Foundation Engineering

(BCE III/I)
 Syllabus: Overall
1.0 Introduction (2)
2.0 Soil Exploration (12)
3.0 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories and Retaining Wall (16)
4.0 Arching in Soils and Braced Cuts (4)
5.0 Flexible Retaining Structures and Cofferdams (4)
6.0 Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Shallow Foundations (12)
7.0 Mat Foundations (6)
8.0 Pile Foundations (12)
9.0 Well Foundations (8)
10.0 Foundation Soil Improvements (4)
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(80)

M 2
 Syllabus: In Detail

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance and Purpose

1.2 Classification and General Requirements
1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a Foundation
1.4 Selection of the Type

3
2.0 Soil Exploration

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Methods of Exploration
2.3 Planning the Exploration Programme
2.4 Methods of Boring
2.5 Soil Sampling and Soil Samplers
2.6 Vertical and Lateral Extent of Borings
2.7 Field Tests like Penetration Test (Standard Penetration Test,
Static Cone Penetration Test, and Dynamic Cone Penetration
Test), Pressuremeter Tests, Dialatometer Test and Field Vane
Shear Test
2.8 Ground Water Observations
2.9 Borehole Logs
2.10 Site Investigation Reports
4
3.0 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories and
Retaining Wall

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Effect of wall movement on earth pressure
3.3 Earth pressure at rest
3.4 Classical earth pressure theories
• Rankine’s theory
• Coulomb’s theory
3.5 Yielding of wall of limited height
3.6 Graphical solution for Coulomb’s earth pressure
3.7 Trial wedge method for earth pressure
3.8 Proportioning of retaining walls
3.9 Stability of retaining walls
5
4.0 Arching in Soils and Braced Cuts

4.1 Arching in soils

4.2 Braced excavations
4.3 Earth pressure against bracings in cuts
4.4 Heave of the bottom of cut in soft clays
4.5 Strut loads
4.6 Deep cuts in sand
4.7 Deep cut in saturated, soft to medium clays

6
5.0 Flexible Retaining Structures and
Cofferdams

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Cantilever sheet pile wall
5.3 Anchored wall
5.4 Cofferdams

7
6.0 Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Shallow
Foundations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Basic definitions and their relationship
6.3 Principle modes of soil failure
6.4 Bearing capacity by classical earth pressure theory of Rankine
6.5 Pauker and Bell’s bearing capacity theory of failure
6.6 Prandtl’s theory of failure
6.7 Terzaghi’s method of determining bearing capacity of soil
6.8 Effect of water table on bearing capacity
6.9 Extension of Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory
6.10 Recent bearing capacity theories
6.11 Bearing capacity from in-situ tests (Plate Load Test)
6.12 Types of settlement and allowable bearing pressure
6.13 Allowable settlement and allowable bearing pressure
6.14 Steps involved in the proportion of footings
8
7.0 Mat Foundations

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Common types of mat foundations
7.3 Bearing capacity and settlement of mat foundations
7.4 Compensated foundation
7.5 Analysis of mat foundation

9
8.0 Pile Foundations

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types and uses of piles
8.3 Construction of piles
8.4 Selection of pile type
8.5 Types of foundations to suit subsoil conditions
8.6 Pile driving formula
8.7 Static pile load formulae
8.8 Load test on piles
8.9 Dynamic pile formulae
8.10 Pile capacity from in-situ tests
8.11 Group action of piles
8.12 Negative skin friction
8.13 Laterally load piles
8.14 Piles subjected to uplift loads
10
9.0 Well Foundations

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of wells or caissons
9.3 Components of a well foundation
9.4 Shapes of wells
9.5 Depth of a well foundation
9.6 Forces acting on well foundation
9.7 Lateral stability of well foundation
9.8 Construction and sinking of a well

11
10.0 Foundation Soil Improvements

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mechanical compaction
10.3 Dynamic compaction
10.4 Preloading
10.5 Sand compaction piles and stone columns
10.6 Soil stabilization by use of admixtures
10.7 Soil stabilization by injection of suitable grouts

12
 Reference Books
1. A Text Book of Foundation Engineering, 1st Ed.
- Dr. R.K. Poudel and R.Neupane (2006)
2. A Text Book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering in SI Units,
UBS Publishers Distributors Ltd. 4th Ed.
- V.N.S. Murthy (1993)
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Standard Publisher
Distribution
- K.R. Arora (1997)
4. Principles of Foundation Engineering, Thomson/Brookscole, 5th Ed.
- Braja M. Das (2003)
5. Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill, International Editions, 5th
Ed.
- Joseph E. Bowles (1997)
6. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, New Age International Publishers, 2nd
Ed.
- Gopal Ranjan and A.S.R. Rao (2000)
7. Pile Foundation Analysis and Design, John Wiley and Sons
- H.G. Poulos and E.H. Davis (1980)

13
 1.0 Introduction

1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance and Purpose

1.2 Classification and General Requirements
1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a Foundation
1.4 Selection of the Type

14
 1.0 Introduction
What is a foundation?

