CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS.

Chemical substances containing carbon are referred to as carbon compounds.

Except for hydrogen, there are more carbon compounds than any other chemical

element. Compounds of carbon with double bonds and triple bonds are called

unsaturated compounds, while those with carbon-carbon single bonds are called
saturated compounds.

To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom
loses four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+ ion hence
formed, will be highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.

If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of
the noble gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is
required. Moreover, in C4+ ions it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to
satisfy its tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms
covalent bonds.

Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and
a nonmetal. The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the
compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents

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What is an Ionic Bond?
The electrostatic force of attraction which holds the two oppositely charged ions
together is called the ionic bond.
A chemical bond is formed between two atoms by the complete transfer of one or more
electrons from one atom to the other as a result of which the atoms attain their
nearest inert gas configuration.

There are primarily three ways in which two atoms combine to lose energy and to
become stable. One of the ways is by donating or accepting electrons to complete their
octet configuration. The bond formed by this kind of combination is known as an ionic
bond or electrovalent bond. This kind of bond is formed when one atom gains
electrons while the other atom loses electrons from its outermost level or orbit.

Electrovalent Bond
Electrovalent bonds are produced when electrons are transferred from atoms of one
element to atoms of another element, producing positive and negative ions. The bond
which is formed by the transfer of electrons between the atoms is called electrovalent
bond or ionic bond. Electrovalent bonds are only formed between metals and non-
metals. Electrovalent bonds are not formed between two non-metals.
In simple words electrovalent bond involves the transference of a certain number of
electrons to another dissimilar atom which has a tendency to gain electrons so that both
acquire stable inert gas configurations. The electrostatic attraction always tends to
decrease the potential energy. Hence, the potential energy of the system is much less
than it was before the formation of an ionic bond.

Electronegativity and Ionic Bonding

 An Ionic bond is the bond formed by the complete transfer of valence electron to attain
stability.
 This type of bonding leads to the formation of two oppositely charged ions – positive ions
known as cations and negative ions known as anions.
 The presence of two oppositely charged ions results in a strong attractive force between
them. This force is an ionic or electrovalent bond.
 Ionic bonds form between atoms with large differences in electronegativity, whereas covalent
bonds formed between atoms with smaller differences in electronegativity.
 The compound formed by the electrostatic attraction of positive and negative ions is called
an ionic compound.

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is
primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms
with similar electronegativity.

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What Is Covalent Bond?

Elements having very high ionisation energies are incapable of transferring electrons,
and elements having very low electron affinity cannot take up electrons. The atoms of
such elements tend to share their electrons with the atoms of other elements or with
other atoms of the same element in a way that both the atoms obtain octet configuration
in their respective valence shells, and thus achieve stability. Such association through
sharing of electron pairs among different or same kinds is known as Covalent Bond.
 Formation of Covalent Bond

Covalent bonding can be achieved in two ways:

 Sharing of electrons between atoms of the same kind, for example, formation of H 2, Cl2,
O2, etc.
 Sharing of electrons between atoms of different kinds, for example, formation of CH 4, H2O,
NH3, etc.

Covalent Bonding in Carbon Atom

As per the electronic configuration of carbon, it needs to gain or lose 4 electrons to
become stable, which seems impossible as:

 Carbon cannot gain 4 electrons to become C4-, because it will be tough for 6 protons to hold
10 electrons, and so the atom will become unstable.
 Carbon cannot lose 4 electrons to become C4+ because it would require a large amount of
energy to remove out 4 electrons. Also, the C4+ would have only 2 electrons held by the
proton, which will again become unstable.

Carbon cannot gain or donate electrons, so to complete its nearest noble gas
configuration, it shares electrons to form a covalent bond.

Properties of Covalent Bond

If the normal valence of an atom is not satisfied by sharing a single electron pair
between atoms, the atoms may share more than one electron pair between them. Some
of the properties of covalent bonds are listed below:

 Covalent bonding does not result in the formation of new electrons. The bond only pairs
them.
 They are very powerful chemical bonds that exist between atoms.
 A covalent bond normally contains an energy of about ~80 kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol).
 Covalent bonds rarely break spontaneously after it is formed.
 Covalent bonds are directional, where the atoms that are bonded showcase specific
orientations relative to one another.
 Most compounds having covalent bonds exhibit relatively low melting points and boiling
points.
 Compounds with covalent bonds usually have lower enthalpies of vaporisation and fusion.
 Compounds formed by covalent bonding don’t conduct electricity due to the lack of free
electrons.
 Covalent compounds are not soluble in water.

