FORM TWO HISTORY UPDATED NOTES

(SET 2)
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 HISTORY NOTES FORM 2
CHAPTER 1

TRADE
Trade is the exchange of goods or services for money or other commodities for mutual benefits. It is
basically the buying and selling of goods.
Trade originated during the New Stone Age. During this period, man began a settled lifestyle. He
became specialised in various activities such as weaving, pottery and livestock keeping. This
specialisation made some people to produce certain items which others did not produce. The need of
satisfying various essential material needs therefore led to emergence of trade.

Methods of Trade

Barter trade and currency trade are the two existing forms of trade in the world.

Barter trade.
Barter trade is the oldest method of trade in the world. It existed even during the Old Testament time.
Barter trade exists even today. This occurs when people exchange goods for other goods. In this case
no established medium of exchange is used. In certain occasions, services are exchanged for goods.
The goods may also be exchanged for services.
Barter system was very popular before the introduction of money. For instance a cow could be
exchanged for a number of goats. A basket of millet could be exchanged for a basket of maize or beans.
The people of ancient Ghana exchanged their gold with the people of North Africa for salt.
This form of trade did not succeed very well where there was language barrier. Barter trade exists
even today. In Kenya, certain commodities e.g. agricultural products are exchanged for machinery
and oil.
Advantages of barter trade were:
1. There was direct exchange of goods or services for goods.
2. It encouraged people who were exchanging goods for goods to get involved in actual production of
the items. This kept the communities busy.
3. Barter trade enabled people who had no goods for exchange to acquire goods they wanted by
merely rendering services to those who had.
4. It enabled people to acquire the goods they did not produce themselves.

Disadvantages of barter trade were:

a) Barter trade was not very convenient because sometimes people could not acquire the commodities
they intended to exchange their goods for. For example one may have intended to exchange a bag of
maize with a bag of millet just to find that there was no millet in the market.

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b) The method was tiresome because all those who wanted to exchange goods had to carry those goods
to the market sometimes for long distances.
c) Since in normal trade there is a buyer and a seller, it became difficult to specify who the buyer or
seller was because both were just exchanging items and there was no specific buyer or seller.
d) It was difficult to transport bulky goods to the market.
e) It was difficult to value goods being exchanged to ensure that the deal was fair for both parties
exchanging items.
f)Barter trade was not very successful where the people exchanging goods had no common language
to ease communication.
g) It was not easy to exchange certain items such as a bull or a donkey because if the other party did
not have sufficient goods for exchange, a bull or a donkey could not be split into smaller units to
match with the goods available.

The Currency trade

This method of trade involves the use of money as a medium of exchange. The medium of exchange
must be acceptable and convenient to people.
Money may be used to purchase commodities or to pay for services. Money is also used a measure of
value. Today, people value their property in terms of money. Objects which have ever been used as
money before the introduction of modern currencies are cowrie shells, iron bars, bronze, salt, gold and
silver.

The major world currencies are:

i) US Dollar v) Canadian Dollar
ii) German Deutsche Mark vi) Mexican Peso
iii) British Sterling Pound vii) Japanese Yen
iv) French Franc viii) European Union
ix) Euro
Advantages of currency trade are
a) It is easy to carry money when going to buy items because it is not heavy.
b) Money can be split into smaller units which enables people to purchase any quantity of goods in
the market.
c) Items are valued easily in terms of Shillings, Dollars, Yen, Pound Sterling, etc. This makes the buyer
to have an idea of the value of various items in advance.
d) Currency trade brings about clear definitions of the terms buyer or seller. In this case the buyer is
the one who gives out money to acquire goods while the seller is the one who gives out goods to
acquire money.
e) When one receives money for goods delivered or sold, he can save it in banks or store it without fear
of any damage such as decay for a long time.

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Disadvantages of currency as a medium of exchange are
i) Currency can easily loose value (purchasing power) as it happened in Uganda during the era of
President Idi Amin.
ii) If there are no goods available for buying, money becomes useless. Many a times people have starved
almost to death during famine due to shortage of food to buy with the money they have.
iii) Use of currency in business has encouraged robbery, pickpocketting and many other forms of crime.

Types of trade
There are three types of trade namely: local trade, regional trade and international trade.

Local Trade
Local trade is the exchange of goods within the same community at the village level. It may also involve
the neighbouring communities or people who share a common boundary.
People who conducted local trade established markets on the community boundaries or in a central
place where people from a number of villages met to exchange goods. People exchanged goods they
had for the things they did not have. This type of trade exists in Kenya even today where local county
councils have established markets in certain trading centres. Local trade covers a small area.

The origin of local trade

Local trade originated from the time early man began a settled lifestyle. It was facilitated by the need
to acquire what one did not have from those who had. The environmental differences also contributed
the emergence of this type of trade.

The development of local trade

Local trade developed as human population increased. The increase in population led to demand for
various items such as food, clothing, pots and ornaments. Some people became specialised in making
iron tools, others in making items such as pots, baskets and bark-cloth while others became pastoralists
and kept cattle, sheep and goats.
The blacksmith obtained meat from the pastoralists and grains from the cultivators. The pastoralists
needed knives and spears from the blacksmiths. The cultivators needed iron hoes; knives for harvesting;
millet, sorghum and axes for clearing fields for cultivation. The demand for goods therefore encouraged
local trade to develop and markets were established where people met to buy and sell things.

The organisation of local trade

People established markets at the most convenient places for all. They set market days when they would
meet to exchange goods. At the beginning, the form of trade was mainly barter. Later there was
introduction of money (currency) which acted as a medium of exchange.
During this trade, people transported their commodities on their heads and backs. Some communities
such as the Maasai used donkeys to carry their goods to the markets while the Somali and the Boran
used camels.

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People who traded were provided with security by local leaders.
Some established local merchants bought the items and resold them to other traders far away beyond
the local boundaries. For example ivory was sometimes bought from the local markets in Samburu and
Baringo and then transported to the coast where it was bought and shipped to Asia.

The impact of the local trade

Local trade led to intermarriages between people of different villages and people of neighbouring
communities.
It contributed to the unity of family members who constituted a community. This is because the
interaction of people in the markets united them. Local trade enabled people to acquire what they did
not have from those who had.
It laid the basis for other types of trade such as the regional and the international trade because some
of the goods sold at regional and international levels were bought from local markets by the traders and
eventually sold far away from the sources.
Local trade enabled some people such as Chief Kivoi of Ukambani to acquire skills in trade thereafter
becoming experienced long distance traders. Where members of one community traded with members
of another community there was development of languages through word borrowing as well as cultural
exchange.
In this case members of each community would borrow some cultural practices which became known
to them as they interacted in the markets.

Regional Trade
Regional trade is the exchange of goods within a specified part of a continent or region. It can be trade
between different communities in a region who are living apart.
This trade involves a bigger geographical area than the one covered by local trade. It also involves
more traders. An example of regional trade is the Trans-Saharan trade.

The origin of the Trans-Saharan trade

It is not known exactly the time this trade started but it was going on between 1000AD and 1500AD.
The people of West Africa and those from North Africa exchanged goods from very early times even
before the Sahara dried up into a desert. The desert trade was later revolutionised by the introduction
of the camel in the first century AD.

The development of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade began developing after the introduction of the camel which replaced the use
of oxen and horses which were used by traders before the Sahara turned into a desert.

The people involved in this trade were the local inhabitants of West Africa such as the people of ancient
Ghana, Mali and Songhai. There were also desert communities like the Tuaregs, the Berbers and the

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Arabs from North Africa. Later Europeans and Jewish traders who had settled along the North African
coast became engaged in this lucrative trade.

The people of West Africa (Western Sudan) sold Gold, ivory, slaves, gum, ostrich feathers, colanuts
and hides and skins to the people of North Africa and in return obtained horses, silk cloth, beads, cotton
cloth, spices, mirrors, needles, dried fruits and salt from the North African traders. The salt sold was
obtained from Targhaza, Taodeni and Ghadames while the gold brought for sale was obtained from
Wangara, Bure and Budu mines.