• Foundation is a lowest part of any structure that supports and

transfers the load of structure to the continuum earth (may be
rock of any type or natural soil).
• A foundation is defined as that part of the structure that supports
the weight of the structure and transmits the load to underlying
soil or rock.
• In other words, the foundation is the part of an engineered system
that transmits to, and into, the underlying soil or rock the loads
supported by the foundation and its self-weight.
• It is a substructure designed to support the load of a
superstructure to the underlying soil or rock.
• It is an interface between the superstructure and the underlying
soil.

15
• Most of the structures consist of two main parts:
(a) upper part lies above the ground level  called
Superstructure and
(b) lower part buried underground  called Substructure or
Foundation

16
• It is considered as a medium/device which receives the load
from the superstructure and transmits it to the sub-soil
underneath.

• It is also called a groundsill.

• It supports the superstructure directly over it i.e. provides

base for superstructure.

• The strength and durability of any structure depends upon the

strength of its foundation.

• Therefore, it is most important part of any structure.

17
 Characteristics of a Foundation

• Wide enough section to distribute weight over larger base

area within safe bearing capacity.

• Evenly loaded condition that prevents unequal settlement.

• Deep enough preventing overturning and increasing stability.

18
 Functions of a Foundation
• To transmit/distribute all superimposed loads (wind, vibration,
seismic, dead and live loads) over a larger area of substratum.

• To withstand against all kinds of settlements (against failure of

underlying soil).

• To give stability to structure by resisting in firm base. i.e. To

increase overall stability; prevent tilting or overturning of the
structure

• To prevent lateral movement/escape of supporting materials.

• To provide a leveled base for the superstructure.

• To prevent unequal settlement of the soil and superstructure.

19
 Why the foundations are generally carried
below the ground level?
• To provide stability to the structure so as to make it resistant
to the lateral pressure or thrusts and to prevent it from
tilting and overturning.
• The compactness of the soil increases with its depth from the
ground level. So by carrying the foundations below the
ground level, we will be providing a firm and hard base for
the structure. Sometimes it becomes necessary to transmit
the load of the structure to a hard stratum or rock below the
ground and hence the foundations are carried below the
ground level.
• To prevent the foundations and the materials of construction
from the weathering actions of the atmosphere i.e. wear and
tear.
• Soil particles provide a grip to the foundations and make the
structure stable and lasting.
20
1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance
and Purpose
• Foundation engineering is a branch of civil engineering/engineering
science which deals with the design, construction, maintenance and
renovation of various types of foundations such as footings, pile
foundations, well foundations, caissons, etc. and all other structural
members which form the foundations of buildings and other
engineering structures including site investigation for foundation
purpose.

• In general, foundation engineering applies the knowledge of

geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and structural engineering
to the design and construction of foundations for buildings and
other structures.
• The most basic aspect of foundation engineering deals with the
selection of the type of foundation, such as using a shallow or deep
foundation system.
• Another important aspect of foundation engineering involves the
development of design parameters, such as the bearing capacity or
estimated settlement of the foundation.
21
 1.2 Classification and General
Requirements

1.2.1 Classification of Foundation

• Foundation structures are normally divided into two broad
categories on the basis of their depth in relation to their
𝑫𝒇
width, ( 𝑩 ).

Foundation

(A) Shallow Foundations (B) Deep Foundations

𝑫𝒇 𝑫𝒇
( ≤ 𝟏) ( > 𝟏)
𝑩 𝑩

22
 Shallow Foundations
• According to Karl Von Terzaghi, the depth of the foundation is less
𝑫𝒇
than or equal to its width, ≤𝟏
𝑩

• Placed immediately below the lowest part of the superstructure.

• Include spread footing, strap footing, mat foundations, slab-on-

grade foundations, etc.

• Also called open foundation, it is spread more horizontal than

vertically.

• Most shallow foundations are simple concrete footings.

