Gravitation Advanced level physics

GRAVITATION
Gravitation deals with motion of planets around the Sun, communication satellites
placed round the Earth and Moon satellites. This motion is governed by laws among
which are Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Newton’s law of gravitation.
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION
First law: All planets describe elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
Second law: The imaginary line joining the Sun to the moving planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.
Third law: The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets about the Sun are
directly proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the Sun. i.e. 𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑟 3 .
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
It states that ‘every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distances apart’.
Consider a planet of mass 𝑚𝑝 moving in a circular orbit of radius 𝑟 about the Sun of
mass 𝑚𝑠 . Hence gravitation attraction of the Sun on the planet is given by,
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠
⟹𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
Where 𝐺 is constant of proportionality known as the universal gravitational constant.
Dimensions of G and its Unit
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠 𝐹𝑟 2
From 𝐹 = 𝐺 ⟹𝐺= … … … … (i)
𝑟2 𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠
[𝐹 ][𝑟 2 ] 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 𝐿2
[𝐺 ] = = = 𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2
[𝑚𝑝 ][𝑚𝑠 ] 𝑀𝑀
∴ From Eqn. (i) Unit of G is N m2 kg −2 or from [𝐺 ] unit of G is m3 kg −1 s −2
TO SHOW THAT KEPLER’S THIRD LAW IS CONSISTENT WITH
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
Consider a planet of mass 𝑚𝑝 moving about the Sun in a circular orbit of radius 𝑟.
Suppose the mass of the sun is 𝑚𝑠 and the angular velocity of the planet is 𝜔.
𝜔
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑝 )
𝐹

𝑆𝑢𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑠 )

The force which keeps the planet moving around the sun is given by

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑝 𝜔2 𝑟………………………. (i)
By Newton’s law of universal gravitation
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠
𝐹=𝐺 ………………………(ii)
𝑟2
Equating (i) and (ii) we get
𝑚𝑝 𝑚 𝑠
𝐺 = 𝑚𝑝 𝜔 2 𝑟
𝑟2
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the planet, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 2
𝐺 = 𝑚𝑝 ( ) 𝑟
𝑟2 𝑇
2
4𝜋
𝐺𝑚𝑠 = 2 𝑟 3
𝑇
2
4𝜋 2 3
∴𝑇 = 𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑠
Since G, 𝑚𝑠 and 𝜋 have the same values no matter which planet is being considered,
∴ 𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
This is Kepler’s third law and is derived on the basis of Newton’s law of gravitation
and therefore the two laws are consistent.
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATIONAL
CONSTANT, G

Torsion
wire

𝐶 𝐷
𝐴
𝑎
𝑏 𝐵
𝜃 𝑏
Plan view
𝐵
𝐴 CD-highly polished bar
𝑎
𝑎, 𝑏-gold balls
𝐴, 𝐵-lead spheres
❖ Two large identical lead spheres A and B are brought into position near 𝑎 and 𝑏
respectively.
❖ As a result of attraction between the masses, two equal but opposite forces act
on CD and the bar is thus deflected.
❖ The angle of deflection 𝜃 is measured by lamp and scale method by light
reflected from CD.
❖ The distance 𝑑 between 𝑎 and A or 𝑏 and B when the deflection is 𝜃 is
measured.
❖ Then, masses 𝑚 and 𝑀 of 𝑎 and A respectively are measured.

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

❖ Universal gravitational constant is calculated from

𝑐𝜃𝑑 2
𝐺=
𝑚𝑀 × 𝐶𝐷
Where 𝑐 is torque in torsion wire per unit radian of twist.
Note; Calculation for G
𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝐷 = × 𝐶𝐷 𝐁𝐮𝐭 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 𝑐𝜃
𝑑2
𝐺𝑚𝑀
∴ × 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑐𝜃
𝑑2
𝑐𝜃𝑑 2
𝐺=
𝑚𝑀 × 𝐶𝐷
Numerical value for 𝐺 is 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2
MASS OF THE SUN AND THE EARTH
(a) Mass of the Sun
The mass of the Sun can be estimated by considering the motion of the Earth round
the Sun in an orbit of radius 𝑟𝑠𝑜 . Suppose 𝑚𝑒 and 𝑚𝑠 are masses of Earth and Sun
respectively and the angular velocity of the Earth is 𝜔.
𝜔
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑒 )
𝐹

𝑟𝑠𝑜

𝑆𝑢𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑠 )

