Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer architecture and Organization

 The computer is at the core of modern computing, and understanding its architecture
helps in designing efficient programs.
 Computer architecture focuses on:
o Instruction sets (how a processor executes commands)
o Data representation (how data is stored in memory)
o Input/output mechanisms
o Memory addressing techniques
 Computer organization focuses on how hardware components work and interact.
 Computer design is the actual development of computer hardware based on specifications.

Computer architecture includes at least three main subcategories:

1. Instruction set architecture (ISA), is the abstract model of a computing system that is seen by
a machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including the instruction set, memory
address modes, processor registers, and address and data formats.

2. Microarchitecture (also known as Computer organization), is a lower level, a detailed

description of the system that is sufficient for completely describing the operation of all parts of
the computing system, and how they are inter-connected and inter-operate in order to implement
the ISA. The size of a computer's cache for instance, is an organizational issue that generally has
nothing to do with the ISA.

3. System Design which includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system
such as:

 System interconnects such as computer buses and switches.

 Memory controllers and hierarchies.
 CPU off-load mechanisms such as direct memory access.
 Issues like multi-processing

N.B: Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware
technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In short, computer
architecture refers to how a computer system is designed and what technologies it is compatible
with.

Structure and Function of a computer system

1. Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated. The following are top level
structures:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its
data processing functions. Often simply referred to as processor.
 Main Memory: Stores data.
  I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
 System Interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU,
main memory, and I/O.
 Peripherals: devices in addition to system unit (monitor, mouse, keyboard, …)
 Communication lines: cables, switches, routers,

Low level structures:

 CPU: CU, ALU, Register

 Main Memory: RAM, ROM
2. Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure.
 Data processing
 Data storage
 Data movement
 Control
1.1. Logic Gates and Boolean algebra

Overview:

 Digital computers operate using the binary number system (0 and 1) because
their internal components (transistors) function in two states (ON/OFF).
 Bits (binary digits) form the basic unit of data storage.
 Digital data can be encoded to represent numbers, characters, and instructions.
 Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits.
 Boolean algebra is a mathematical way of representing and simplifying logic
circuits.

Key Topics:

 Basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT)

 Universal gates (NAND, NOR)
 XOR, XNOR gates
 Truth tables
 Boolean expressions and simplifications
 De Morgan’s Theorems

Logic Gates

Logic gates are basic building blocks of digital circuits. They perform logical operations on
binary inputs (0s and 1s) to produce an output.
Summary

Boolean algebra

Boolean algebra is used to simplify logic circuits.

Boolean algebra and Simplification

Boolean algebra helps simplify logic expressions using laws and rules:

1. Commutative Law: A+B=B+A, A⋅B=B⋅A

2. Associative Law: A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C
3. Distributive Law: A⋅(B+C)=A⋅B+A⋅C
4. De Morgan’s Theorems:

Example:
OR Rule
Assignment about AND rule …….. ?
1.2. Combinational Circuits

Definition

Combinational circuits are circuits where the output depends only on the current inputs. There is
no memory element. Or,

Combinational circuits process inputs without memory—outputs depend only on the current
inputs.

Types of Combinational Circuits

1. Half Adder (Adds two bits)

Inputs: A, B

 Sum (S) = A ⊕ B
 Carry (C) = A · B

Outputs: Sum (S) and Carry (C)

A B Sum (S) Carry (C)

0 0 0 0
A B Sum (S) Carry (C)
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

2. Full Adder (Adds three bits)

 Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin
 Carry = (A ⊕ B) · Cin + A · B

A B Cin Sum Carry

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

3. Multiplexer (MUX)

A MUX selects one of several inputs and forwards it to the output.

1.3.Flip-Flops

Flip-Flops (Memory Elements)

Unlike combinational circuits, flip-flops store information and change states based on clock
signals.

Types of Flip-Flops
 Flip-Flop Function
SR Flip-Flop Stores 1-bit data (Set-Reset)
D Flip-Flop Transfers input to output on clock edge
JK Flip-Flop Improved SR Flip-Flop (no invalid state)
T Flip-Flop Toggles state (used in counters)

Example: JK Flip-Flop

J K Q (Next State)
0 0 No Change
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 Toggle

1.4.Sequential Circuits
Sequential circuits use memory to store past inputs.

Examples of Sequential Circuits

1. Counters (Binary Counting Circuits)

 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counter: Bits change one after another.

 Synchronous Counter: All bits change simultaneously.

2. Shift Registers (Data Storage & Movement)

 Serial In - Serial Out (SISO)

 Serial In - Parallel Out (SIPO)

3. Finite State Machines (FSMs)

Used in decision-making systems (e.g., traffic light controller).

Summary
Topic Key Idea
Computer Architecture Structure and function of a computer
Logic Gates Basic operations on binary inputs
 Topic Key Idea
Boolean Algebra Simplifies logic expressions
Combinational Circuits No memory, output depends on current input
Flip-Flops Basic memory elements
Sequential Circuits Memory-based, output depends on past states

 Combinational circuits process information instantly.

 Sequential circuits use memory for tracking past inputs.
 Flip-flops form the foundation for registers and memory units.