2/ 23
• Requirements of Shallow Foundation
• Suitable soil bearing capacity
• Undisturbed soil or engineered fill

• Advantages of Shallow Foundation

• Cost (affordable)
• Construction Procedure (simple)
• Material (mostly concrete)
• Labour (doesn’t need expertise)

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Shallow Foundation Systems/ Basic Types
or Configurations of Shallow Foundations

• Shallow foundations are sub-divided into a number of types

according to their size, shape and general configurations. They
may be –

(1) Footings,
(2) Grillage Foundations and
(3) Mat (Raft) Foundations

25
 Shallow Foundations

Footings Grillage Mat (Raft)

Foundations Foundations

Timber Steel
Grillage Grillage Flat Plate

Continuous Flat Plate Thickened under

Spread Footings (Strip or Wall) Columns
Footings
Isolated or Column or Spot or 2-Way Beam and Slab
Inverted Arch Independent or Individual
Footings Footings/Pad Foundation Flat Plate with Pedestals or
Ribbed Mat

Cellular Construction
Square Circular Rectangular Ring
Footings Footings Footings Footings Basement Walls as Rigid
Frame

Piled Raft
Eccentrically Loaded Footings -- Offset and Strap (Cantilever) Footings
Or Balanced Footings

Rectangular Combined Footings

d Footings 26
Trapezoidal Combined Footings
 (1) Footings

• Footings are the most widely used type among all the
foundations because they are usually more economical
than the others. Least amount of equipment and skill are
required for the construction of footings.
• Footings may sub-divided into -
i) Spread Footings/Foundations
ii) Inverted Arch Footings
iii) Eccentrically Loaded Footings – Offset and Strap
(Cantilever) Footings or Balanced Footings
iv) Combined Footings

27
 i) Spread Footings/Foundations
• Also known as simply footer or footing.

• Most common type of foundation used due to their low cost

& ease of construction.

• Most often used in small to medium size structure with

moderate to good soil condition.

• The vast majority of one-and two-storey buildings use them,

and if the ground conditions are good even much larger
structures can be supported on them.

• The base of a column/bearing wall is made wider than the top

so as to distribute the load from the superstructure over a
large area.
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• Spread footing consists of strips or pads of concrete (or
other materials) which transfer the loads from walls and
columns to the soil or bedrock.

• Embedment of spread footings is controlled by several

factors, including development of lateral capacity,
penetration of soft near-surface layers, and penetration
through near-surface layers likely to change volume due to
frost heave or shrink-swell.

• The foundation consists of concrete slabs located under

each structural column and continuous slab under load-
bearing walls.

• For the spread foundation system the structural load is

laterally spread out over a broad area under the building
2/26/2016 5:06:27 AM 29
Spread Footings may be further sub-divided
into two categories.
They are –
a) Continuous (Strip or Wall) Footings and
b) Isolated or Column or Independent or Individual Footings/Pad
Foundation

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a) Continuous (Strip or Wall) Footings
• Used to support load bearing walls.
• Carry closely spaced columns or a continuous wall so that
the load intensity is low and uniform on the supporting
soil or rock.
• In such footings, the load per unit length is considered
accordingly.
• The load intensity is given in terms of force per unit
length of the footing.
• These footings are also referred to as strip footings or
wall footings (for an > 5).
• A wall footing or strip footing is a continuous strip of
concrete that serves the same function for a load bearing
wall.
• May be simple or stepped or slopped.

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32
33
34
2/26/2016 5:06:27 AM
Fig. 2 Continuous (Strip or Wall) 35
36
b) Isolated or Column or
Independent or Individual
Footings/Pad Foundation
• Load is transfer is through column
instead of wall.
• A column footing is a block of concrete,
with or without steel reinforcing, that
accepts the concentrated load placed
on it from above by a building column
and spreads this load across an area of
soil large enough that the allowable
bearing stress of the soil is not
exceeded.
• May be constructed using bricks, RCC or
stones.
• May be single, stepped or sloped.

2 37
Fig. 3 Various Forms of Isolated Footings 38
39
40
• Isolated or Column or Independent or Individual Footings/Pad
Foundation may be built in different shapes & sizes to
accommodate individual needs such as the following:

1) Square Footings
2) Circular Footings
3) Rectangular Footings
4) Ring Footings

41
1) Square Footings
• Used to support a single centrally located column.
• May be stepped or sloped.
2) Circular Footings
• Round in plan view.
• Most frequently used as foundation for light standards,
flagpoles and power transmission lines.
𝑳
3) Rectangular Footings ( < 5)
𝑩
• Useful when obstructions prevent construction of a
square footing with a sufficiently large base area and
when large moment loads are present.
4) Ring Footings
• Continuous footings that have been wrapped into a circle
• Commonly used to support the walls above-ground
circular storage tanks
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 Ring

Fig. 4 (a) Various Isolated Footings

43
44
45
46
47
 Common Variations of Isolated Footings
• The base area of the footing is governed by the bearing capacity of
the foundation soil.
• The plain footing is usually reinforced cement concrete and is used
to support a reinforced cement concrete column.
• The mass concrete footing is used to support a steel column.
• The slopped footing is usually of the same material as that for the
column or it can be of reinforced cement concrete.
• The stepped footing is used either for a column or for a wall.
• All the steps may be of concrete or the bottom most step alone
may be of concrete and the others being of the same material as for
the column.
• For mass concrete footing, sloped footing and stepped footing, a
450 load distribution is commonly used, which gives the small
tension on the underside.