Force of attraction = Centripetal force

𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑠
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝑒 𝜔2 𝑟𝑠𝑜
𝑟𝑠𝑜
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the earth, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 2
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝑒 ( ) 𝑟𝑠𝑜
𝑟𝑠𝑜 𝑇
2
4𝜋 3
𝑚𝑠 = 𝑟
𝐺𝑇 2 𝑠𝑜
But 𝑟𝑠𝑜 = 1.5 × 1011 m (radius of the Earth’s orbit about the sun)
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2 ,
𝑇 = 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 ≈ 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 𝑠 = 3.1536 × 107 𝑠.
4𝜋 2
∴ 𝑚𝑠 = × (1.5 × 1011 )3
6.67 × 10−11 × (3.1536 × 107 )2
𝑚𝑠 = 2.0 × 1030 kg

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

(b) Mass of the Earth

The mass of the Earth can be estimated by considering the motion of the moon round
the Earth in an orbit of radius 𝑟𝑒𝑜 . Suppose 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑚𝑒 are masses of the Moon and
Earth respectively and the angular velocity of the moon is 𝜔.
𝜔
𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 )
𝐹

𝑟𝑒𝑜

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑒 )

Force of attraction = Centripetal force

𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑒
𝐺 2
= 𝑚𝑚 𝜔2 𝑟𝑒𝑜
𝑟𝑒𝑜
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the moon, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑒 2𝜋 2
𝐺 2
= 𝑚𝑚 ( ) 𝑟𝑒𝑜
𝑟𝑒𝑜 𝑇
2
4𝜋 3
𝑚𝑒 = 𝑟 … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝐺𝑇 2 𝑒𝑜
But 𝑟𝑒𝑜 = 4.0 × 108 m (radius of the orbit of the moon about the earth)
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2 ,
𝑇 = 1 month ≈ 30 days = 30 × 24 × 60 × 60 𝑠 = 2.592 × 106 𝑠.
4𝜋 2
∴ 𝑚𝑒 = × (4.0 × 108 )3
6.67 × 10−11 × (2.592 × 106 )2
𝑚𝑒 = 5.6 × 1024 kg ≈ 6.0 × 1024 kg
THE EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Any mass in a gravitational field experiences a force. The magnitude of this force
depends on the gravitational field strength.
Gravitational field strength is defined as the force acting on a unit mass placed in the
field.
Thus, if a body of mass 𝑚 experiences a force 𝐹 in the earth’s field,
𝐹
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ , g =
𝑚
Gravitational field strength is expressed in N kg −1 or m s −2
On Earth gravitation field strength is 9.81 N kg −1 .
Relation between Gravitational Constant, 𝑮 and Acceleration Due to Gravity, 𝐠
Consider a body of mass, 𝑚 placed on the Earth’s surface of radius, 𝑟𝑒 , where the
acceleration due to gravity is g. Suppose 𝑚𝑒 is the mass of the earth.

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚
𝐹

𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )
Earth’s surface

Force of attraction
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝐹= … … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝑟𝑒2
If the body is on the Earth’s surface then it experiences a gravitational pull
𝐹 = 𝑚g … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Equating equation (i) and (ii)
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
= 𝑚g
𝑟𝑒2
From which;
𝑮𝒎𝒆 = 𝐠𝒓𝟐𝒆
Where 𝑟𝑒 is radius of the earth and its equal to 6.4 × 106 m.
Note; We can use the expression above to determine the mass of the Earth
g𝑟𝑒2
∴ 𝑚𝑒 =
𝐺
−11
But 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10 N m kg , 𝑟𝑒 = 6.4 × 106 m, g = 9.81m s −2
2 −2

9.81 × (6.4 × 106 )2

𝑚𝑒 = −11
= 6.0 × 1024 kg
6.67 × 10
Density of the Earth
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
g𝑟𝑒2 4
But mass of Earth, 𝑚𝑒 = and volume of Earth, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟𝑒3 ; where 𝑟𝑒 is the radius
𝐺 3
of the Earth, then the density of the earth is approximately given by
g𝑟𝑒2 4 3
𝜌= ÷ 𝜋𝑟𝑒
𝐺 3
3g
𝜌=
4𝜋𝑟𝑒 𝐺
Differences between Gravitational constant, G and Acceleration due to gravity, g
𝐆 𝐠
3 −1 −2 2 −2
Its unit is m kg s or Nm kg . Its unit is ms or Nkg −1 .
−2

It occurs due to forces of attraction It Acts on only one body.

between two bodies.
It does not vary with attitude. It varies with attitude and latitude.

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

Variation of Acceleration due to gravity.