The main trade routes were that which connected Fez and Sijilmasa in Morocco with Audaghost in
West Africa and passed through Targhaza. The other started from Tunis in Tunisia through Ghadames,
Ghat and Agades in the Sahara desert to Hausaland. Another one ran from Sijilmasa through Tuat, Gao
and reached Timbuktu. The other one started from Tripoli and went past Fezzan to Bornu via Bilma.
There were several other minor ones which made the trade routes to resemble a cobweb. All these
routes touched the salt mines in the desert as salt was a commodity of trade very much needed by the
people of western Sudan.

Some Trans-Saharan trade routes and sources of goods

The Trans-Saharan trade developed due to the following reasons:
1. The trade commodities which the traders from both sides demanded were available.
2. The trade goods themselves were in great demand. For instance the people of West Africa demanded
salt while the people of North Africa demanded gold.
3. The West African rulers provided the traders with security.
4. The desert Tuaregs guided traders; provided them with water, food and accommodation; showed
traders direction; acted as interpreters; provided traders with security while crossing the desert and
cared for the oasis where traders obtained water.
5. There were established trade routes in the desert which provided considerable transport and
communication services to traders.
6. There were enterprising professional merchants who conducted trade across the desert.
7. There were means of transport provided by use of camels, horses and donkeys.
8. There was sufficient capital to finance trade.
9. The local trade which existed in North Africa and West Africa laid the basis for the Trans-Saharan trade.

The development of the Trans-Saharan trade was hampered by some of the obstacles traders
encountered as they conducted their business across the desert.
Some of these obstacles were:
a) Traders lost direction in the desert.
b) They were attacked by desert robbers. This occurred when the Tuaregs changed their role of guides
to that of robbers.

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c) vggbThe traders were affected by numerous sandstorms which blocked the routes they followed.
d) The trades were also affected by weather variations because sometimes it became too hot and at
other times too cold.
e) The distance traders travelled across the desert was too long and scaring.
f)Traders were sometimes in danger of attacks by dangerous desert creatures such as snakes and scorpions.
g) There was communication barrier due to lack of a common language. This made it necessary for
traders to use the Tuaregs as their guides and interpreters but later they became unreliable when they
began stealing goods from traders.
h) There was lack of adequate basic needs such as food and water especially in the desert.
iii) The organisation of the Trans-Saharan trade
 The Trans-Saharan trade was conducted by the people of western Sudan and the people of North
Africa. The traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara desert by use of camels. The traders
travelled in large caravans some with about 1000 camels and hundreds of people for security reasons.
 The Tuaregs and Berbers were recruited to act as guides (takshifs) to the traders. These guides
provided the traders with security. It took about three months to cross the desert. For this reason the
traders had stopping places at the oases where they bought food and water for themselves and for
their camels. It is the Tuaregs who maintained the oasis and acted as interpreters. When the traders
reached western Sudan, they sometimes gave their goods to the local agents on credit. The form of
trade was mainly barter.
 The rulers of West Africa controlled the trade and provided security to traders. In return the traders
paid taxes to the rulers. The main items of trade included gold, salt, horses, hides and skins, beads
and cloth. When the time to travel back to North Africa reached, the North Africa traders employed
people to be left trading on their behalf. The merchants stored goods in specific gathering points
which acted as distribution centres. They mainly travelled one way in a year.

The problems the Trans-Saharan traders encountered

The Trans-Saharan traders faced a lot of problems as they carried out their business. The traders
travelled long distances across the Sahara desert. Their journeys were tiresome and they had insufficient
food and water. Sometimes the trade goods became exhausted.
The traders were frequently interrupted by hostile desert communities who wanted to steal their goods
and by dangerous sandstorms which blocked their way. Traders lost direction and they were sometimes
attacked by dangerous desert creatures. There were frequent shifts of trade routes. Traders were
sometimes robed by desert dwellers.

The impact of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade had several consequences:
1. The trade led to development of urbanisation for example towns such as Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne.
2. The trade led to the decline of empires such as ancient Ghana and Mali while others such as
Songhai emerged.
3. Islamic religion and culture were introduced.

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4. Intermarriages between North Africans and West Africans were promoted.
5. The Trans-Saharan trade led to a class of wealthy merchants who participated in the trade.
6. New cultures were introduced such as eating habits and new styles of dressing.
7. The trade led to the introduction of foreign architectural designs in West Africa.
8. The Trans-Saharan trade contributed to the establishment and development of diplomatic ties
between West Africa and North Africa.
9. There was growth of agricultural production as a result of the introduction of new crops.
10. The sharia laws were introduced in the administration of West Africa.
11. The trade exposed Africa to the outside world.
12. The trade led to the development of communication between North and West Africa.

The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade began to decline in the 15th century and disintegrated completely in the 19th
century following colonisation of West Africa by the Europeans. The factors which contributed to its
decline were as follows:

a) The gold mines in western Sudan got exhausted. This discouraged traders from coming to West
Africa because the main trading commodity was not available.
b) The Morrocans invaded West Africa in the 16th century. This undermined the trade because it created
anarchy and insecurity in the region. The Morrocans wanted to capture this prosperous trade.
c) The political instability in West Africa together with the decline of empires such as Mali and
Songhai increased anarchy and insecurity in the region.
d) West Africa was invaded by the Almoravids and the Tuaregs. This further increased insecurity
along the major trade routes.
e) The Tuaregs who guided the traders changed their roles from that of guides to that of robbers.
f)The emergence of the Trans-Atlantic trade attracted the West African traders who were formerly
involved in the Trans-Saharan trade. This led to reduction of the volume of goods and traders who
participated in the Trans-Saharan trade.
g) The Turks invaded North Africa creating insecurity along the caravan routes.
h) The colonisation of West Africa by the Europeans reduced regional links and encouraged
European exploitation of West African resources therefore undermining the Trans-Saharan trade.
i) The British anti-slave trade pressure and eventual abolition of slave trade led to decline of the
Trans-Saharan trade.
j)Rivalry between caravans and the stiff competition of the traders sometimes resulted to wars which
scared traders.
k) Moroccan ports along the Mediterranean Sea were invaded by the Spanish and Portuguese soldiers
in the late 15th century and early 16th century. This disrupted trade.
l) European merchants began penetrating into the interior of West Africa for trade. They diverted the
flow of goods such that goods were later taken to the West African coastal town such as Port Elmina
and Accra

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International Trade
International trade refers to trade between nations. In modern international trade, nations within the
same continent are included. The international trade of the period before the mid 20th century which is
our main concern involved nations particularly those in different continents and which were not part of
one geographical region.
This ancient international trade developed as a result of the improvement in water transport. This was
achieved mainly through the construction of strong ships and acquisition of better knowledge of
navigation which enabled sailors to explore and acquire knowledge about foreign lands overseas. An
example of the international trade was the Trans-Atlantic trade.

The Trans-Atlantic trade

i) Origin
The Trans-Atlantic trade began after the Portuguese explored the West African coast in the 15th century
and after the Spanish sailor, Christopher Columbus sailed to Americas.
In the 16th century the Americas became colonised by the Portuguese and the Spanish. These two
nations began to open up and develop their acquired territories through mining and establishment of
sugar plantations. Attempts to use the Red Indians as labourers eventually failed. There was need to
import Africans to supply labour in the mines and sugar plantations. This attempt marked the beginning
of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. The increased demand for sugar, tobacco and cotton in the European
countries led to the establishment and growth of more and more plantations in Americas. A lot of
labourers were therefore needed to work in the growing plantations.
Africans were more suited to plantation farming because they were handy and could work effectively
in hot climates. They were used to tropical diseases and could survive longer. The Africans were also
used to physical strains and hardships. All these made Africans to be regarded as the most potential
suppliers of labour in the American plantations.

iii) The development of Trans-Atlantic trade

The first African slaves were the twenty people who were captured and taken to Henry the Navigator
in 1442. By 1510 a large number of African slaves from Guinea were exported by the Portuguese to
the Spanish colonies. Later slaves were transported directly form Guinea coast to the West Indies.
At first the Portuguese were the leading slave exporters. In the 17th century, the Dutch took the leading
role as more Europeans settled in Americas and increased the demand for slave labour.
The French and the British involved themselves in this lucrative trade. The British captured the leading
role from the Dutch and they dominated the Trans-Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century.
The increased demand for precious stones, sugar, cotton and tobacco in the European markets and the
demand for fire arms, cloth, alcoholics, tobacco, utensils, glassware ornaments, sugar, sweets and iron
bars in West Africa accelerated trade.