48
 Fi . 6 Common Variations of Isolated Footings
2/26/2016 5:06:27 49
 ii) Inverted Arch Footings

• Used where the bearing capacity of the soil is very poor and
loads of the structure is concentrated over the columns or in
the case where deep excavation is not possible.

• The depth of foundation in soft soil is greatly reduced.

50
Fi 7 Inverted Arch Footings
51
 iii) Eccentrically Loaded Footings – Offset and
Strap (Cantilever) Footings or Balanced Footings
• They are provided when the property line is so close to one
column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded
when kept entirely within the property line.

• By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is

evenly distributed.

• Strap footings comprise two or more footings connected by a

beam called ‘strap’.

• Also called ‘cantilever footings’.

• Used to mutually strengthen each other.

• They may be required when the footing of an exterior col

extend
2/26/2016 into
5:06:27 AM an adjoining private property. 52
• The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one
unit.

• The strap simply acts as connecting beam and does not take any soil
reaction.

• The strap is designed as a rigid beam.

• The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of

action passes through the resultant of the total load.

• Strap footings are more economical than the combined footings

when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance
between the columns is large.

53
 Strap

2 54
 Fig. 8 Strap (Cantilever) Footings

2/26/2016 5:06:27 AM 55
2/26/20 56
ommon Arrangements of Strap Footings
 57
Fig. 10 Eccentrically Loaded Footings
58
59
60
61
 iv) Combined Footings
• Two columns are supported by a single base (even with unequal
loadings) in a row into one footing.
• May be Rectangular or Trapezoidal in shape.
• Base is made symmetrical along the centerline of the columns.
• For more than two columns it is known as Continuous Footing.
• Used when the columns are so close to each other that their
individual footings would overlap.

• Also provided in situations where there is limited space on one

side owing to the existence of the boundary line of an adjoining
private property.

• These footings are usually rectangular in shape but may be

modified to a trapezoidal one to accommodate unequal column
loadings (or columns close to property lines).
62
Fig. 11 Combined Footings 63
Fig. 11 Combined Footings

64
65
 (a) Rectangular Combined Footing

(b) Trapezoidal Combined Footing

Fig.2/26/2016 5:06:28 AM
13 Different Forms of Combined Footings 66
 (2) Grillage Foundations

• Used where the load of the structure is excessive and the

bearing capacity of the soil is poor
• One or two tiers of I – sections (or timber battens) are laid at
right angles to each other over concrete base.

• May be
a) Timber Grillage Foundations

b) Steel Grillage Foundations

M 67
 a) Timber Grillage Foundations
M 68
b) Steel Grillage Foundations

M 69
M 70
 (3) Mat / Raft Foundations

• A foundation system in which essentially the entire structure

is placed on a large continuous footing.
• It is a flat concrete slab, heavily reinforced with steel, and
extends over the entire loaded are which carries the
downward loads of the individual columns or walls.
• Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure
over a large area, normally the entire area of the structure.
• They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing
capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.
• Preferred over spread foundation (where the load of the
structure is excessive and the bearing capacity of the soil is
poor).
• Preferred over pile foundation (where basement space is
desired and pile is very expensive).
2M 71
 Why Mat Foundation ?
• The structural loads are so high or the soil condition so
poor that spread footings would be exceptionally large. As
a general rule of thumb, if spread footings would cover
more than 50% of the building footprint area, a mat or
some type of deep foundation will usually be more
economical.

• The columns and walls are so close that individual footings

would overlap or nearly touch each other.

• The soil is very erratic or non-homogeneous soils & prone

to excessive differential settlements. The structure
continuity and flexural strength of a mat will bridge over
these irregularities.

• The same is true of mats on highly expansive soils prone to

differential heaves.
M 72
• The structural loads are erratic or large variation in the loads on
the individual columns and thus increase the likelihood of
excessive differential settlements. Again, the structural continuity
and flexural strength of the mat will absorb these irregularities.