(a) Variation of acceleration due to gravity with height above the Earth’s surface.
(Outside the Earth i.e. 𝑟 > 𝑟𝑒 )
Consider an object of mass, 𝑚 placed at a height, ℎ above the surface of the Earth
where acceleration due to gravity is g ′ .
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚)
ℎ
Surface of the 𝑃
Earth 𝑟𝑒 𝑟

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

The acceleration due to gravity g at the surface of the Earth (point P) is given by
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝑚g = … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑟𝑒2
At a height, ℎ, the acceleration due to gravity g′ is given by
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝑚g ′ = … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟2
Dividing Equation (ii) by (i) we get
g ′ 𝑟𝑒2
=
g 𝑟2
′
𝑟𝑒2
g =g 2
𝑟
′ 1
Since 𝑟𝑒 and g are constants, g ∝ 2
𝑟
❖ Therefore, for a point above the Earth’s surface acceleration due to gravity
varies inversely as the square of the distance 𝑟 from the centre of the Earth.
(b) Variation of acceleration due to gravity with depth below the Earth’s Surface.
(Inside the Earth i.e. 𝑟 < 𝑟𝑒 )
Consider a body of mass, 𝑚 placed at a point 𝑃 which is inside the Earth and at a
distance 𝑟 from its centre.

ℎ Surface of the
𝑃 Earth
𝑟

𝑚′𝑒 𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

The acceleration due to gravity g at the surface of the Earth is given by

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

𝐺𝑚𝑒
g= … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑟𝑒2
At point P inside the Earth, acceleration due to gravity g′ is given by
′
𝐺𝑚′ 𝑒
g = 2 … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟
where 𝑚′𝑒 is the ‘effective’ mass of the Earth that attracts the body and it is contained
in a radius 𝑟.
Dividing equation (ii) by (i)
g ′ 𝑚′𝑒 𝑟𝑒2
=
g 𝑚𝑒 𝑟 2
4
Assuming the Earth to be a uniform sphere of uniform density, then 𝑚′𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 and
3
4
𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟𝑒3 𝜌. Therefore
3
4 3 2
g ′ 3 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑟𝑒
=
g 4 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 𝑟 2
3 𝑒
𝑟
∴ g′ = g
𝑟𝑒
′
Since 𝑟𝑒 and g are constants, g ∝ 𝑟.
❖ For points inside the earth, acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the
distance 𝑟 from the centre of the Earth.
(c) Graph of variation of acceleration due to gravity with distance from the centre
of the Earth.
Surface of the
g′ (N kg −1 )
Earth (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 )
g = 9.81
Inside
the Outside the
Earth Earth

0 𝑟𝑒 𝑟
✓ Inside the Earth, assuming uniform density, the acceleration due to gravity
varies linearly with the distance 𝑟 from the centre. i.e. g ′ ∝ 𝑟.
✓ But for points outside the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity varies
1
inversely as the square of the distance 𝑟 from the centre. i.e. g ′ ∝ . So,
𝑟2
outside the Earth g ′ decreases with height.
(d) Variation of acceleration due to gravity with latitude (or location on the Earth’s
Surface)
The variation in the value of acceleration due to gravity along the earth’s surface is
entirely because of;

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

❖ The Earth being ellipsoidal with the equatorial radius being greater than the
polar radius. Therefore, a body at the equator is slightly farther away from
the centre of the Earth and consequently feels a smaller gravitational
attraction. g 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 < g 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 .
❖ The effect of the Earth’s rotation about its polar axis. When a body is at the
poles it is practically stationary with weight mg 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 while for the same
body at the equator it will be moving in a circle of radius 𝑟 thus
experiencing a centripetal force 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 that is supplied by part of the Earth’s
gravitational pull on it.
⟹ mg 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 − 𝑚g 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
∴ g 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 − g 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜔2 𝑟
Numerical Problems
1. A body has a weight of 10 N on the Earth. What will its weight be on the Moon
if the ratio of the Moon’s mass to the Earth’s mass is 1.2 × 10−2 and the ratio
of the Moon’s radius to that of the Earth is 0.27?
Solution
Let 𝑊𝑒 be weight of the body on the Earth’s surface, 𝑊𝑚 be weight of the body on the
𝑀𝑚 𝑟𝑚
Moon’s surface, = 1.2 × 10−2 and = 0.27, 𝑚 −mass ofthe body.
𝑀𝑒 𝑟𝑒
Case I (When the body is on the Earth)
weight of the body = gravitational attraction
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚
𝑊𝑒 = … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑟𝑒2
Case II (When the body is on the Moon)
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚
𝑊𝑚 = … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟𝑚2
Dividing equation (ii) by (i) we get
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚
𝑊𝑚 𝑟𝑚2
= ⁄𝐺𝑀 𝑚
𝑊𝑒 𝑒
𝑟𝑒2
𝑊𝑚 𝑀𝑚 𝑟𝑒2
⟹ = ×
𝑊𝑒 𝑀𝑒 𝑟𝑚2
𝑀𝑚 𝑟𝑒 2
∴ 𝑊𝑚 = × ( ) × 𝑊𝑒
𝑀𝑒 𝑟𝑚
−2
1 2
∴ 𝑊𝑚 = 1.2 × 10 × ( ) × 10 = 1.6461 𝑁
0.27
2. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Mars is about 0.4 times the
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth. How much would a
body weigh on the surface of Mars if it weighs 800 N on the Earth’s surface.
Solution