What Is the Octet Rule?

All atoms except noble gases have less than eight electrons in their valence shell. In
other words, the valence shells of these atoms do not have stable configurations.
Therefore, they combine with each other or with other atoms to attain stable electronic
configurations.

Therefore,

“The tendency of atoms of various elements to attain stable configuration of eight

electrons in their valence shells is the cause of chemical combination”

and

“The principle of attaining the maximum of eight electrons in the valence shell of
atoms is called the octet rule.”

Lewis introduced simple symbols to denote the electrons present in the outer shell of an
atom known as the valence electrons. These symbols are known as Electron Dot
Symbols, and the structure of the compound is known as Lewis Dot Structure.
 Dot structure of methane

Conditions for Writing the Lewis Dot Structures

 Sharing of an electron pair between the atoms results in the formation of covalent bonds.
 During bond formation, each bond consists of two electrons which are contributed by each
one of the combining atoms.
 By the mutual sharing of electrons, each atom attains an octet configuration in its valence
shell.

Electron dot structures of covalent molecules are written with respect to the octet rule.
According to this rule, all the atoms in the molecule will have eight electrons in their
valence shell except the hydrogen atom. Hydrogen will have only two electrons because
only two electrons complete its first shell to attain helium configuration.

Thus the elements of group 17, such as Cl, would share one electron to attain a stable
octet; the elements of group 16, such as O and S, would share two electrons; the
elements of group 15 would share three electrons and so on.

For Example, the oxygen atom, which has six electrons in its valence shell, completes
its octet by sharing its two electrons with two hydrogen atoms to form a water molecule.
 Lewis Structure of Water Molecule

Types of Covalent Bonds

Depending upon the number of shared electron pairs, the covalent bond can be
classified into:

 Single Covalent Bond

 Double Covalent Bond
 Triple Covalent Bond

Single Bonds
A single bond is formed when only one pair of electrons is shared between the two
participating atoms. It is represented by one dash (-). Although this form of covalent
bond has a smaller density and is weaker than a double and triple bond, it is the most
stable.

For example, the HCL molecule has one hydrogen atom with one valence electron and
one chlorine atom with seven valence electrons. In this case, a single bond is formed
between hydrogen and chlorine by sharing one electron.
Double Bonds
A double bond is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between the two
participating atoms. It is represented by two dashes (=). Double covalent bonds are
much stronger than single bonds, but they are less stable.

For example, a carbon dioxide molecule has one carbon atom with six valence
electrons and two oxygen atoms with four valence electrons.

To complete its octet, carbon shares two of its valence electrons with one oxygen
atom and two with another oxygen atom. Each oxygen atom shares its two electrons
with carbon, and therefore there are two double bonds in CO2.

CO2 Molecule with Double Covalent Bond

Oxygen Molecule: In the formation of the oxygen molecule, each oxygen atom has six
electrons in its valence shell. Each atom requires two more electrons to complete its
octet. Therefore, the atoms share two electrons each to form the oxygen molecule.
Since two electron pairs are shared, there is a double bond between the two oxygen
atoms.

O2 Molecule with Double Covalent Bond

Ethylene Molecule: In ethylene, each carbon atom shares two of its valence electrons
with two hydrogen atoms and the remaining two electrons with the other carbon atom.
So, there is a double bond between the carbon atoms.

Double Bond in Ethylene Molecule

Triple Bond
A triple bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between the two
participating atoms. Triple covalent bonds are represented by three dashes (≡) and are
the least stable type of covalent bonds.
For example, in the formation of a nitrogen molecule, each nitrogen atom having five
valence electrons provides three electrons to form three electron pairs for sharing.
Thus, a triple bond is formed between the two nitrogen atoms.

Nitrogen Molecule with Triple Bond

Polar Covalent Bond

This type of covalent bond exists where the unequal sharing of electrons occurs due to
the difference in the electronegativity of combining atoms. More electronegative
atoms will have a stronger pull for electrons. The electronegative difference between the
atoms is greater than zero and less than 2.0. As a result, the shared pair of electrons
will be closer to that atom.