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The Trans-Atlantic trade developed and grew rapidly due to the following factors:
1. The commodities which were required by the Africans as well as the Europeans and Americans,
were available in the three continents that took part in trade.
2. The goods were also in great demand in the continents especially during the industrial revolution.
3. The West African coast had natural harbours where ships anchored.
4. The West African rulers provided foreign traders with security.
5. There existed enterprising merchants in America, Europe and West Africa who engaged in trade.
6. The steamships provided efficient transport and communication means between the three continents.
7. The acquisition of new knowledge of navigation enabled sailors to sail across the deep and stormy
seas and oceans.
8. The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade enabled a big volume of goods to be taken to the West
African coastal markets.
iii) The organisation of Trans-Atlantic trade
The Trans-Atlantic trade was well organised inform of a triangle which connected Europe, Africa and
America. It involved European traders, African middlemen and American plantation owners.
Ships loaded with European manufactured goods such as fire arms, cloth, wines and spirits, cigarettes,
iron bars, utensils, glassware, ornaments and sweets left Europe and anchored along the West African
coast. Slaves captured in the interior of West Africa were marched along the coast. There were
established places where the slaves were kept while awaiting shipment.
The ships from Europe were unloaded and the European manufactured goods exchanged for slaves,
colanuts, precious stones, hides and skins. The ships were once more loaded with the West African
commodities which were shipped across the Atlantic ocean to Americas.
In Americas, the slaves were sold through auction. The ships were then filled with indigo, cotton,
tobacco, rum, sugar, rice, timber and the precious stones like gold and silver. They were then shipped
to European markets.
How the slaves were obtained during the Trans-Atlantic trade
a) Raids were conducted for capturing slaves.
b) Free men were kidnapped and thereafter sold as slaves.
c) Two communities conducted wars and the one which was defeated had is people captured as slaves.
d) Leaders sold criminals and even some of their innocent subjects.
e) Slaves were battered with other commodities African traders required.
f)Children and women were enticed with sweets and thereafter captured.
g) The weaker states were forced to pay tributes imposed on them by use of slaves.
h) The people who failed to pay debts were captured and sold as compensation. Alternatively, they
surrendered a family member to be sold instead.

The impact of the Trans-Atlantic trade

1. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade caused immense pain and suffering to innocent Africans who were
captured, chained, beaten and forced to walk long distances to the West Africa coast.
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2. The trade caused an incalculable number of deaths especially during inter community wars, raids
and during shipment. The death tool is estimated to be about 20 million.
3. There was a decline in the local industries because the able bodied people were sold away leading
to loss of labour and because of sale of cheap manufactured goods.
4. There were changes in the role of chiefs who instead of protecting their people sold them as slaves.
5. There was intensification of warfare in a bid to capture slaves. This resulted to division among and
within communities which caused bitterness and disunity of the Africans. The wars between
communities were accelerated by the acquisition of firearms.
6. A class of slave merchants emerged in West Africa. Examples of the slave merchants were Jaja of
Opobo and Nana of Isekri. The two were very powerful and wealthy.
7. Some states such as Asante, Benin, Oyo and Dahomey rose to power and expanded due to the great
wealth obtained from trade.
8. The Trans-Atlantic trade led to expansion of urban centres along the West African coast where
commodities were exchanged. Such towns were Whydah, Accra, Porto Novo and Badgry.
9. To some extent some parts of West Africa where raids were conducted became depopulated. This
contributed in retarding economic development in those areas.
10. The European traders intermarried with the people of the West African coast giving rise to
halfcaste (mulato).
11.Africans developed a taste of the European goods.
12. Some weaker kingdoms such as Ketu declined due to constant raids conducted by stronger states
such as Dahomey.
13. The Trans-Atlantic trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-Saharan trade because the goods
flowing Northwards across the Sahara desert got reduced and instead were taken to the West African
coastal markets.
14.Some powerful rulers such as King Geso of Dahomey emerged as a result of the introduction of
fire-arms.
15.The trade encouraged slave raids which destroyed property. Houses and crops for instance were
burnt into ashes during slave raids.
16.The Trans-Atlantic trade led to the development of agricultural plantations in the Americas.
17. The trade gave rise to people of African descent in Americas. These are referred to as American
Negroes.
18.The final blow as a result of this trade was that West Africa was colonised and therefore came under
European control.

The decline of the Trans-Atlantic trade

The Trans-Atlantic trade declined in the 19th century because of a number of factors. The industrial
revolution in USA led to use of machines to work in the farms. Slave labour was no longer necessary.

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There emerged the humanitarian movement and the Christian Missionaries in Britain who considered
slave trade and slavery as unjust and inhuman. A typical example of humanitarians was Sir William
Wilberforce who presented the issue of slave trade and slavery to the British parliament. Dr.
Livingstone also advocated slave trade to be abolished.
Some economists and scholars were of the feeling that free labour was more paying and productive
than slave labour. Some of them argued that mass migration of the Africans should be discouraged to
ensure retention of the markets for the European manufactured goods. The decline of plantation
economy in America and the Carribeans reduced the demand for slaves for use in the farms. Also the
slaves in the Carribeans and America resisted because they wanted to be left free from being enslaved.

Lastly, some Europeans felt that it was necessary to retain Africans in their motherland so that they
could produce raw materials needed in the European industries. In order to achieve this, it was
necessary to abolish the Trans-Atlantic slave trade which was draining Africa of its labour force.

Review Questions
1. a) Define the following:
i) Barter trade iv) Regional trade
ii) Currency trade v) International trade
iii) Local trade
b) Explain the advantages of using currency over barter trade.
2.a) Explain the origin and organisation of local trade.
b) Discuss the factors which contributed to the development of the Trans-Saharan trade.
3 a) Describe the role of Takshifs during the Trans-Saharan trade.
b) Give five trade routes traders followed during the Trans-Saharan trade.
4 a) what problems did the traders encountered during Trans-Saharan trade?
b) Discuss the effects of the Trans-Saharan trade on the people of western Sudan.
5 a) What factors contributed to the development of the Trans-Atlantic trade.
b) Explain the impact of the Trans-Atlantic trade under the following headings.
i) Social impact
ii) Economic impact
iii) Political impact
6 Why did the Trans-Atlantic trade decline in the 19th century?

Students’ Activities
1 Visit the nearest shopping centre and find out the problems the traders encounter as they carry out
their business.
2 Draw relevant maps indicating the trade routes during the Trans-Atlantic trade and Trans- Saharan trade.
3 Demonstrate the methods used to obtain slaves and the way they were finally transported to the
market along the West Africa Coast and sold.

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CHAPTER 2
DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATION
Transport is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. Communication is the
transmission of information in form of news, messages and ideas over some distances. It includes
sending and receiving of information.
The early forms of transport included land transport, water transport, human transport and animal
transport. Human transport involved carrying goods from one place to another on one’s back, head and
shoulders. Animals were also used to carry goods and people on their backs from one place to the other.
The earliest forms of communication were smoke signals, drum beats, messengers, horn blowing and
written messages on scrolls and stone tablets.