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

Case I (on Earth); 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑚g ……………..(i)

Case II (on Mars); 𝑊𝑚 = 𝑚g′ but g ′ = 0.4g
⟹ 𝑊𝑚 = 𝑚 × 0.4g……………………..(ii)
Divide equation (ii) by (i)
𝑊𝑚 𝑚 × 0.4g
=
𝑊𝑒 𝑚g
⟹ 𝑊𝑚 = 0.4 × 𝑊𝑒 = 0.4 × 800 = 320 𝑁
3. If the Moon moves round the Earth in a circular orbit of radius 4.0 × 108 𝑚 and
takes exactly 27.3 days to go round once, calculate the value of acceleration
due to gravity, g, at the Earth’s surface.
Solution
Attractive force = Centripetal force
𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the moon, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑒 𝑚 2𝜋 2 4𝜋 2 3
𝐺 2 = 𝑚 ( ) 𝑟 ⟺ 𝐺𝑚𝑒 = 2 𝑟 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐺𝑚𝑒 = g𝑟𝑒2
𝑟 𝑇 𝑇
4𝜋 2 𝑟 3
⟹g= 2 2
𝑇 𝑟𝑒
2 8 3
4𝜋 (4.0 × 10 )
∴g= = 11.09 ms −2
(27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60)2 × (6.4 × 106 )2
4. The period of the moon round the Earth is 27.3 days. If the distance of the
Moon from the centre of the Earth is 3.83 × 108 m. Calculate the acceleration
due to gravity at the surface of the Earth. (ans. g = 9.73 ms −2 )
ORBITS ROUND THE EARTH
Motion of Satellites
A satellite is a planet or an electronically launched device which revolves in space
around the earth.
❖ There are two types of satellites;
- Natural satellites e.g. the moon.
- Artificial satellites e.g. communications satellites (for transmitting
communication signals from place to place) and weather satellites (for
forecasting the weather conditions).
❖ Artificial satellites are man-made and are placed in orbits about the Earth,
Moon or other planets for communication and scientific study purposes.
❖ Satellites are initially fired from the Earth into space with the help of a rocket.
When a rocket reaches that particular height, a second phase of the launch is
initiated where the satellite is fired horizontally into the orbit to start its circular
motion and the rest of the rocket burns in space.

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

Parking Orbit
A parking orbit is a path in space of a satellite which makes it appear to be in the same
position with respect to a point on the earth.
For a satellite in a parking orbit;
▪ It has a period of 24 hours.
▪ Direction of rotation of the satellite in the orbit is the same as the direction of
rotation of the Earth about its axis.
▪ Angular velocity relative to that of the Earth is zero.
Therefore, a parking orbit can also be defined as the orbit around the Earth in which
the satellite’s period of revolution is 24 hours and the satellite revolves in a direction
similar to that of the Earth’s rotation about its axis.
A satellite in such an orbit is called geo-stationary satellite because it appears to be
stationed to an observer on the earth’s surface.

A geo-stationary satellite is therefore defined as a satellite which revolves in the

parking orbit i.e. geo-stationary satellite orbits the earth with a period of 24 hours and
moves in a direction similar to the earth’s rotation about its own axis.
Satellites of this type are used to relay television signals and telephone messages from
one point on the Earth’s surface to another.
How Communication is done using a Satellite
1

Parking orbit (synchronous orbit)

𝑆

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 2

3
❖ A set of three or more communication satellites are launched electronically by
means of a rocket such that they appear to be stationed to an observer on the
earth’s surface as shown above.
❖ The signal from the source 𝑆 is transmitted by use of a transmitter on the
Earth’s surface to geo-stationary satellite 1. Satellite 1 reflects the signal to
satellite 2, which also reflects the received signal to satellite 3. Geo –stationary
satellite 3 finally sends the signal to the receiver 𝑅 at the opposite end of the
source.
Period of a Satellite in a Parking Orbit
Consider a satellite of mass 𝑚 moving in a circular orbit of radius 𝑟 about the Earth.
Suppose 𝑚𝑒 is the mass of the Earth and 𝜔 is the angular velocity of the satellite.