• The lateral loads are not uniformly distributed through the

structure and thus may cause differential horizontal movements in
spread footings and pile caps.
• The continuity of a mat will resist such movement.
• The uplift loads are larger than spread footings can accommodate.
The greater weight and continuity of a mat may provide sufficient
resistance.
• The bottom of the structure is located below the groundwater
table, so waterproofing is an important concern. Because mats are
monolithic, they are much easier to waterproof. The weight of the
mat also helps resist hydrostatic uplift forces from the
2/26/2016 5:06:28 AM 73
groundwater.
 Types of Raft/Mat Foundations

a) Conventional Raft

b) Buoyant Raft/ Floating Foundation/ Fully Compensated

Foundation

M 74
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations

• Flat Plate  Slab (solid) -- up to 30 cm

• Represents true raft which is flat concrete slab of uniform
thickness provided throughout the entire area.
• This is suitable for closely spaced columns, carrying small
loads.
• Flat Plate Thickened under Columns
• Represents a raft in which a portion of the slab under each
column is thickened to provide sufficient strength for
relatively large column loads.

M 75
M 76
• 2-Way Beam and Slab  Slab > 30 cm
• Represents a raft in which beams are provided along
column lines in both directions and a slab is provided
between the beams.
• The columns are located at the intersections of the
beams.
• This type is suitable and provides sufficient strength when
the columns spacing is large and column loads are
unequal.
• Flat Plate with Pedestals
• Represents a raft in which pedestals are provided under
each column above the slab.
• This is an alternative to arrangement shown in flat plate
thickened type and serves the same purpose.

M 77
2M 78
• Cellular Construction  Slab > 90 cm
• Represents a raft in which a 2-way grid structures made of
cellular construction and of intersecting structural steel
construction (Teng, 1969).

• Basement Walls as Rigid Frame

• Represents a raft wherein basement walls have been used as
ribs or deep walls.

2/M 79
M 80
 Piled Raft
• A raft foundation
usually rests directly on
soil or rock.

• However, it may rest on

piles as well, if hard
stratum is not available
at a reasonably small
depth, which called
piled raft.

M 81
M 82
M 83
M 84
M 85
 Compensated Foundations

• Deep foundations in which the relief of stress due to excavation is

approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the
foundation.

• The net stress applied is therefore very small.

• A compensated foundation normally comprises a deep basement.

• If a raft is placed at depth Df such that the weight of excavated soil

becomes equal to the gross applied load, the factor of safety
becomes infinite i.e. – 𝛾𝐷 .

86
• In such a case, the raft foundation is called a Floating
Foundation, where the total load at the base of the raft is
Fully Compensated by the weight of the soil.

• They may be so
(i) Fully Compensated or
(ii) Partially Compensated Type.

M 87
Fig. 16 Compensated Foundation or Floating Foundation
M 88
M 89
2/26/2016 5:06:28 AM 90
 (B) Deep Foundations
• Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the
finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be
affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m
below finished ground level.

• Deep foundations are used when there are weak (“bad”) soils
near the surface or when loads are very high, such as very
large skyscrapers.

• Deep foundations derive their support from deeper soils or

bedrock.

𝑫𝒇 𝑫𝒇
• > 1 for deep foundations. Usually > 4.
𝑩 𝑩
M 91
• There are different terms used to describe different types of
deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts, caissons and
piers.

• The naming conventions may vary between engineering

disciplines and firms.
•
• Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced
concrete and pre-tensioned concrete.

• Deep foundations can be installed by either driving them into

the ground or drilling a shaft and filling it with concrete, mass
or reinforced
92
 Why Use Deep Foundations ?
• To carry concentrated loads

• To resist lateral loads

• To resist uplift

• To minimize differential settlements

• Where a competent soil layer only occurs at depth

• When the water table is high limiting excavation for spread footings
etc.

M 93
 Types of Deep Foundation Systems

• Deep Footings

• Pile Foundations

• Pier Foundations

• Well Foundations or Caissons

• Compensated foundations – Floating Foundations

M 94
 Deep Footings
• May be continuous or
isolated.

• The foundations are

constructed in open
excavations where
disturbance of soil is minimal.

