ Fef f , where: Fef f is the effective tangential load the tooth is going to be subjected
to during opertion. As the gear is subjected to repeated and completely reversed stress
(in case of idler gears) for all practical purposes σallowable is σ3u as per Buckingham. In
practice, the torque on the driver and driven gears varies in the work cycle (for example
in engine ). Hence, the maximum torque should be considered to calculate the value of
Fef f by multiplying the service factor Cs .
M aximum T orque
Cs = (59)
Rated T orque

14
where: Cs is service factor. In electric motors the starting torque is higher than the rated
torque. So,
Starting T orque
Cs = (60)
Rated T orque

Example
Given:
ˆ Tangential force, Ft = 2500 N
ˆ Face width, b = 12 mm
ˆ Module, m = 6 mm
ˆ Lewis form factor, Y = 0.34

Solution:
Bending stress induced
2500
σb = = 102.45 MPa (61)
(12 × 6 × 0.34)

Further more, for slow moving gears, the dynamic force arising due to sudden engage-
ment of tooth is not considered till now. However, the inaccuracy of the tooth profile,
error in tooth spacing, misalignment in bearings, inertia of the rotating disc, and elas-
ticity of the parts must be considered for calculating the dynamic effect of the forces on
the gear tooth due to which the effective load Fef f need to be modified. There are two
method for accounting the dynamic effect, and accordingly, the effective load Fef f is as
follows (equation 65) for initial gear design stage and more precise calculation of dynamic
load by using equation 74:
ˆ Approximate estimation by considering the velocity factor for gears moving with
higher velocity in the initial stage of the gear design by modifying the Fef f by the
velocity factor (Cv ) by Barth (Equation 65)
ˆ More accurate estimation by Buckingham equation in the final stage of the design
(Equation 74)
In the initial stage of the design, the values of velocity factors (Cv ) for various speed
ranges and methods of manufacturing are calculated as follows:
ˆ Approximate estimation by considering the velocity factor by Barth, for ordinary
slow moving gears with velocity v ≤ 10m/s
3
Cv = (62)
3+v
ˆ Approximate estimation by considering the velocity factor by Barth, for accurately
gears manufactured by gear hubbing process with velocity v ≤ 20m/s
6
Cv = (63)
6+v

15
 ˆ Approximate estimation by considering the velocity factor by Barth, precise gears
manufactured by gear saving, grinding and lapping operations moving with velocity
v ≥ 20m/s
5.6
Cv = (64)
5.6 + v
ˆ Accordingly, the effective force becomes

Cs F t
Fef f = (65)
Cv

Buckingham’s equation provides a more precise estimation of the impact of dynamic

loads, which are neglected in the Lewis approach. The Lewis approach does not account
for the elasticity of the material, nor for the errors arising due to the quality of gear and
method of manufacture.

15.2 Estimation of the module based on the bending strength

As we know, to avoid failure due to tooth bending,

Sb ≥ Fef f × Factor of Safety (1.5 to 2)

The tangential component is given by:

60 × 106 × (KW )
 
2T 2
Ft = = × (66)
mZ mZ 2πn

So,
60 × 106 × (KW )
 
Cs Cs
Fef f = × Ft = × (67)
Cv Cv πnmZ
Thus,  
2 b σu 
Sb = mbσb Y = m Y ≥ Fef f (68)
m 3
From Equations (68) and (67), rearranging, the module from beam strength can be
estimated as follows:
" # 13
60 × 106 (KW )Cs (F OS)
m= × (69)
ZnCv mb σ3u Y



π

16 Wear-Based Design
Gear teeth also fail due to wear arising from contact stress exceeding the surface endurance
strength. This causes pitting on the gear teeth, and hence, the hardness of the tooth
should be greater than the effective load of the meshing teeth. The resistance to wear
depends on the alloying elements, micro constituents, percentage of carbon, grain size,
surface hardness. For high speed gears the rubbing/ sliding velocity is important hence
the material of the gear should possess low coefficient of friction to avoid failure due to
scoring, pitting. The thermal distorting during heat treatment may change the profile
and can cause stress concentration. The gear materials are cast iron (FG 250-350), steel

16
(50C8, 45C8), Ni, Cr-alloy steel, bronze (worm wheel for confirmability) and phenolic
resins. The wear load equation, based on Hertzian contact stress, is given by:

Fw = bdQK (70)
where:
ˆ Fw = Wear load capacity (N)

ˆ b = Width of the gear teeth (mm)

ˆ d = Pitch diameter of the pinion (mm)

2Zg
ˆ Q= Zg −Zp
(Ratio factor, representing load sharing for internal gears)
2Zg
ˆ Q= Zg +Zp
(Ratio factor, representing load sharing for external gears)

ˆ K = Load-stress factor

– when gears and pinion are made of material other than steel

σc sinϕcosϕ( E1g + 1
Ep
)
K= (71)
1.4
, where ϕ− pressure angle, Maximum compressive strength of gear material
σc = 0.27 × 9.81BHN inN/mm2 ; BHN- Brinnel hardness number
– For steel gears with pressure angle ϕ = 20◦
 2
BHN
K = 0.156 (72)
100

Thus, the design criterion is:

Fw ≥ Fef f (73)

16.1 Example Calculation

Given:
ˆ Pitch diameter of pinion, dp = 120 mm

ˆ Number of teeth, Zp = 24, Zg = 48

ˆ Contact stress, σc = 220 MPa

ˆ assume b=10 m and external steel gear meshing with BHN 300. Calculate wear
load.
Solution:

ˆ Ratio factor Q = 2×48

24+48
= 1.33

ˆ module m = d/Zp = 120/24 = 5mm;

17
 ˆ Width b = 10 × 5 = 50mm

ˆ Load-stress factor for steel gear K = 0.16( BHN

100
)2 = 0.16 × ( 300
100
)2 = 0.16 × 9 =
2
14.4N/mm

ˆ Wear load Fw = b × Q × dp × K = 50 × 1.33 × 120 × 14.4 = 114912 N

16.2 Estimation of module from wear strength

The module of the gear is an important parameter required for the design of gears. This
value can also be calculated from the available parameters provided for the design. We
saw the relation between the wear strength and the effective load and can use this relation
to calculate the module of the gear.

Fw ≥ Feff
We add the factor of safety to the above equation for a safe design:

Fw ≥ Feff × f os
We saw the relation between the tangential and the effective force. The tangential
component can be written as:
2T 2T
Ft = =
d mZ
6
And on simplifying and putting torque in N.mm T = 60×102πN
(kW )
the effective load is
given as:

60 × 106
 
(power in kW) × Cs
Feff = ×
π mzN Cv
From Lewis Equation:
b b
Fw = Qbdp K = m( )Q(mZp )K = m2 ( )Q(Zp )K
m m
Placing the above relations in the inequality, we can solve for the module.
" # 13
60 × 106 (kW )Cs (f.o.s)
m= ×
(zp )2 Np Cv mb QK


π

16.3 For accurate estimation of effective load

Accurate estimation of effective load (Fef f ) is calculated using equation (74) by consider-
ing the dynamic load (Fd ) coming from velocity, materials, error in fitting (′ e′ = ep + eg )
(in microns) for gears and pinion. The above section showing calculation of effective does
not consider the elasticity of the gear materials, the dynamic effect, error in pinion and
gears. So, Fef f is calculated more precisely as follows:

ˆ The dynamic load

Fef f = Cs × Ft + Fd (74)

18
 ˆ Where,
21v(Ceb + Ft )
Fd = √ (75)
21v + Ceb + Ft
where:

ˆ e = ep + eg ; sum of errors between the meshing teeth of gear (eg ) and pinion (ep )
in microns (to be taken from data book as per different grades of gears)

ˆ Fd = Dynamic load (N)

ˆ v = Pitch line velocity (m/s)

ˆ C = deformation factor due to dynamic load factor (N/mm)

k
C=h i (76)
1 1
Ep
+ Eg

where:

– k= constant depending on the form (involute or cycloidal) of the tooth;

– k = 0.107 for 14.5 degree full depth tooth
– k = 0.111 for 20 degree full depth tooth
– Ep = Young’s modulus of pinion material and Eg = Young’s modulus of gear
material

17 Some Critical Design Parameters

17.1 Minimum Number of Teeth to Avoid Undercutting
2
Zmin = (77)
sin2 ϕ
For ϕ = 20◦ ,
2
Zmin = 2 ≈ 17 (78)
sin 20◦

17.2 Center Distance Calculation

m
C= (Z1 + Z2 ) (79)
2
For m = 6, Z1 = 24, Z2 = 48:
6
C = (24 + 48) = 216 mm (80)
2