Traditional Forms of Transport

a) Land transport
This form of transport involved movement of people and goods on land. They either walked or they
were transported by use of tamed animals which pulled carts and wagons.
Land transport developed mainly because of the invention of the wheel. The invention of the wheel
made transport easier because at first it was used to move war chariots and carts which carried
agricultural produce. This also encouraged the development of trade and wars. The invention of the
wheel therefore eased transportation of bulky loads and speeded transportation of people to various
destinations. It also facilitated travel over long distances within a limited period of time. Wheeled
vehicles were pulled by horses, donkey and oxen. The invention of the wheel was followed by the
development of roads.

b) Human transport
Human transport involved carrying of goods from one place to the other on the backs, shoulders and
heads. Sometimes people used shoulder poles to transport goods. The slave traders in East Africa
captured slaves and forced them to carry ivory from the interior to the East African coast.
Human transport exists even today. It is common to see Kenyan women carrying firewood, coffee,
picked tea and cattle feed either on their heads or back.
Porters

c) Animal Transport
After man domesticated animals, he learnt that some could be used to transport goods from one place
to the other. These animals carried loads on their backs and they also pulled wheeled vehicles such as
carts and wagons.

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The beasts of burden such as camels, oxen, horses and donkeys were also referred to as pack animals.
Donkeys were commonly used in Kenya by the Maasai and the Kamba to fetch water. In many other
places, donkeys carried trade goods to the markets. Oxen transported people and goods from one place
to the other. They were also used for ploughing.

Oxen drawn carts

Horses were used to transport soldiers during war times. The soldiers sometimes fought on horseback.
Horses also pulled chariots which transported soldiers to battle fields.
A camel was a very efficient beast of burden in the desert because it could stay for a long time without
water or food. This is because it has a store of fat in its hump. Camels were used to transport goods
during the Trans-Saharan trade.

Other animals which are used for transport are elephants, water buffaloes, dogs and Llamas.

d) Water transport
Water transport began due to the need to cross rivers and lakes to look for food on the other side.
Man’s first boat like vessel was made of a tree trunk. It was later improved by hollowing it to make a
dug-out canoe.
Man also discovered that he could make rafts with animal skins or from bundles of reeds tied
together. The canoes and rafts were used to move across the shallow waters.
The Phoenicians, the Egyptians and the Greeks made the earliest ships many years before the birth of
Christ. These ships were used in seas and oceans. The Arabs made dhows that were driven by wind.

A dhow

Development of modern means of Transport

Modern means of transport involves road transport, railway transport, water transport, air transport and
space exploration by use of rockets.

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Road transport
The Romans were the first to introduce good quality roads which were of very high standards. This
occurred before the birth of Christ. Roman roads survived for hundreds of years because they were
well drained and durable. These roads were used by carts chariots and wagons which were pulled by
horses, donkeys and oxen.
In the 17th and 18th century, British engineers began constructing better roads and bridges. Some of
these engineers were George Wade, John Macadam and Thomas Telford. These engineers brought
about the construction of high quality roads that were durable and well drained.
By the close of the 19th century various modes of modern transport such as bicycles and motor vehicles
had been invented and were in use especially in Europe. The invention of the pneumatic tyres by
Dunlop to replace the solid ones and the invention of steam power engines revolutionised land
transport. Etienne Lenoir from France invented the first internal combustion engine.
A German citizen, Nicholas Otto, invented the four-stroke compression engine. Later in 1883 Gottliep
Daimler of Germany came up with an efficient and portable petrol engine which he used to make the
first motorcycle and later petrol driven car which was the first ever made.
Others who joined in the league of manufacturing vehicles were Karl Benz of Germany and Henry
Ford of USA who founded Ford motor company in USA and began manufacturing cars for sale.
The vehicle industry since then has been greatly improved. Vehicles that move at very high speed have
been introduced. This has resulted to many accidents. As a result of this, in January 2004, Kenya
government took the following measures to reduce the increasing number of accidents on the Kenyan
Roads and to make travel comfortable and enjoyable:

Modern cars

i) All motor vehicles were to be fitted with seat belts.

ii) All public service vehicles were to be fitted with speed governors and were to move at a speed not
exceeding 80 kilometres per hour.
iii) The carrying capacity of public service vehicles was reduced.
iv) Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were to be permanently employed.
v) Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were to be issued with uniforms and badges and
photographs for identification.
vi) Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were required to have certificates of good
conduct.
There are millions of motor vehicles in the world today. The number is still increasing each day because
they are manufactured in thousands each day in the world.

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Railway transport
The idea of making railway lines came earlier than the invention of the locomotive engines. For
instance the Germans used wooden rails for their trucks. The trucks were pulled by horses and donkeys.
Later iron rails replaced the wooden rails.

The first steam engine that could be mounted on a truck was made by Richard Trevithick but it was
slow and heavy. It was George Stephenson, a coal miner in England who came up with the best and
powerful steam locomotive which was called the Rocket. Later diesel and electric engines were
designed. A German called Rudolh Diesel designed a diesel engine. The Siemens brothers designed
the electric locomotives in Britain.

After these inventions the railway transport spread to other parts of the world. The European
colonialists developed the railway transport in Africa in the 19th century and 20th century.

Water transport
The first sailing ships were propelled by wind. These ships were made of wood. When steam power
was discovered, ships began being propelled by steam engines.

A ship of the 17th century

A Scottish engineer known as William Symington built a steamship which was driven by a paddle
wheel. An American called Robert Fulton built a steamship called Clermont that was used to carry
passengers between Albany and New York. Some years later, internal combustion engines were
invented. Since then oil replaced the power from coal in driving engines.

From 1881 iron and steel ships began replacing wooden ships. From 1840s, fast moving ships were
developed when propellers or screws replaced paddle wheels. Between 1953 and 1962, the Americans
were able to make war ships called submarines which used nuclear power.

The ships of today are propelled by very powerful engines and are resistant to strong waves.

Air transport
The first person to fly used a balloon. The use of balloons was followed by the introduction of airships
that carried passengers within the first half of the 20th century. The airships used hydrogen gas that
caused accidents because it was highly flammable. The Wright brothers made the first aeroplane that
used a petrol engine. Their findings helped to develop aeroplanes that were used in the First World
War.
Further improvements of engines brought about the development of jet planes that carry many
passengers and travel at supersonic speed.

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 An aeroplane
Space Exploration
The first satellite was launched into orbit round the earth by the Soviet Union in 1957. The USA also
sent satellites into orbit round the earth in 1961. Yuri Gagarin from Soviet Union became the first man
in space.
The USA sent the first man, Neil Armstrong, to the moon in 1969. Since then a number of countries
have engaged themselves in space exploration. The USA for example have a programme called Space
Shuttle which helps to promote space exploration.

Impact of modern means of transport

The development of modern means of transport has positive and negative impact in the world.

Positive impact
 The development of water transport, railway transport, road transport and air transport has
improved trade between nations because it has quickened movement of business people and
urgent documents and messages relating to trade.
 Goods are quickly and easily transported from one place to another. Job opportunities have been
created in the transport sector. For example people have taken careers such as driving, mechanics,
engineering and piloting.
 Industries for manufacturing engines, spare parts and other accessories have been established. Air
transport has encouraged international co-operation and facilitated quicker and easier movement
of perishable items such as fruits and meat. It has also enabled pests such as locusts to be sprayed
from the air. It has enabled countries to conduct student exchange programmes.
 Air transport has encouraged space exploration by use of satellites. Geologists have used
aeroplanes to explore and map oil pools. Geographers have used aeroplanes when conducting
aerial survey.
 Water transport has provided cheaper means of bulky goods across seas and oceans for example
the transportation of crude oil, machinery, agricultural products and chemical fertilizers. It has
also promoted the fishing industry.

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 In addition railway transport encouraged settlers to settle in the colonies acquired by their mother
countries. It also encouraged migration of people to other places and enhanced colonisation.
Railway transport encouraged urbanisation on railway junctions. It encouraged mining and
farming as it opened up remote areas during the colonial rule in Africa.
 Road transport has helped to link communities leading to rapid cultural interaction. Road transport
has also enabled many countries to have effective administration through quick transportation of
administrators and police to the areas they are needed.

Negative impact
 Modern means of transport have encouraged pollution of environment. Trains and vehicles emit
fumes while aeroplanes produce a lot of noise. When ships carrying oil or mercury wreck, they
contaminate the ocean waters and cause destruction of marine life.
 Modern means of transport have led to loss of life of many people due to accidents. Plane and
vehicle hijacking has increased. There is piracy in seas and oceans. International terrorism has been
encouraged through air transport. Modern transport has encouraged wars because ships, vehicles,
trains and aeroplanes transport soldiers and weapons during wars.