• Possible to inspect visually

the construction

95
 Pile Foundations
• Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer
the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth
below ground surface.
• A pile foundation is a group of piles that supports a superstructure or a
number of piles distributed over a large area to support a mat
foundation.
• It is a deep foundation system that carries and transfers the loads of the
structure to a deeper and competent soil layer.
• Df/B > 15 (usually).
• The main components of the pile foundation are the piles and the pile
cap.
• Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper
soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing
capacity.
• The main types of materials used for piles are wood, steel and concrete.
• Pile Caps are thick slabs used to tie a group of piles together to support
and transmit column loads to the piles.
• Piles + Pile Cap = Pile foundation
96
 Fig.17 Pile Foundations
M 97
 Functions of Pile Foundation
• To Improve Inadequate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations.
• To Transfer Load through Poor Soil or Water to the Stronger and/ or Less
Compressible Stratum.
• To Transmit Loads in Weak and Soft Soils Through Friction Along the Length of
the Pile.
• To Prevent Uplift Forces.
• To Reduce Excessive (Differential) Settlement.
• To Provide Foundation Below Scour Depth.
• To Compact Loose Granular Soils.
• To Carry Horizontal and Inclined Forces from Bridge Abutments and Retaining
Walls
• To Provide Anchorage Against Pull
• To Increase the Stability of the Tall Structures Having Large Eccentric Loads,
Inclined Loads and Moments
• To Stiffen Soils Beneath Machine Foundations to Control Both the Amplitude of
Vibration and the Natural Frequency of the System
• To distributes load to the individual piles.
• Pile cap will connect the pile together and distributes the superstructure loads
to the layer beneath.
98
 Piles Foundation is Used When -
• The soil near the surface doesn’t have sufficient bearing capacity (weak) to
support the structural loads.
• The estimated settlement of the soil exceeds tolerable limits
• Differential settlement due to soil variability or non-uniform structural loads is
excessive
• Excavations to construct a shallow foundation on a firm soil are difficult or
expensive.
• They are used when for economic, constructional or soil condition
considerations it is desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical
reach of shallow foundations.
• In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures
against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning
forces.
• Pile foundations are frequently needed because of the relative inability of
shallow footings to resist inclined, lateral, or uplift loads and overturning
moments.
• Pile foundations are used in areas of expansive or collapsible soils to resist
undesirable seasonal movements of the foundations.
• Pile foundation always more expensive than shallow foundation but will
overcome problems of soft surface soils by transferring load to stronger, deeper
stratum, thereby reducing settlements.
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 Various Types of Pile
• The pile installation procedure varies considerably, and has
an important influence on the subsequent response
• Three categories of piles are classified by method of
installation as below:
• Large Displacement Piles
• They encompass all solid driven piles including precast
concrete piles, steel or concrete tubes closed at the lower
end
• Small Displacement Piles
• They include rolled steel sections such as H-pile and open-
end tubular piles
• Non-Displacement or Replacement Piles
• They are formed by machine boring, grabbing or hand-
digging.

M 100
 H-Piles

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 Pipe Piles

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 Concrete Piles

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 Pier Foundations
• Also simply called as Piers or Drilled Shafts or Drilled Piers or Drilled Caissons.
• Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed in-situ in a
deep excavation.
• A pier is a drilled shaft varying in diameter and depth. After the pier hole is drilled, it is
filled with concrete and Steel reinforcement is sometimes utilized for a portion of the
length of the pier.
• Pier is an Underground Cylindrical Structural Members.
• Provide a massive foundation for heavy loads and high horizontal thrusts.
• Df/B > 5
• Piers or drilled piers are the structural members of relatively large-diameter massive
struts constructed and placed in a pre-excavated hole.
• Piers are constructed by making a Hole into the Ground to the Required Depth and then
Concrete is poured.
• They are referred to variously by civil engineers as bored piles, large-diameter piles,
foundation piers, sub-piers, and drilled caissons.
• Piers are Large Bored Piles or Piles May be Regarded as Small Piers.
• If Diameter is Less than 2 m then they are termed as Piles else they are regarded as
Piers.
• Piers are Often Solids.
• The shafts can be enlarged at the base, resulting in belled or under-reamed piers.

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• Purpose
• To Transmit Loads to a Stratum Capable of Supporting it without Danger
of Breaking of the Foundation Soil or Excessive Settlement.
• Uses
• In areas where pile penetration is difficult, piers can be provided.
• Vibration and heave of soil are not caused as in installation of a driven
pile. This is a decisive factor when the adjacent structure is on spread
footings or short piles. of
• Equipment used in the construction of drilled piers produces less noise
and hence, is quite suitable for areas near hospitals and similar
institutions.
• There is a possibility of inspection and physical testing of the soil or rock
conditions at the bottom of the pier.
• In the construction of piers, there is no displacement of volume of soil,
and the problems of shifting and lifting are eliminated.
• Drilled piers generally require light construction equipment.
• They can resist high lateral stresses.