19
17.3 Do it yourself

Given Data
To design a spur gear drive (20◦ full depth) based on the Lewis equation using the velocity
factor, the following data is provided:
ˆ Number of teeth in pinion: Zp = 20
ˆ Number of teeth in gear: Zg = 50
ˆ Pinion shaft connected to a 22.5 kW motor running at 1450 rpm
ˆ Starting torque is 1.5 times higher than the rated torque
ˆ Material of pinion: Carbon steel with σu = 420 MPa
ˆ Material of gear: FG200 with σu = 200 MPa
ˆ Factor of safety: 1.5

Hint:
For pinion,
420
× 0.32 = 140 × 0.32 = 44.8
3
For gear,
200
× 0.408 = 66.7 × 0.408 = 27.2
3
So, the gear is weaker as 27.2 < 44.8, hence, the design should be based on the gear.

18 Why is the Pinion Used as the Design Criterion?

ˆ The pinion has fewer teeth than the gear, leading to higher fatigue cycles per
revolution.
ˆ The pinion experiences greater bending and contact stress due to more frequent
engagement.
ˆ If the pinion fails, the entire gear set fails; thus, it serves as the critical design
element.

19 Why is the Design Based on the Material of Lower

Strength?
ˆ The weaker material determines the failure threshold, ensuring balanced lifespan.
ˆ Prevents early failure due to stress concentrations.
ˆ In cases where both gears use the same material, the pinion is the limiting factor
due to higher operational cycles.

20
20 Undercutting and Interference in Gears
Undercutting (Figure 5) occurs when the gear teeth are weakened due to excessive mate-
rial removal at the root of the teeth. This typically happens in gears with a small number
of teeth and leads to reduced strength and improper meshing. However, excessive un-
dercutting compromises gear durability. Advanced manufacturing techniques like profile
modification and optimized cutter design help minimize unnecessary undercutting while
maintaining strength and functionality in precision gear systems.

Figure 5: Undercutting in gears

20.1 Why Undercutting Occurs

ˆ When the cutting tool removes excess material at the root of the teeth due to
insufficient space.

ˆ When the number of teeth is below the minimum required to avoid undercutting
(Zmin ).

ˆ When the pressure angle is too low, making the gear susceptible to interference and
loss of profile shape.

20.2 Interference in Gears

Interference occurs when non-conjugate action takes place between meshing gears, leading
to excessive stress, wear, and operational failure. It happens when the addendum of one
gear enters the non-active portion of the mating gear’s profile.
The condition to avoid interference is:
2m
Z1 + Z2 ≥ (81)
sin2 ϕ
where Z1 and Z2 are the number of teeth of the pinion and gear, respectively.

21
20.3 Example Calculation - Avoiding Undercutting and Inter-
ference
Given:

ˆ Pressure angle, ϕ = 20◦

ˆ Module, m = 5 mm

ˆ Pinion teeth, Z1 = 16

ˆ Gear teeth, Z2 = 40

to check if undercutting occurs:

2
Zmin = 2 ≈ 17 (82)
sin 20◦
Since Z1 = 16 < Zmin , undercutting occurs. To prevent this, increasing the pinion teeth
to Z1 ≥ 17 is required.
To check interference:
2×5
16 + 40 = 56 ≥ ≈ 50 (83)
sin2 20◦
Since 56 > 50, interference does not occur.

21 Strength-to-Weight Ratio in Terms of Diameter

under Shear Stress
Derive and show that the strength-to-weight ratio is proportional to the diameter when
considering shear stress, given the relationship:

Derivation
Step 1: Strength in Terms of Torque
The torque transmitted by a circular shaft under shear stress is given by:

πτ d3
T = (84)
16

Step 2: Weight of the Shaft

The weight of the shaft depends on its volume and material density:
Thus, the weight is:

πd2
W = ×L×ρ×g (85)
4

22
Step 3: Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Now, the strength-to-weight ratio is:
πτ d3
T 16
= πd2
(86)
W 4
×ρ×L×g
Simplifying:

T πτ d3 4
= × 2 (87)
W 16 πd ρLg
T 4τ d
= (88)
W 16ρLg
T τ
= ×d (89)
W 4ρLg

Conclusion
τ
Since 4ρLg
is a constant for a given material and length, we conclude that:
T
∝d (90)
W
Thus, the strength-to-weight ratio is directly proportional to the diameter (d) under
shear stress.