Traditional forms of communication

 The traditional forms of communication involve smoke signals, drum beats, messengers, horn
blowing and written messages on scrolls and stone tablets. Communities used these forms of
communication to make their members informed of what was happening and what was expected of
them. The messages were sent quickly and easily over considerable distances.
 The traditional forms of communication alerted people of impending dangers in times of war. For
instance warriors used them in times of crisis to inform others of the approaching enemies. Lastly
they enabled relatives who were living apart to keep in touch with each other.

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CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY
Industrialisation is the process of producing goods from raw materials. Before the Industrial Revolution
of the 19th century, wood, wind and water were the major sources of energy in the world.

The sources of energy

Wood
Before the 19th century wood was an important source of energy. Wood was used for cooking, boiling
water and warming houses in winter. In the early 19th century, it was also used for making charcoal that
was used for smelting iron. Wood was also used to heat water to prepare the steam power for driving
steam engines and steam ships.

Wind
Energy from wind was used for pumping water from mines and wells. It was used to separate grains
from husks (winnowing). Wind energy was used for driving ships and boats for instance the Arab
dhows. Wind energy was also used to operate windmills used for grinding grains into flour. The
balloons also used wind energy to fly.

Water
Water provided energy for operating spinning and weaving machines. It operated water mills for
grinding flour. Water also provided energy for operating water pumps. It was heated to produce steam
power.

Uses of metals in Africa

Bronze
Bronze is a mixture (alloy) of copper and tin. Bronze was used to make weapons such as daggers,
arrowheads, swords, axes and spears. It was used to make tools which included chisels and hoes. It was
used to make ornaments and utensils.
Bronze was also used to make containers, bronze sculptures and musical instruments such as flutes.
Lastly, bronze was used for making stones for constructing pyramids in Egypt and also for decorating
king’s palaces.

Gold
Gold is an attractive metal that was used by rulers to decorate their palaces. It acted as a sign of wealth.
The rulers of the Asante Kingdom in West Africa regarded gold as their sole property. Anyone who
obtained a gold nugget had to hand it over to the king.

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Gold was used to make golden ornaments and sculptures. It was an important commodity of trade
among the people of the Mwene Mtapa Kingdom and the city-state of Kilwa that minted gold coins.
Gold was also used to make knife handles, utensils and containers.

Copper
Copper was found in many parts of Africa such as Egypt, Zaire and Zambia. Copper was used to make
ornaments such as bangles. It was used to make tools such as needles and to mint copper coins that
acted as a sign of wealth and medium of exchange.
Copper utensils were also made from it. It was also used for decorating the kings’ palaces and for
making brass and bronze alloys. Copper was used to make water pipes in Egypt. Lastly it was used for
making weapons.

Iron
There were several early iron working centres in Africa such as Meroe, Nok, Taruga, Axum, Korotoro,
Kwale and Kavirondo gulf. These early iron-working centres were famous for making a variety of iron
tools such as hoes, knives and axes. In some places cattle bells and jingles for festivities were made.
Iron was widely used for making high quality weapons of the time such as daggers, swords, spearheads,
arrowheads and stabbing knives.
Gold sculptures which represented people were made in West Africa in Nok and Taruga iron working
sites. The Bantu are associated with the spread of iron working technology in Africa.

The spread of iron working technology had the following impact:

a) More land was cultivated due to the introduction of better iron tools such as hoes and axes which
cleared forests.
b) Trade increased especially between the blacksmiths and the cultivators.
c) It encouraged migrations because the iron weapons made the migrating communities to have
confidence of conquering others and settling in their land since security was guaranteed.
d) The iron weapons made some communities to expand through conquest. This led to the growth of
strong states such as Nubia, Mwene Mtapa, Buganda, Axum and Ancient Ghana.
e) The iron making in Africa encouraged wars because people acquired superior iron weapons which
gave them courage to advance and conquer others.
f)Iron working encouraged job specialisation. Some people became blacksmiths others began making
specific items such as knives, daggers, axes, hoes and spear heads.
g) There was rapid increase in food production because of increase in farmlands.
h) The early mining centres attracted more people. This encouraged urbanisation.
i) Iron weapons enables various communities to improve their systems of defence.
j)The weak communities were displaced by the stronger ones and sometimes assimilated during
migration.
k) In some areas iron became a medium of exchange.

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Uses of various sources of energy during the Industrial Revolution in Europe
Coal
Coal was the main source of energy in the 19th century. It heated water to very high temperatures to
produce steam which drove water pumps for removing water in the coal mines. Coal was used to
produce steam for driving steamships and the locomotives. It was also used for heating and lighting
houses.
Today, coal is used for generating electricity and providing power for industries.

Oil
The use of petroleum became popular during the industrial revolution. At first oil was used to light
lamps which were used in houses and streets.
When the first internal combustion engine which used petrol was invented by Gottlieb Daimler,
petroleum began being used for driving motor vehicles. Petroleum was also used for lubricating
machines in factories and for generating thermal - electricity. Petroleum was used as medicine by the
Chinese and the Indians. Today petroleum products are used in industries to make drugs, synthetics,
plastics and fertilisers.

The disadvantages of petroleum

It is expensive to mine. Once extracted and exhausted it cannot be renewed. Lastly it pollutes the
environment.

Steam
Steam was produced by heating water to very high temperatures. When steam was produced it was
used as follows:
a) To drive heavy machines in factories.
b) To pump out water out of mines.
c) To drive steam driven vehicles.
d) To drive steam driven trains and locomotives.

Steam locomotive
e) To drive steamships and steam boats.
f)To operate spinning and weaving machines.

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Electricity
There are two forms of electricity, Hydro-electricity and Thermal electricity. Hydro-electricity is
produced by converting the energy of moving water to electrical energy. Thermal electricity is
produced by burning oil or coal to provide heat which is used to produce steam which turn steam
turbines and hence generate electricity.

The electrical power was used and is still used as follows:

a) To drive machines in industries and factories.
b) To light houses.
c) To drive electric trains and cars
d) To heat houses.
e) To supply power to radios, televisions, cinema and computers.
f)To supply power to refrigerators and electric cookers.
g) For welding.
h) To boil water.
i) To fence game parks.

Uses of iron and steel

The smelting of iron started very early when communities started separating it from rock. In the 18 th
and 19th centuries new iron smelting techniques were discovered. This came about because iron was
very much in demand during the Industrial Revolution especially in the transport sector where it was
used for making ships, trains, rails and bridges. Iron was also used to make textile machines, water
pipes and ploughs.

In the mid 19th century, Henry Bessemer discovered the method of converting iron into steel. There
after, steel replaced iron in the making of many equipment required in the transport industry. For
instance rail bars, trains, ships and bridges were made by use of steel because it is stronger than iron.
Later steel was used for reinforcing concrete during construction of permanent buildings.

Steel producing plant

Today steel has a wide range of uses for instance it is used in the motor vehicle industries, ship building
industries, in the industries for making trains and also in the industries which make building materials
such as iron sheets, roofing bars, nuts and bolts. Steel is therefore widely used to make many kinds of
tools and machinery.

Industrialisation in Britain
Britain was the first European nation to industrialise. During the first half of the 19th century, it was the
leading industrialised nation in the world. It manufactured textiles and a variety of items made of iron.