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Types of Piers/Drilled Piers/Drilled Shafts/Drilled
Caissons
• Straight-shafted Piers – common type – such shafts
are taken through the upper soil layers and the end is
placed on a firm soil layer or bed rock. In some
instances, the shafts are provided with casing.
• Belled Piers – broad base is provided at the bottom of
straight shaft – the bell may be shaped like a dome or it
may be angled i.e. bottom of caisson is "Flared" out to
achieve the required bearing area, and filling the hole
with concrete. Under-reaming equipment is used to
make the bells.
• Extended Straight Piers/ Socketed Piers - Pier socketed
or extended into the underlying rock layer - Bearing
capacity comes from end bearing on rocks and friction
between caisson on soil or rock.
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 Anchor

Fig. 18 Various Types of Pier Foundations

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 (D) Caissons or Well Foundations
• Word “CAISSON” > Derived from Latin > Means Box or Case.
• Caissons are large piers or Prefabricated Hollow Box/structures
or Cylinders with diameter over 4.5 m.
• Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are Constructed at
the Site or above the ground level, then sunk to the required
level on hard stratum by excavating or dredging material from
within the caisson.
• A Caisson is basically a Structure with a Hollow Portion, which
may be Circular or Box Shaped in Plan, Having One or More
Chambers/Cells.
• A Caisson Foundation is a Deep Foundation which Consists of
Concrete Columns Constructed in Cylindrical Shafts Excavated
under the Proposed Structural Column Locations.
• Hollow Inside and Usually Constructed at Site and Sunk in Place
into a Hard Bearing Stratum and then Filled with Concrete thus
forming a Foundation.
• This is because Caissons can be Floated to the Job Site and Sunk
into
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• Often the Caissons have High Construction Cost and Their
Construction is Restricted to Major Foundation Works Only.

• Used When Soil of Adequate Bearing Strength is found

below Surface Layers of Weak Materials such as Fill or Peat.
• Caissons are generally used for major foundation works
because of the high construction cost.
• In general, a caisson foundation is recommended and
constructed to be advantageous when (i) large-size
boulders are encountered and (ii) a massive substructure is
require to withstand large lateral stresses.
• Caissons are drilled to bedrock or deep into the underlying
strata if geotechnical engineering finds the soil suitable to
carry the building load.
• It’s created by Auguring a Deep Hole in the Ground.
• Caisson Foundations Carry the Building Loads at Their
Lower Ends, which are Often Bell-shaped.
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 Uses of Caisson Foundations
• Caisson Foundations are used for
• Bridge Piers and Abutments in Rivers, Lakes, etc.
• Docks, wharfs and quay walls
• Break Water
• Other Structures for Shore Protection Works and
• Large Water Front Structures such as Pump Houses Subjected
to Very Heavy Vertical and Horizontal Loads.
• Structures on land are generally constructed on piles or drilled
caissons, but for structures in water, in particular if the
bearing stratum is 15 m below the water level, caissons are
generally less expensive.

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Types of Caisson Foundations - According
to the Installation

• Open Caissons (Well Foundations

• Closed (Pneumatic) Caissons

• Box Caissons

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 Open Caissions (Well Foundation)
• Caisson that has No top or Bottom Cover During its
Sinking/construction.

• Wells have a Large Cross Sectional Area than the Piles.

• An open caisson of heavy mass concrete or masonry
construction, containing one or more wells for excavations
is called a Monolith.

• Well foundation is the water tight box structure of wood/

RCC/steel and mostly used in the foundation of the bridges.
•
• Purpose: To develop an enclosure below for plumb and
provide access shaft to reach a deep tunnel transmitting
the loads to hard bearing strata.

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 Closed (Pneumatic) Caissons

• Closed at the Top and Open (during construction).

• Has a Working Chamber at the Bottom of Caisson which is

Kept Dry by Forcing out. Water under Pressure, thus
Permitting Excavation on Dry Conditions.

• Air Locks are provided at the Top.

• Caisson Gradually Sinks as Excavation is Made.

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 Box Caissons

• Open at the Top But Closed at the Bottom.

• First Cast on Land and then Floated to the Site where it is to Sink.

• Also Called Floating Caisson.

• Used where Loads are not Very Heavy and Bearing Stratum is
Available at Shallow Depth.

• While Sinking, Sand, Gravel, Concrete or Water is filled inside it.

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 Fig.19 Types of Caissions

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1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation

While considering a foundation for a given loading system, the

foundation (shallow or deep) must meet certain design
requirements. The three basic requirements are as follows:

• Location and Depth Criteria

• Shear Failure Criteria or Bearing Capacity Criteria

• Settlement Criteria

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 Location and Depth Criteria

• Foundation placement, which involves the location and depth

of foundation, requires a careful investigation of the past
usage of the site and detailed information of the sub-surface
stratum.