Problem 1: Module Calculation

A spur gear transmits 50 kW at 600 rpm. The tangential force acting on the pitch circle
is 3000 N. The number of teeth on the pinion is 25. Determine the module m if the
pressure angle is 20◦ .
HINT:
60 × P
T =
2πN
2T
Ft = , where D = m × Z
D

Problem 2: Lewis Equation for Bending Strength

A steel spur gear has the following parameters:

ˆ Module: m = 6 mm

ˆ Number of teeth: Z = 35

ˆ Face width: b = 12 mm

ˆ Lewis form factor: Y = 0.34

ˆ Permissible stress: σ = 220 MPa

23
 Determine the maximum tangential force Ft using the Lewis equation:
HINT:
σbY m
Ft =
Sf
where Sf is the factor of safety.

Problem 3: Contact Ratio Calculation

A spur gear has:
ˆ Module: m = 4 mm

ˆ Pinion teeth: Zp = 20

ˆ Gear teeth: Zg = 50

ˆ Pressure angle: ϕ = 20◦

ˆ Ra , ra Addendum radii of gear and pinion, respectively

ˆ R, r pitch circle radii of gear and pinion, respectively

Determine the contact ratio CR, angle turned by pinion and gear, assume addendum
to be one module, velocity of sliding at the point of engagement and dis engagement:
HINT:

Path of Contact = Path of Approach + Path of Recession

p
Length of path approach
p = Ra2 − R2 (cosϕ)2 − Rsinϕ
Length of path recess ra2 − r2 (cosϕ)2 − rsinϕ
The formula is:

p p
Path of Contact = ra2 − r2 (cosϕ)2 − rsinϕ + Ra2 − R2 (cosϕ)2 − Rsinϕ

mZg
R=
2
mZp
r=
2
Ra = R + addendum; ra = r + addendum
The **Contact Ratio** (CR) is related to the path of contact by:
Path of Contact
CR =
Base Pitch
where:

Base Pitch = πm cos ϕ

with:
ˆ m = Module of the gear.

24
 ˆ ϕ = Pressure angle.
Angle turned by pinion
Length of path of contact
× 3600
Circumference of pitch circle of pinion

Angle turned by gear

Length of path of contact
× 3600
Circumference of pitch circle of gear

Velocity of sliding at the point of engagement

= (ωp + ωg ) × length of path of approach

Velocity of sliding at the point of disengagement

= (ωp + ωg ) × length of path of recess

with:
ˆ ωp = angular velocity of pinion.

ˆ ωg = angular velocity of gear.

Problem 4: Wear Strength calculation of Gear: an

example
A spur gear transmits 1200 N tangential force. The gear material has:
ˆ Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = 250

ˆ Module: m = 5 mm

ˆ Face width: b = 50 mm

ˆ Pressure angle: ϕ = 20◦

Determine the wear strength using Buckingham’s equation:
HINT:
Fw = bQdpc K
2Z2
where Q = Z1 +Z2
and K is the wear factor.

Problem 5: Minimum Teeth to Avoid Interference

For a spur gear with a 20◦ pressure angle, determine the minimum number of teeth
required to avoid interference using:
HINT:
2
Zmin =
sin2 ϕ

25
Problem 6: Pitch Line Velocity
A spur gear has:
ˆ Pitch diameter: D = 250 mm

ˆ Speed: N = 800 rpm

Calculate the pitch line velocity V in m/s using:
πDN
V =
60

Problem 7: Dynamic Load on Gear

A spur gear pair has:
ˆ Module: m = 6 mm

ˆ Speed: N = 1200 rpm

ˆ Tangential force: Ft = 2500 N

ˆ Assume dynamic factor: 1

Cv
= C = 1.8
Determine the dynamic load using:
HINT:
Fd = C × Ft

Problem 8: Power Transmission and Torque

A spur gear transmits 25 kW at 300 rpm. The module is 8 mm, and the number of teeth
is 40. Calculate the torque using:
HINT:
60P
T =
2πN

Problem 9: Gear Tooth Deflection

A gear has a face width of 60 mm, and the modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa. If the
tangential force is 3000 N, determine the deflection of the gear tooth using:
HINT:
Ft L3
δ=
3EI
3
where L = 2m, and I = bm
12
. A spur gear is transmitting 75 kW at 400 rpm with a
**module of 10 mm** and **face width of 80 mm**. The number of teeth on the pinion
is **30**.
Calculate the maximum bending stress in the gear tooth using the Lewis equation:
HINT:
Ft = bmσb Y
where:

26
 ˆ Y is the Lewis form factor for 30 teeth.