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚)
ℎ
Surface of the
Earth
Synchronous orbit
𝑟𝑒 𝑟

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

Attractive force = Centripetal force

𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the satellite, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑒 𝑚 2𝜋 2
𝐺 2 = 𝑚( ) 𝑟
𝑟 𝑇
2
𝐺𝑚𝑒 4𝜋
= 2 𝑟
𝑟2 𝑇
2
2
4𝜋
⟹𝑇 = 𝑟3
𝐺𝑚𝑒
Or Putting 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ and 𝐺𝑚𝑒 = g𝑟𝑒2 we get;
4𝜋 2
𝑇 = 2 (𝑟𝑒 + ℎ)3
2
g𝑟𝑒
Numerical Problems
1. Find the period of revolution of a satellite moving in a circular orbit round the
Earth at a height of 3.6 × 106 m above the Earth’s surface.
Solution
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚)
ℎ
Surface of the
Earth 𝑟𝑒 𝑟

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

Attractive force = Centripetal force

𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the satellite, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑒 𝑚 2𝜋 2
𝐺 2 = 𝑚( ) 𝑟
𝑟 𝑇
𝐺𝑚𝑒 4𝜋 2
= 2 𝑟
𝑟2 𝑇

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

4𝜋 2 3
2 2
4𝜋 2
⟹𝑇 = 𝑟 ⟺ 𝑇 = (𝑟 + ℎ ) 3
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑒
1
2
4𝜋 2
𝑇=[ (𝑟 + ℎ )3 ]
𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑒
1
4𝜋 2 (6.4 × 106 × 3.6 × 106 )3 2 9957.029
𝑇=[ ] = 9957.029 s = = 2.77 hrs
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024 3600

2. Communication satellites orbit the Earth in synchronous orbits. Calculate the

height of the communication satellite above the Earth’s surface.
Solution
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚)
ℎ
Surface of the
Earth Synchronous orbit
𝑟𝑒 𝑟

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

Attractive force = Centripetal force

𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the satellite, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑒 𝑚 2𝜋 2
𝐺 2 = 𝑚( ) 𝑟
𝑟 𝑇
2
𝐺𝑚𝑒 4𝜋
= 2 𝑟
𝑟2 𝑇
2
4𝜋 2 3
𝑇 = 𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒
1
𝑇 2 𝐺𝑚𝑒 3
𝑟=[ ]
4𝜋 2
But 𝑇 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 for synchronous orbits, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg −1 ,
𝑚𝑒 = 5.97 × 1024 𝑘𝑔.
1
(24 × 60 × 60)2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024 3
𝑟=[ 2
] = 4.22 × 107 m
4𝜋
But 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ
∴ ℎ = 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 4.22 × 10 − 6.4 × 106 = 3.58 × 107 𝑚
7

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

3. An artificial satellite moves round the Earth in a circular orbit in the plane of
the equator at a height 30,000 km above the Earth’s surface.
(i) Calculate its speed.
(ii) What is the time between successive appearances over a point on the
equator?
(iii) What will be the additional distance of the satellite if it was to appear
stationary?
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚)
Solution ℎ
Surface of the
Earth 𝑟𝑒 𝑟

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

Note; 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ = (6.4 × 106 + 3.0 × 107 ).

(i) Attractive force = Centripetal force
𝑚𝑒 𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐺 2 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑒 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024
𝑣=√ =√ = 3.307 × 103 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑟 (6.4 × 106 + 3.0 × 107 )
(ii) Time required is the period (Time between successive appearances over a
point on the equator)
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 × (6.4 × 106 + 3.0 × 107 )
𝑇= = = 6.915 × 104 s = 19.2 hours
𝑣 3.307 × 103
(iii) Case I (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ = 6.4 × 106 + 3.0 × 107 = 3.64 × 107 𝑚)
𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
𝑇 2 = 𝑘𝑟 3
(19.2)2 = 𝑘 (3.64 × 107 )3 … … … … … … . (𝑖)
Case II; If the satellite is to appear stationary, then 𝑇′ = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
(𝑇′)2 = 𝑘(𝑟′)3
(24)2 = 𝑘(𝑟′)3 … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Equation (ii) divided by (i);
(24)2 𝑘 (𝑟 ′ )3
=
(19.2)2 𝑘 (3.64 × 107 )3
𝑟′ = 4.22 × 107 𝑚
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟 ′ − 𝑟 = 4.22 × 107 − 3.64 × 107 = 5.8 × 106 𝑚
Alternatively
Let 𝑟′ be radius of the orbit in which the satellite would be stationary; 𝑇 = 24ℎ𝑟𝑠
4𝜋 2
Then from; 𝑇2 = (𝑟′)3
𝐺𝑚𝑒

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

1 1
2 (24 × 60 × 60)2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024 3
′
𝑇 𝐺𝑚𝑒 3
⟹𝑟 =[ ] =[ ]
4𝜋 2 4𝜋 2
𝑟 ′ = 4.22 × 107 m
Therefore, 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟 ′ − 𝑟 = 4.22 × 107 − 3.64 × 107 = 5.8 × 106 𝑚
WEIGHTLESSNESS IN A SATELLITE
Consider an astronaut in a spacecraft which is in a free circular orbit around the Earth
at a particular height above the Earth’s Surface.
𝑆′
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
g′
Orbit
mg′
g