• The foundation placement should be such that any future

influence should not affect its performance adversely.

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Shear Failure Criteria or Bearing Capacity
Criteria
• Safety against bearing capacity is a requirement that involves
suitable proportioning of footing to avoid a catastrophic
collapse of the soil beneath the foundation.

• This requirement makes it essential to have a complete

knowledge of the geotechnical properties of the soils and
rocks involved.

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 Settlement Criteria

• Tolerable foundation settlement involves keeping a check on

the excessive settlement of a structure.

• Excessive settlement is caused due to the distortion of the soil

mass as a result of the applied shear stresses and due to the
consolidation of the supporting soil.

• This again requires a complete knowledge of the geotechnical

properties of soils to assess the anticipated settlement of the
structure and the time required for completion of the same.

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 1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a
Foundation

(A) Primary/ Main Factors

• Subsurface conditions/soil
• Ground water conditions
• Structural requirements
• Function of the structure
• Type and magnitude of loading the foundation carries
• Cost of foundation in comparison to the cost of
superstructure

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(B) Secondary Factors / Other Factors

• Construction access, methods & site conditions

• Environmental factors/ considerations
• Structural Codes & Regulations
• Impact on surrounding structures
• Construction schedule
• Construction risks/ Risk Level
• Constructability
• Service life/ Time
• Need of client or owner
• Types of superstructure
• Margin of safety
• Constraint – vibration, noise
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• Logistic
 1.4 Selection of the Type

The selection of a particular type of foundation is often

based on a number of factors, such as:
• Adequate Depth
• Bearing Capacity Failure
• Settlement
• Quality
• Adequate Strength
• Seismic Forces
• Adverse Soil Changes

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• Adequate Depth – It must have an adequate depth to
prevent frost damage/heave and scour. For such foundation
as bridge piers, the depth of the foundation must be sufficient
to prevent undermining by scour.
• Frost heave occurs when water in the ground freezes to form
ice lenses. Scour is when flowing water removes supporting
soil from around a foundation (like a pier supporting a bridge
over a river).

• Bearing Capacity Failure – The foundation must

be safe against a bearing capacity failure. It is necessary that a
foundation is not loaded beyond its bearing capacity or the
foundation will "fail".

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• Settlement – The foundation must not settle to such
an extent that it damages the structure.
• When considering settlement, total settlement and
differential settlement is normally considered.
Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation
settles more than another part. This can cause problems
to the structure the foundation is supporting.

• Quality – The foundation must be of adequate quality so

that it is not subjected to deterioration, such as from sulfate
attack.

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• Adequate Strength – The foundation must be
designed with sufficient strength that it does not fracture or
break apart under the applied superstructure loads. The
foundation must also be properly constructed in conformance
with the design specifications.

• Seismic Forces – The foundation must be able to

support the structure during an earthquake without excessive
settlement or lateral movement.

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• Adverse Soil Changes – The foundation must be able
to resist long-term adverse soil changes. An example is
expensive soil which could expand or shrink, causing
movement of the foundation and damage to the structure.

• Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and

shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due to
seasonal changes or the effects of vegetation removing
moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to distort,
cracking the structure over it.

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Steps to be Performed to Select a Foundation
• An engineer must perform the following five steps to
select a foundation.

• Obtain at least tentative information about the nature of

the super structure and the loads to be transmitted to
the foundations.

• Determine the subsurface conditions of the site.

• Tentatively check each normal foundation type whether

they could be appropriate under the existing conditions,
whether they would be capable of carrying the required
loads, and whether they might experience detrimental
settlement. Eliminate the unsuitable foundation types.
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• Conduct detailed study and even tentative design of most
promising foundation types. These studies may require
additional information about the loads and subsurface
conditions and must be carried far enough to determine
approximate footings or piers or the approximate length and
numbers of piles required. It may be necessary to make more
refined estimates of settlement in order to predict the
behavior of the structure.

• Prepare an estimate of the cost of each promising type of

foundation, and choose the type that represents the most
acceptable compromise between performance and cost.

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 ASSIGNMENT – ONE
Attempt All Questions.
1. Compare between the shallow and deep foundations.
2. Explain the general requirements of a foundation.
3. Compare between the strap and combined footings.
4. Describe the factors affecting the selection of foundation type.
5. Mention the suitability or applicability of the following footings or foundations with neat
sketches:
a) Pile foundations
b) Pad Foundations
c) Well Foundations
d) Pier Foundations
e) Strip Footings
f) Eccentrically Loaded Footings
g) Mat Foundations
h) Inverted Arch Footings
i) Grillage Foundations
j) Spread Footings

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