For example, molecules form hydrogen bonding as a result of an unbalanced

electrostatic potential. In this case, the hydrogen atom interacts with electronegative
fluorine, hydrogen, or oxygen.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

This type of covalent bond is formed whenever there is an equal share of electrons
between atoms. The electronegativity difference between two atoms is zero. It occurs
wherever the combining atoms have similar electron affinity (diatomic elements).

For example, Nonpolar Covalent Bond is found in gas molecules like hydrogen gas,
nitrogen gas, etc.
Polarization of Covalent Bonds
It is observed that in the sigma bonds between two different atoms, the electron cloud is
always closer to the more electronegative of the two atoms participating in the sigma
bond. Due to this, there is a permanent dipole that arises in the bond, and the covalent
bond is said to be polarized.

Polarity of Covalent Bond in Water Molecule

An illustration describing the polarity of the covalent bonds in a water molecule is
provided above. The more electronegative atom is said to have a partial negative
charge, and the less electronegative atom has a partial positive charge in the polar
covalent bond.

Difference between Covalent and Ionic Bonds

Covalent bonds and ionic bonds are types of atomic bonds. These bonds are different in
their properties and structure. Covalent bonds include pairs of electrons by two atoms
binding them in a fixed orientation, while a bond between two ions is called an ionic
bond.
 Covalent vs Ionic Bonds
Covalent bonding occurs between two non-metallic atoms, characterised by the sharing
of electron pairs between the atoms and other covalent bonds with
an electronegativity difference greater than 2.0 (<2.0). In the case of covalent bond
formation, polyatomic ions are formed, whereas the ionic bond is formed as a result of
electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.

Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots around
it represent the valence electrons of the element.
Lewis structures of elements with atomic numbers 5-8
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Lewis Structure Examples

The Lewis electron dot structures of a few molecules are illustrated in this subsection.

1. Lewis Structure of CO2


o




 The central atom of this molecule is carbon.

 Oxygen contains 6 valence electrons which form 2
lone pairs. Since it is bonded to only one carbon
atom, it must form a double bond.
 Carbon contains four valence electrons, resulting
in zero lone pairs. Therefore, it is doubly bonded to
each oxygen atom.
2. Lewis Structure of O2

o




 An atom of oxygen contains 6 electrons in the

valence shell.
 Four of the valence electrons exist in lone pairs,
implying that the oxygen atom must participate in two
single bonds or one double bond in order to attain an
octet configuration.
 Since there are only two oxygen atoms in an
O2 molecule, the atoms form a double bond resulting
in the following Lewis electron dot structure.

3. Lewis Structure of CO (Carbon Monoxide)


 o




 A carbon monoxide molecule consists of one carbon

atom and one oxygen atom.
 The carbon atom requires four electrons to obtain
octet configuration whereas the oxygen atom
requires two.
 Therefore, the valency is satisfied via the donation of
a lone pair of electrons for bonding by the oxygen
atom.
 The resulting Lewis electron dot structure displays
a triple bond connecting a carbon and an oxygen
atom, each holding a lone pair of electrons.

Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2

Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to
acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.
Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:
Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons
to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three
electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.
Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths
A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between
them, i.e., one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between
them, i.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double
lines between the two atoms.

A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between
them, i.e., two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple
lines between the two atoms.

Bond strength:
– The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break
a bond.
– The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double
bond>single bond
– This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for
two bonds or a single bond.

Bond length:
– Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
– The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen
atom and form three covalent bonds.
  Ammonia has one lone pair.
 All three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
 N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies more
towards N atom.
 This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.

In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom
and form two covalent bonds.

 Water has two lone pairs.

 The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
 The O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards O atom.
 This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.
Covalent Bonding in Carbon
A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four
hydrogen atoms, as shown below.
Friendly Carbon

Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds

Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic configuration
and unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation, and the
tendency to form multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation of
innumerable carbon compounds.

Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent
bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains
and rings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.

S8
In its native state, sulphur shows catenation of up to 8 atoms in the form of S 8 molecule.
It has a puckered ring structure.
Versatile Nature of Carbon
Tetravalency and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple
bonds demonstrate its versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and rings
when joined to other carbon atoms.

Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules.
Organic compounds, on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic
compounds that do not form bonds.

Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a
versatile element that can be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations.
Carbon’s versatility is best appreciated through properties like tetravalency and
catenation.

 Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four, so it is capable of bonding with four other atoms
of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
 Catenation: The property of a carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to
form long carbon chains is called catenation.

Mp, Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms with
similar chemical properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas
carbon.
Diamond
Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected
to four neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of
a crystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other,
resulting in a rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.

Diamond:

1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.

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Graphite
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms, leaving
each carbon atom with one free valency. This arrangement results in hexagonal rings in
a single plane, and such rings are stacked over each other through weak Van der
Waals forces.

Graphite:

1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.

2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.

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C60
C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the
known fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small quantities
in soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a
soccer ball.

Chains, Branches and Rings

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds.
These are known as alkanes. General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon
double or triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General
formula = CnH2n where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General
formula = CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.

Structural Isomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula and different physical or chemical
properties are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are
called structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.
Benzene
Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.
Physical properties: colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure:
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula C6H6, i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is
arranged in a six-membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.
It includes 3 double bonds, which are separated by a single bond.
Hence, this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two stable
resonance structures exist for the ring.

Functional Groups and Nomenclature

Functional Groups
An atom or a group of atoms which, when present in a compound, gives specific
physical and chemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon
chain is called a functional group.

Classification of Functional Groups

Main Functional Groups:

(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as
alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known
as aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.

(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by
two alkyl groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH3COCH3),
Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3), etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH).
Hence, they are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.

(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen
atom is substituted by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For
example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br), etc.

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Homologous Series
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, and
similar chemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members
differ in their molecular formula by −CH2.

Examples of homologous series

Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive
compound.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided on some rules
for naming carbon compounds. This was done to maintain uniformity throughout the
world. Names which are given on this basis are popularly known as IUPAC names.

Read more: Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to
the same functional group. Their physical properties, such as melting point, boiling
point, density, etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in molecular mass.

Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a
specific chemical change. We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical attribute. A
chemical change always results in the formation of one or more types of matter that are
distinct from the matter that existed before the change.

Combustion Reactions
Combustion means the burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the
presence of air or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 4H2O + 2CO2

For example,

Naphthalene also undergoes combustion in the presence of oxygen to afford carbon

dioxide gas and water. The chemical equation for this reaction is as follows.

12O2 + C10H8 → 4H2O + 10CO2

Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame, while unsaturated hydrocarbons give a
smoky flame. In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give
smoky flame.

A black substance formed by combustion or separated from fuel during combustion,

rising in fine particles and adhering to the sides of the chimney or pipe conveying the
smoke especially: the fine powder consisting chiefly of carbon that colours smoke called
soot.
Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in the
loss of one or more electrons.

Addition
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms
of the combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction,
hydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like
nickel, palladium or platinum.

Substitution
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or
substituted by different atoms or groups of atoms is called a substitution reaction. In
alkanes, hydrogen atoms are replaced by other elements.

CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol
(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.
Uses:

1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.

2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic
rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.

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How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and
loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, and damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This
reaction supports the acidic character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)

Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from
a molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This
reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule
is removed from the ethanol molecule.

CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O

(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH
(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in a cold climate, and therefore, it is named glacial
acetic acid.

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Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of
conc.H2SO4, a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called
esterification.

When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of conc.H2SO4, ethyl ethanoate
and water are formed.
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O

(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)

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Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The
soap molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon
group and −COO−Na+ ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is
treated with a concentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat
takes place; soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is
commonly known as saponification.

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Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to
liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH+2Na→2CH3COONa+H2(↑)

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and

Bicarbonates
Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO2 gas.
For example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate, CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2

Soaps and Detergents

Cleansing Action of Soap

When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form
spherical shape micelles.

The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part
of the fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to
water molecules.
The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles
and detach them from the fibres of the fabric.

Hard Water
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium
ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium
and magnesium salts of fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa+MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg+2NaCl
2C17H35COONa+CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca+2NaCl

These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the
cleaning ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if the water is hard.