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ

If 𝑆′ is the reaction of the surface of the spacecraft in contact with the astronaut, then
for circular motion;
𝐹 = 𝑚g ′ − 𝑆 ′ 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Where, 𝑎 is the centripetal acceleration.
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚g ′ − 𝑆′
But the centripetal acceleration of the astronaut 𝑎 = g′ and this is the same as that of
the spacecraft in magnitude, where g′ is the acceleration due to gravity at that height
of the orbit. Thus,
𝑚g′ = 𝑚g ′ − 𝑆′
⟹ 𝑆′ = 0 𝑁
The astronaut has no acceleration relative to his spacecraft and hence experiences zero
reaction. i.e. weightless (in other words he/she exerts no force on his/her free support)
Definition
Weightlessness is a condition of a body having a zero reaction when the body moves
with acceleration as acceleration due to gravity.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL AND VELOCITY OF ESCAPE
(a) Gravitational potential (𝑈)
Gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the work done to
move a one-kilogram (1 kg) mass from infinity to that point.
𝑊
𝑈=
𝑚
Where 𝑈 is gravitational potential measured in Jkg −1 and 𝑊 is the work done in
bringing a mass, 𝑚, from infinity to that point.

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

Consider a body of mass 1 kg moved from infinity to a point O where the distance
from the centre of the earth to O is 𝑟.
𝑟 𝑂 ∆𝑥
infinity

The work done by the gravitational force in moving a distance ∆𝑥 towards the earth is
∆𝑈 = 𝐹∆𝑥
𝐺𝑀
But force of attraction 𝐹 on a 1 kg mass is given by 𝐹 = where 𝑀 is mass of Earth.
𝑥2
Therefore,
𝐺𝑀
∆𝑈 = ∆𝑥
𝑥2
Total work done
𝑟
𝐺𝑀 1𝑟 1 −1
𝑈 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺𝑀 [− ] = 𝐺𝑀 [− − ]
∞ 𝑥 𝑥 ∞ 𝑟 ∞
𝐺𝑀
∴𝑈=−
𝑟
Note; On Earth’s surface, of radius 𝑟𝑒 , gravitational potential is
𝐺𝑀
𝑈𝑒 = −
𝑟𝑒
The negative sign indicates that the gravitational potential on the Earth’s surface is
less than that at infinity.
(b) Velocity of Escape
Velocity of escape is defined as the minimum vertical velocity with which a body is
projected from the surface of a given planet (e.g. Earth) so that it just escapes from the
planet’s gravitational pull on it.
Expression for Velocity of Escape.
Suppose a body of mass 𝑚 is fired from the planet’s surface 𝑄 so that it just escapes
from the gravitational influence of the planet. Then,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚 × 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄
−𝐺𝑀
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚 × (0 − )
𝑟
1 𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚 ×
2 𝑟
𝟐𝑮𝑴
∴𝒗=√
𝒓
Now, 𝐺𝑀 = g𝑟 2
𝒗 = √𝟐𝐠𝒓

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

Alternatively;
The total work done to move a body from the planet’s surface (where 𝑥 = 𝑟) to
infinity (where 𝑥 = ∞), so that it escapes is given by
∞
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 𝑥2
1∞ −1 −1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [− ] = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ]
𝑥 𝑟 ∞ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊=
𝑟
In order for the body to escape, it must have at least this amount of kinetic energy at
launching.
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 𝑟
𝟐𝑮𝑴
∴𝒗=√
𝒓
Now, 𝐺𝑀 = g𝑟 2
𝒗 = √𝟐𝐠𝒓
The numerical value of velocity of escape from Earth’s surface is
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √2 × 9.81 × 6.4 × 106 = 11.2 kms −1
Note;
❖ Air molecules at normal temperatures and pressures have an average velocity
of about 0.48 km s −1 which is much less than the velocity of escape and so the
gravitational attraction is able to keep the atmosphere around the Earth.
❖ The moon has no atmosphere because the gravitation attraction of the moon is
so small. The velocity of escape at the Moon’s surface is less than the mean
square velocity of molecules of gases. Therefore, it can not hold gases onto its
surface.
❖ Light gases like Neon, Argon, Helium have mean thermal speeds more than
three times that of air. This means that their speeds are higher than the mean
speeds of air and this explains why they are rare in the Earth’s atmosphere.
MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A SATELLITE (Total Energy in an Orbit)
A satellite in an orbit round the Earth has both Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy.
(a) Kinetic Energy (K.E)
Suppose a satellite of mass, 𝑚, moves in an orbit of radius 𝑟 around the Earth of mass
𝑀 at a constant speed 𝑣. Then
Centripetal force = Attractive force
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑀𝑚
=𝐺 2
𝑟 𝑟