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Britain had rich coal mines which provided enough coal for industrial power. The surplus was exported.
This made Britain to be the leading trading nation during the first half of the 19th century.
The other European countries and USA borrowed the industrial technology from Britain. By 1870s
Britain ceased to be the world’s leading industrialised nation.
The last half of the 19th century was associated with many scientific inventions and discoveries which
promoted industrialisation not only in Britain but also in other nations like USA, France and Germany.
Britain became the first nation to industrialise because of the following factors which contributed to
the development of industries:

1. Britain had good transport and communication network.

2. It had enough capital to invest in industry.
3. There was sufficient raw materials in Britain in form of coal, iron and cotton for use in the industries.
4. Britain enjoyed a long period of peace and political stability.
5. The British army was strong and superior. It defended the waters of Britain effectively from
competitions by rival nations from sea pirates.
6. Britain had well advanced insurance and banking systems.
7. Trade barrier such as tariffs which could hinder trade never existed in Britain by then because it had
adopted the policy of free trade.
8. Britain had enterprising merchants who manned trade and also encouraged industrial growth and
development.
9. It had well developed cottage industries which laid the basis of the industrial take off.
10. There was adequate skilled and unskilled labour.
11. The acquisition of colonies overseas provided Britain with more raw materials for the industries.
12. The rapid population growth in Britain expanded the internal market for the manufactured goods
while the acquisition of colonies overseas provided external markets.
13. The technological advancement of the people in Britain brought about new inventions which
stimulated industrialisation.
14. There was availability of energy from coal.
15. The Agrarian Revolution had provided industrial workers with sufficient food.

The effects of the industrialisation in Britain in the 19th century

a) The industrialisation of Britain in the 19th century stimulated the rural-urban migration of the landless
who went to seek for employment in the emerging industrial centres. This led to expansion of
industrial centres and hence urbanisation.
b) Transport and communication facilities such as roads, railways, and telephones were developed to
serve the industrial centres by facilitating trade and transportation of raw materials to the factories
and manufacture of goods to the market.
c) There was the expansion of the banking industry and insurance. These provided services to both
industrial owners and workers. They also created new employment opportunities.

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d) The industrialisation in Britain led to enormous expansion of local and international trade. The
manufactured goods were sold to the British citizens and the surplus was sold to the rest of Europe
and to the British colonies overseas. The British colonies provided raw materials such as palm oil,
iron, copper and cotton in return.
e) Colonialism was encouraged as a means of acquiring sources of raw materials for the British
industries. Britain was able to acquire colonies such as India, Egypt, Ghana and Nigeria.
f)The standards of living of many Britons was raised due to income obtained from the industries. The
rise of the standards of living of the middle class in particular resulted to the class struggle between
the rich and the poor in Britain therefore sharpening the social stratification.
g) The industrialisation in Britain led to development of agricultural production in Britain as well as in
USA and other British colonies. The industrial workers in Britain required food. The machines
required lubricating oil which was obtained from the palm oil grown along the West African coast.
Cotton was obtained from America and used in the British textile industries to manufacture cotton
cloth.
h) The industrialisation in Britain encouraged establishment of many kinds of machines. These
industrial machines produced fumes which polluted the environment. There was also excessive noise
which made some people deaf.
i) Poor living conditions of factory workers encouraged emergence of poor housing or slums. In these
slums there was overcrowding of houses which were not properly ventilated. The poor living
conditions were as a result of the low wages of the factory workers.
j)The industrialisation in Britain also encouraged exploitation of labour. Children and women laboured
for long hours in industries before manual labour was replaced by use of machines.
k) Industrialisation in Britain caused unemployment especially after machines were introduced which
could do the work formerly done by labourers. The jobless still remained living in slums but they
turned to new careers which were immoral such as robbery and prostitution as a means of their
survival.
l) The overcrowding of people in towns and poor sanitary facilities resulted to outbreaks of diseases
such as dysentery, cholera and tuberculosis.

Industrialisation in continental Europe

It is necessary to note that industrialisation technology spread to other countries of Europe from Britain
in the second half of the 19th century. Countries such as Germany, France and Belgium which had
abundant deposits of coal, iron and steel as well as the supply of both skilled and unskilled labour
became industrialised next.
To achieve this, industrial research was carried out. The discovery of the method of converting iron
into steel by Henry Bessemer revolutionised the industrial sector. Electricity and petroleum were also
discovered and they became important sources of energy for the industries.

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The rapid industrialisation of continental Europe was characterised by the following:
1) Improved transport and communication to ease transportation of raw materials and marketing of
ready manufactured goods.
2) Increased exploitation of coal and iron ore.
3) Improvements in agriculture in order to produce enough food for urban dwellers and industrial
workers and also to provide some industrial raw materials.
4) Mass production of manufactured goods as well as the coming up of many new inventions as a result
of increased industrial research.

Problems the industrial workers experienced

a) Workers were paid very low wages making them to experience poor living conditions.
b) Workers were exposed to very dangerous machines, noise and chemicals which resulted to injuries,
suffocation, accidents and deaths.
c) Diseases attacked workers because their living conditions were very poor. Such diseases were
typhoid, cholera, dysentery and tuberculosis.
d) Women and children toiled in the factories and they were also subjected to long working hours which
denied them leisure and rest.
e) The environment they worked in was polluted due to improper disposal of industrial waste.
f)Workers lived in overcrowded houses where there was inadequate lighting conditions and poor
ventilation.
g) The poverty as a result of low wages increased crime rate in towns. Workers were therefore
exposed to constant robbery.
h) The factory workers were not insured.

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CHAPTER 4
URBANIZATION
Urbanisation is the process of people’s migration from rural areas to live in towns or cities. It can also
imply the establishment of towns or cities. It can also be defined as the concentration of people in
settlements usually referred to as urban centres. An urban centre according to the United Nations is a
settlement with a population of 20,000 people and above.

Early urbanisation in Africa

Early urbanisation began in Africa before the birth of Christ. Early urban centres which declined such
as Meroe and Aksum are suitable example of such towns.
Several factors led to the establishment of the early urban centres before the establishment of the
colonial rule. These are:

1. Due to development of trade, convergent centres emerged which became the meeting places for
many people from different places. They later development into towns. Examples are Mombasa
and Kilwa.
2. There was development of ports and harbours where ships anchored such as Cape Town and
Malindi.
3. Some areas like Meroe where local industries were established attracted many people who settled
there. These settlements later developed into towns.
4. Areas which had reliable water for irrigation, industrial use and domestic use attracted people who
established settlements which later developed into towns.
5. Some administrative centres and palaces of rulers expanded to become towns after the subjects
came to settle close to rulers for security reasons.
6. Urban centres developed at major cross-roads and where several trade routes met. Examples are
Tuat, Timbuktu and Sijilmasa.
7. Notable religious centres became the meeting places for many people. They attracted people who
settled nearby and thereafter towns developed.
8. Development of early education centres such as Timbuktu, Gao and Cairo contributed to
development of urbanisation in those centres.
9. The development of Agriculture made people to settle permanently together because food was
available.
10. Areas that were secure and were sheltered from possible attacks attracted people who
concentrated there. These settlements later developed into towns.
Cairo
Modern Cairo is situated at the delta of River Nile where some earlier settlements had been established
about 2000 years ago. Egypt was invaded by the Fatimids who established a walled town. By mid 14th

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century Egypt had grown into a big city with many mosques and palaces. It served as an early religious
centre.
The town had narrow streets, bazaars, shops and crowded living quarters. There was a market where
people sold their produce.
The Ottoman Turks took control of Egypt in 1517 and remained under their control until 1798 when
Napoleon Bonaparte of France captured it from the Turks. Three years later in 1801 the French were
driven out of Cairo and it was thereafter made the capital of Egypt by the then ruler, Mohammed Ali.
During the reign of Ismaili, Egypt was first modernised. Later it expanded as more buildings reflecting
the European style were constructed. Today it is the largest town in Egypt. It has a modern international
airport and a railway network which links Cairo with the other towns. Cairo has many entertainment
facilities and museums. It is an important religious centre.

Meroe
Meroe is an ancient city in Africa that emerged in an iron working site North of modern Khartoum.
The inhabitants of Meroe developed the style of building in brick and plaster during the first century
BC. They white-washed the outer walls of palaces and also decorated them with glowing mural-
paintings. The inner walls were also painted and decorated with ornaments.
Meroe started expanding when it was made the capital of Kush instead of the former capital, Napata
because the people of Kush had learnt the knowledge of iron working from the Assyrians and they also
traded with the Greeks by exporting ivory, slaves, animal skins, ostrich feathers, timber and gold which
provided them with income to expand the town.
The city of Meroe declined during the first century AD mainly due to trade rivalry from the growing
kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia. When Meroe began becoming weak, the King of Axum known as Ezana
attacked Meroe, burnt it and took everything of value. Ezana destroyed their stores of corn and cotton
and the statues in their temples. This marked the decline of the great city of Meroe.