ˆ Ft is the tangential force acting on the pitch circle.

Problem 10: Dynamic Load Using Buckingham’s Equa-

tion
A pair of spur gears 20◦ full depth, with module = 6 mm and teeth = 40 and 80,
operates at 1200 rpm. The static tangential load is 2000 N. Assume deformation factor
N
C = 11400 (mm) 2 f orsteelgears. Calculate the dynamic load using Buckingham’s equation:

HINT:
21v(Ceb + Ft )
Fd = √
21v + Ceb + Ft
where:

ˆ v is the pitch line velocity.

ˆ e is the sum of the gear and pinion error.

ˆ calculate e = ep + eg from the table appropriate data

Problem 11: Wear Load Determination

A spur gear has:

ˆ Module: m = 8 mm

ˆ Face width: b = 100 mm

ˆ BHN (Brinell Hardness Number) = 300, both gear and pinion are made up of steel.
Assume pinion encountering more wear.

Calculate the permissible wear load using:

HINT:
Fw = bQdp K
where:

ˆ Q= 2Z2
Z1 +Z2

ˆ K = 0.16 × ( BHN
100
)2

Problem 12: Interference in Involute Gears

For a pressure angle of 20◦ , calculate the minimum number of teeth to avoid interference,
assuming a full-depth involute system:
HINT:
2
Zmin =
sin2 ϕ

27
Problem 13: Heat Dissipation in High-Speed Gears
A spur gear transmits 500 kW at 6000 rpm. Assume the efficiency of power transmission
is 96%.
Calculate the heat generated in watts and determine the required heat dissipation to
avoid thermal failure.
HINT:
Q = (1 − η)P

Problem 14: Failure due to Surface Fatigue

A spur gear is subjected to cyclic loading with an operating life of 107 cycles. The gear
material has an endurance limit stress of 400 MPa. Determine whether the gear is safe
under a maximum Hertzian contact stress of 380 MPa using Goodman’s equation:
HINT:
σa
σeq = σm +
1 − σσut
m

where:

ˆ σm = Mean stress

ˆ σa = Alternating stress

ˆ σut = Ultimate tensile strength (Assume 600 MPa)

Problem 15: Transmitted Power with Different Gear

Materials
A spur gear pair operates at 2500 rpm with a torque of 500 Nm. The materials are:

ˆ Pinion: Steel (BHN = 350)

ˆ Gear: Cast Iron (BHN = 200)

Determine the maximum power that can be transmitted based on the weaker material
using Buckingham’s wear equation.

Problem 16: Stiffness of Gear Tooth: strength of ma-

terial approach
A gear tooth behaves as a cantilever beam with:

ˆ Base width: 6 mm

ˆ Tooth height: 12 mm

ˆ Young’s Modulus: 200 GPa

28
 Calculate the bending stiffness using:
HINT:
3EI
k= 3
L
where:
bt3
ˆ I= 12

ˆ L=h

Problem 17
A spur gear drive consists of a pinion and a gear. The given parameters are:

ˆ Number of teeth on the pinion, Zp = 50

ˆ Number of teeth on the gear, Zg = 150

ˆ Speed of the pinion, Np = 300 rpm

ˆ Torque on the pinion shaft, Tp = 30 N·m

Calculate the torque on the gear shaft (Tg ).

Solution
Step 1: Determine the Speed of the Gear
The speed ratio of the gear system is given by:
Np Zg
= (91)
Ng Zp
Rearranging for Ng :
Zp
Ng = Np × (92)
Zg
Substituting the given values:
50
Ng = 300 × = 100 rpm (93)
150

Step 2: Calculate Torque on the Gear Shaft

Since power is conserved in an ideal gear system (assuming no losses), the torque ratio
follows:
Tp Ng
= (94)
Tg Np
Rearranging for Tg :

29
 Np
Tg = Tp × (95)
Ng
Substituting the given values:
300
Tg = 30 × = 90 N·m (96)
100

30