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 =
𝑟
Introducing ½ on both sides
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑟
𝑮𝑴𝒎
∴ 𝑲. 𝑬 =
𝟐𝒓
(b) Gravitational Potential Energy (P.E)
This is defined as the work done when that satellite is moved from infinity to that
point (orbit).
Consider a body of mass 𝑚 moved from infinity to a point O where the distance from
the centre of the earth to O is 𝑟. Suppose 𝑀 is the mass of the Earth.
𝑟 𝑂 ∆𝑥
infinity

The work done by the gravitational force in moving a distance ∆𝑥 towards the earth is
∆𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥
𝐺𝑀𝑚
But force of attraction 𝐹 on a mass is given by 𝐹 = where 𝑀 is mass of Earth.
𝑥2
Therefore,
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∆𝑊 = ∆𝑥
𝑥2
Total work done,
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1𝑟 1 −1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [− ] = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [− − ]=−
∞ 𝑥 𝑥 ∞ 𝑟 ∞ 𝑟
𝑮𝑴𝒎
∴ 𝑷. 𝑬 = −
𝒓
Note; The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass 𝑚 at a point where the
gravitational potential is 𝑈 is given by
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝑼
𝐺𝑀
Where 𝑈=−
𝑟

(c) Mechanical Energy (Total Energy)

𝑀. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑀. 𝐸 = +−
2𝑟 𝑟
𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝑀. 𝐸 = −
𝟐𝒓
Note;
✓ Mechanical energy and kinetic energy only differ by the sign therefore their
magnitude is the same,

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

✓ If the radius of the orbit of the satellite decreases;

- Gravitational potential energy and mechanical energy become more
negative implying that both decrease.
- Kinetic energy of the satellite increases which results into an increase in the
speed of the satellite.
Effect of Frictional Forces on the Motion of a Satellite
❖ If a satellite is located within the Earth’s atmosphere as it moves in its orbit, the
atmospheric gases offer resistance to its motion. The satellite thus would be
expected to do work to overcome this resistance and in so doing its total energy
decreases and the satellite falls into an orbit of smaller radius.
𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝑮𝑴𝒎
❖ The potential energy (− ) decreases and the kinetic energy ( )
𝒓 𝟐𝒓
increases.
❖ Increase in kinetic energy increases the velocity of the satellite in its new orbit.
❖ Because of the increase of the speed of the satellite, it becomes hotter and it
may burn out.
Graph showing how Kinetic Energy varies with distance from the centre of the
earth for points outside the Earth
𝐾. 𝐸 (J)
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
Outside the
Earth

0 𝑟𝑒 𝑟
Graph showing how Potential Energy varies with distance from the centre of the
earth for points outside the Earth
𝑃. 𝐸 (J)

0 𝑟𝑒 𝑟
Outside the
Earth
𝑃. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

Note; The amount of work done against the gravitational force in moving a body of
mass 𝑚 from the Earth’s surface ( where 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 ) to a point P (where 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑝 ) is given
by;
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ( − )
𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑝

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

Numerical Problems
1. A satellite of mass 100 kg is in a circular orbit at a height of 3.59 × 107 𝑚
above the Earth’s surface.
(i) Calculate the kinetic energy, potential energy and the mechanical energy
of the satellite in this orbit.
(ii) State what happens when the mechanical energy of the satellite is
reduced.
Solution
𝑚 = 100 kg, ℎ = 3.59 × 107 𝑚, 𝑟𝑒 = 6.4 × 106 𝑚 , 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2 ,
𝑀 = 5.97 × 1024 kg, 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ
𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝑮𝑴𝒎 6.67×10−11 ×5.97×1024 ×100
(i) 𝑲. 𝑬 = = = = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐉
𝟐𝒓 𝟐(𝑟𝑒 +ℎ) 𝟐(6.4×106 +3.59×107 )
−11
𝑮𝑴𝒎 6.67 × 10 × 5.97 × 1024 × 100
𝑷. 𝑬 = − =− 6 7
= −𝟗. 𝟒𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐉
𝒓 ( 6.4 × 10 + 3.59 × 10 )
𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝑴. 𝑬 = − = −𝑲𝑬 = −𝟒. 𝟕𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐉
𝟐𝒓
(ii) – Satellite falls to an orbit of smaller radius when M.E is reduced.
- Potential energy of the satellite reduces.
- Kinetic energy of the satellite increases; resulting into increase of the
speed of the satellite.
- Satellite becomes hotter and may burnout.
2. A 103 kg mass of a satellite is launched in a parking orbit about the Earth.
Calculate the;
(i) height of the satellite above the surface of the Earth.
(ii) mechanical energy of the satellite.
Solution
(i) 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚)
ℎ
Surface of the
Earth Parking orbit
𝑟𝑒 𝑟

𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚𝑒 )

Attractive force = Centripetal force

𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
2𝜋
But 𝜔 = ; where 𝑇 is the period of revolution of the satellite, therefore
𝑇
𝑚𝑒 𝑚 2𝜋 2 2
4𝜋 2 3
𝐺 2 = 𝑚( ) 𝑟 ⟺ 𝑇 = 𝑟
𝑟 𝑇 𝐺𝑚𝑒

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

1
2
𝑇 𝐺𝑚𝑒 3
𝑟=[ ]
4𝜋 2
But 𝑇 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 for synchronous orbits, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg −1 ,
𝑚𝑒 = 5.97 × 1024 𝑘𝑔.
1
(24 × 60 × 60)2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024 3
𝑟=[ ] = 4.22 × 107 m
4𝜋 2
But 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ
∴ ℎ = 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 4.22 × 107 − 6.4 × 106 = 3.58 × 107 𝑚
𝑮𝑴𝒎 6.67×10−11 ×5.97×1024 ×103
(ii) 𝑴. 𝑬 = − =− = −𝟒. 𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐉
𝟐𝒓 𝟐×4.22×107
3. A body of mass 15 kg is moved from the Earth’s surface to a point 2.8 × 106 m
above the Earth. If the radius of the Earth is 6.4 × 106 m, calculate the work
done in taking the body to that point. (06 marks)
Solution
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ( − ) where 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ
𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑝
1 1
𝑊 = 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024 × 15 ( − )
6.4 × 106 (6.4 × 106 + 2.8 × 106 )
𝑊 = 2.84 × 108 J
Exercise
1. A satellite of mass 1000 kg is launched in a circular orbit of radius 7.2 × 106 𝑚
about the Earth. Calculate the mechanical energy of the satellite.
(ans. −𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 J)
2. An artificial satellite is launched to a height of 3.6 × 107 m above the Earth’s
surface. Determine the
(i) speed with which the satellite revolves in the circular orbit at that height.
(ans. 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
(ii) period of the satellite. (ans. 24 hours)
3. The gravitational potential 𝑈 at the surface of a planet of mass 𝑀 and radius 𝑅
𝐺𝑀
is given by 𝑈 = − where 𝐺 is the gravitational constant. Derive an
𝑅
expression for the lowest velocity, 𝑣 which an object of mass 𝑚 must have at
the surface of the planet if it is to escape from the planet. (04 marks)
4. Explain why the force of attraction between bodies in ordinary life is not
noticeable. (02 marks)
Solution
- Because of the small value of the universal gravitational constant, 𝐺.
- The force of attraction between tow ordinary masses is also very small

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Gravitation Advanced level physics

- Hence the acceleration is too small to cause any noticeable motion. The
only acceleration that is noticeable is that due to gravity, g.
5. Explain how the measured period of a simple pendulum would vary along the
Earth’s surface. (03 marks)
Solution
- The Earth is a spherical body with its equator radius being greater than its
𝐺𝑀 𝑙
polar radius. Since g = and the period 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ , the period is greater
𝑟2 g

at the equator where g is a minimum and least at the poles where g is

maximum.
6. A rocket is launched from the Earth’s surface of mass 𝑀 and radius 𝑅 with a
velocity 𝑉0 . It reaches a distance 6𝑅 from the centre of the Earth with a
𝑉0
velocity . Express 𝑉0 in terms of acceleration due to gravity g and 𝑅.
10
(05 marks)
7. A satellite revolves in a circular orbit at a height of 600 km above the Earth’s
surface. Calculate the
(i) speed of the satellite. (03 marks)
(ii) periodic time of the satellite. (03 marks)
THE ANALOGY BETWEEN GRAVITY AND ELECTRICTY
Gravitational Quantity Electrical Quantity
Gravitational field strength is the force Electric field strength is the force per
𝐹 𝐹
per unit mass; g = unit charge; 𝐸 =
𝑚 𝑄
Gravitational potential involves the work Electrical potential involves the work
done in bringing a unit mass from done in bringing a unit (positive) charge
𝑊 𝑊
infinity; 𝑈 = from infinity; 𝑉 =
𝑚 𝑄
𝑀 1 𝑄
Gravitational potential, 𝑈 = −𝐺 Electrical potential, 𝑉 =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑀 1 𝑄
Gravitational field strength, g = 𝐺 Electric filed strength, 𝐸 =
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑚1 𝑚2 1 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝐺 𝐹=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
END

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