Kilwa
The origin of Kilwa is associated with the Persian immigrants who established settlements on the Indian
Ocean coast. At the beginning of the 13th century Kilwa began expanding due to wealth obtained from
the gold trade. From the end of the 13th century, it was the most important trading town on the East
Coast of Africa.
It controlled the coastal settlement in the North as far as Pemba Island. Kilwa was a walled town which
minted its own coins. It controlled the gold trade with Sofala and Zimbabwe. The inhabitants were
mainly Muslims.
The town of Kilwa had beautiful buildings such as the Great Mosque and the large palace known as
Husuni Kubwa. The town began declining first in the second hand of the 14th century. The fine
buildings were ruined. Between 1420 and 1440 the mosque was renovated.

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The town of Kilwa lost its glory and prosperity and declined completely almost at the close of the 15th
century because of the following reasons:

i) There were dynastic quarrels in Kilwa.

ii) The Sofala gold trade was interrupted by wars in the interior.
iii) Mombasa became a strong rival of Kilwa.
iv) The arrival of the Portuguese interfered with the gold trade because the Portuguese soldiers attacked
and conquered all the coastal city states.
v) There were constant rivalries between Kilwa and other coastal city states.

Early urbanisation in Europe

London
London is the capital city of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is in the
continent of Europe. The city is situated in South East England.
The town of London originated before the first century AD. When the Romans occupied Britain in the
1st century AD, London was already a town of considerable importance.
The Romans expanded the town and made it an important religious centre. They also established
Christianity which became the dominant religion in England.

London continued to expand even after it was burnt in the first century AD. When the Romans left
England, London had already been established with a large population.
The withdrawal of the Romans did not affect the growth of London because what they did in Britain
perished after they left.
In the 9th century, King Alfred made London the capital of his kingdom. Later King William I
established himself in England and developed the town of London. He built the Tower of London and
also rebuilt the London bridge. Initially it was built of wood but he rebuilt it using stone.
Throughout the Middle Ages the growth of London was slow as a result of wars, epidemics and
commercial crisis.

When Queen Elizabeth I opened the Royal exchange in 1566 AD, the city of London grew into an
important city of the world. By 1580 AD Queen Elizabeth I issued a proclamation which prohibited
construction of any new buildings within a radius of about 4 kilometres outside the city gates.
In 1665 AD London was affected by plague. The following year a great fire burnt the city.
In 1667 the rebuilding act was enacted. It stipulated that all buildings be of stone and brick. In the 1760s
the walls and gates of old medieval city of London were demolished. During the 19th century, London
was modernised through the construction of many suburbs, rebuilding of bridges and through lighting
of city streets. By the close of the century, London had grown into a beautiful city served by a well
developed networked of transport and communication.

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During the First World War, London became the German target. London was heavily bombed. The
Tower of London and the British Museum were destroyed. Many other buildings were also damaged.
After the war, the British government reconstructed the war damage. Many tall storey buildings were
constructed such as the Museum Radio Tower of the General Post Office building. This was followed
by construction of shops, residential houses, school, hotels and cultural centres.

The city of London got most of its water from river Thames. There were several city markets which
provided people with food, meat, fruits and flowers. Today the city of London is under the control of
the local government headed by mayors.

Several factors contributed to the growth of the city of London. These were:

1. Development of transport and communication. London had a network of roads and railways.
Underground roads and railways were established in underground tunnels to reduce traffic
congestion.

Modern international airports such as Heathrow airport were also established. London was connected
to the rest of the world with telegraphs, telephones and radio transmissions.

2. Trade enabled the town of London to grow into city status. Many people migrated to London to
conduct business as a way of earning a living.
The success of their businesses made them wealthy and they settled permanently. As this process
continued, the town also continued to expand.

3. The establishment of industries attracted the people who came to seek for employment and those
who came to survive on cheap manufactured goods.

4. The development of port facilities in London encouraged many people to go and do the jobs of
loading and unloading cargo. The sailors from England also started their journeys from the seaports
like London. Those who came from abroad on their way to England regarded London as their port
of call. This contributed to the growth of London.

5. London served as a political and an administrative centre for a long time. The Romans constructed
a fort and surrounded it with a wall for security reasons. The colonies Britain acquired were under
the colonial secretary who was based in London.

6. The city of London had several museums and theatres that made it an important cultural centre.
Many people were attracted by the activities in the city making them to settle there in great numbers.

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Functions of London
a) London is the capital of the United Kingdom. It acts as an administrative headquarters.
b) It is an industrial centre that has both heavy and light industries.
c) It is a cultural and recreational centre. London has many theatres and museums.
d) London is a centre of international transport and communication. This is because there are
international airports in London and there is the harbour where ships from all over the world anchor.
e) London is a centre of learning. It has international Universities and colleges.
f)It is also a commercial centre that has many banks and insurance. It has many shopping centres.
g) London is a religious centre. It has many churches and cathedrals.
h) London is also the common wealth headquarter.

The problems London has encountered since it was founded

i) Problem of overcrowding of houses, vehicles and people.
ii) Epidemics such as plague affected London during the Romans era and in 1665 AD.
iii) London was burnt down in 1666 AD.
iv) There was the problem of unemployment.
v) There was the problem of rural - urban migration of the jobless.
vi) There was inadequate housing facilities and poor sanitation.
vii) There was high crime rate.
viii) There was pollution of the environment due to fumes from industries and vehicles.
ix) London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War. This resulted to deaths of
people and destruction of property.
x) There was the demolition of the old city of London in the 1760’s.

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CHAPTER 5
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION
OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Buganda

The Buganda Kingdom was one of the Kingdoms in Uganda. During the 19 th century Buganda
expanded to become the largest and most powerful kingdoms in Uganda. Several factors brought about
the rise of Buganda. These were:

a) The Baganda were agriculturists. They grew bananas which was their staple food. This enabled them
to feed the army. The fertile soils and suitable climate enabled them to grow crops.
b) During the 18th and 19th centuries, Buganda was under very strong and competent rulers entitled
Kabaka. One such ruler was Kabaka Mtesa I.
c) Buganda kingdom was centralised and it had a well-organised political system. The centralisation of
Buganda enhanced effective control of the kingdom, enhanced loyalty to one single ruler, promoted
control and unity of other traditional leaders and also led to emergence of able rulers who
strengthened the Kingdom.
d) Buganda had a strong army, which defended the kingdom, and a navy that conquered people living
in the islands of Lake Victoria such as the people of Sese Island.
e) The decline of Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom enabled Buganda to expand to fill the power vacuum left
by Bunyoro.
f)Participation in the long distance trade by the Baganda people enabled the kingdom to attain wealth
that was used to maintain the kingdom. The rulers also taxed the Arab and Swahili traders who
ventured into the kingdom to trade.
g) The annexation of Buddu iron fields enabled Buganda to manufacture superior iron weapons.
h) When the British occupied Uganda, she handed over the ‘lost counties’ of Bunyoro to Buganda.
These counties included Bungaizi and Buyoga. This action of the British contributed to more
expansion of Buganda.
Buganda at its peak in the 19th Century
Social organisation of Buganda
The social organisation of the Baganda was based on clans made up of members of several related
families.
There were also social classes with members of the loyal family on top followed by local chief and
then below were the commoners followed by slaves.
The Kabaka existed who played social roles such as presiding on various ceremonies and rituals, being
the chief priest and therefore being in charge of all religious activities.

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The Kabaka’s power was symbolised by his loyal regalia that included the royal drums, the stools and
the spears.
The Baganda worshipped a god entitled Katonda. They believed in the spirits of the dead ancestors.
They thought that the death affected the affairs of the living people.
They had a traditional religion they called Lubaale. They consulted the spirits of the dead through
prophets. The mediums who consulted the spirits were usually given gifts. The Baganda had
medicinemen and sorcerers.
They conducted marriage and initiation ceremonies. During the reign of Kabaka Mwanga, same people
of Buganda were converted to Christianity while others were converted to Islam. After the arrival of
many Christian Missionaries, Christianity took the dominance that was followed by rivalry between
various religious groups.
Economic organisation of Buganda
Buganda Kingdom was located on the northern shores of Lake Victoria. The Kingdom’s geographical
location, the nature of its environment and climate influenced the economic activities of the Baganda.
The Baganda were mainly cultivators. They grew bananas, millet and sorghum. Bananas (matoke) were
the staple food of the Baganda. The high rainfall and fertile soils enabled them to cultivate. The
Baganda kept livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. They also conducted raids and
captured slaves and cattle from the neighbouring weaker communities such as Bunyoro and Busoga.
The Baganda benefited by fishing due to their proximity to Lake Victoria that had a lot of fish. This
supplemented their diet. The Baganda like many other Bantu communities in Uganda had acquired the
skills of iron working from the Abachwezi. They conducted raids that exposed them to the iron-bearing
field in the neighbouring lands. The iron obtained was used for making iron hoes, spear heads,
arrowheads and a variety of other tools.
The Baganda also manufactured bark-cloth, weaved and built canoes for use in Lake Victoria for
fishing and for the navy that was used to conquer people living in the islands of Lake Victoria such as
the people of Sese Island.
Some of the Baganda hunted animals such as buffaloes and antelopes for meat. They also gathered
fruits and roots that they used as food. The Baganda conducted local trade which involved exchange of
goods within themselves or with their immediate neighbours. For example trade in salt existed with
people around Lake Victoria.
The Baganda engaged themselves in the long distance trade mainly in the 19th century after the Arab
and Swahili merchants from the coast penetrated into kingdom. This trade expanded rapidly during the
era of Kabaka Mtesa I. Slaves and ivory were the main commodities the Arab and Swahili traders
demanded. They in turn brought ammunitions, cloth, beads and swords that were demanded by the
Baganda.

Political organisation of Buganda

Baganda is believed to have originally been a section of the Chwezi State. It is not known clearly
whether it is Kintu or Kimera who established the early kingdom of Buganda.

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What is clear is that Buganda was a centralised kingdom controlled by a ruler entitled Kabaka whose
authority in those early days was limited by the power of the clan heads each entitled Bataka.
In the later years, the Kabakas assumed a lot of power because they played the following roles:

a) They acted as the chief political and religious leaders and heads of government.
b) They were considered as the supreme judges in the kingdom and also as the final court of appeal.
c) They were regarded as the sole defenders of Buganda and protectors of their subjects.
d) They commanded the army as well as all other juniors for instance, the Katikiros, the Saza chiefs
and the Gombolora chiefs.
e) It was their responsibility to appoint or fire senior officials like the Katikiro and the Chief Justice.
f)They controlled trade to such an extent that they even taxed foreign traders.
The Kabaka was assisted to administer the kingdom by a Prime Minister entitled Katikiro.
In the Kabakas court, their existed the Chief Justice entitled Omulamuzi and the treasurer entitled
Omuwanika, all appointed by the Kabaka. Together with the Katikiro, they formed the Kabakas
advisory body.

There existed a legislature assembly called Lukiko, which acted like the modern day parliament. It
discussed important issues affecting Buganda kingdom such as issues pertaining to external attacks,
relations with foreigners, trade regulations and the ways to deal with the citizens.
The kingdom was split into counties each called Saza. Each county was headed by a Saza chief.

Counties were further split into sub-counties each entitled Gombolola. Each Gombolola was under the
leadership of a Gombolola chief whose duty was to collect the taxes and remit to Kabaka as well to
maintain law and order in his area of Jurisdiction.
Each Gombolola was further split into a small division called Miluka headed by Miluka chief.

Buganda had a strong standing army and navy. The army defended the kingdom while the navy
controlled Buganda’s possessions in Lake Victoria such as Sese Island.
Leadership among the Baganda was hereditary (passed from father to son) at first but later the Kabaka
could appoint a minor chief from the citizens who was royal to him.

The Kabaka strengthened the loyalty bestowed on him by all the people in the kingdom by marrying
from all popular clans and accepting sons of popular people from various families to come and work
in his court.

Shona
The Shona settled in central Africa south of River Zambezi in the present day Zimbabwe. It is believed
that they migrated to the region from the Congo basin and they are related to the Kalanga.

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Social organisation of the Shona
The Shona worshipped a god who was believed to be all-powerful. They called their god Mwari. The
Shona had priest who presided over religious functions for instance during the time of offering
sacrifices to the supreme being.

The priests also conducted rituals to appease their gods. The Rozwi clan provided the shona community
with priests. Worship was conducted in shrines.

The shona believed in the existence of the ancestral spirits they referred to as clan spirit, Mhondoro,
and the family spirits, Vadzimu. The spirits communicated through intermediaries referred to as
Svikiro. The Shona communicated with the spirits through mediums.

They conducted a number of ceremonies and festivals. The shona were socially organised into families,
several of which made a clan. The clan elders were highly respected. Polygamy was a very common
practice among the Shona. It was common to find men with very many wives. This was one way of
ensuring that the community had enough warriors and was provided with sufficient labour force.

The Economic Organisation of the Shona

The Shona grew a variety of subsistence crops such as beans, millets and vegetables. They also kept
livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk and meat.
The Shona made iron tools such as spears, hoes and knives. They also weaved and made back cloth.
The Shona supplied the people of Sofala with gold. In return the Shona obtained cloth, glassware, and
firearms obtained from the Portuguese.

The political Organisation of the Shona

An emperor who was the head of state and government controlled the Shona kingdom. When the
emperor died, his son took over leadership. This implies that leadership among the Shona was hereditary.

The emperor administered the empire with the assistance of his immediate relatives and leading
officials. These were queen’s mother, his principal wives, his sister, the head drummer, the chancellor,
the supreme cook, the chief door keeper and the commander of his army.
The emperor was the overall military leader and for this reason he acted as the commander in chief of
the standing army which not only defended the kingdom but also tried to conquer other neighbouring
communities in order to expand it.

The Shona kingdom was divided into smaller divisions that were under the control of lesser kings who
were answerable to the emperor.
The lesser kings ensured that trade was promoted. The emperor was the sole controller of the entire
trade. The profit from trade maintained the army and also sustained the kingdom. Vassal states were
made to pay tribute to the emperor.
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The Shona priest played political roles in that they acted as the emperor’s spies. The priests also linked
the people with the emperor. In so doing religion was used to create political unity among the Shona.

Asante (Ashanti)
The Asante is one of the Akan or Twi speaking peoples of the present day Ghana. The Asante kingdom
is believed to have been established as a result of a number of states which united together and settled
at a place called Asantemanso.
From Asantemanso they dispersed in clans and family groups to new settlements such as Bekwai, Tafo,
Nsuta, Mampong, Amakom and Kwaman. Later in the 17th century these settlements united under the
leadership of the Oyoko clan.
All the Asante states were established surrounding modern Kumasi in an area referred to as Kwaman
forest. By the middle of the 18th century, the Asante had become a very large empire as a result of the
efforts of Osei Tutu who introduced the golden stool, which became the symbol of Asante union. The
Asante rulers were entitled Asantehene.

Factors that led to the rise and expansion of the Asante kingdom
We have already seen that the Asante kingdom rose from a number of clans and families who migrated
and then settled together at Asantemanso. Those settlements later united into states.

The rise of the kingdom was therefore as a result of the unity of those states. The Asante emerged and
expanded into a mighty kingdom because of the following reasons:
1. The area the Asante people settled had abundant rainfall which enabled them to grow crops and
gather wild fruits to sustain the growing population.
2. Asantehehe Osei Tutu with an Akwamu priest, Okomfo Anokye cemented the Asante union when
they introduced the golden stool as the symbol of Asante union.
3. The Asante obtained income for expanding the empire from the trade they conducted with the
Europeans at the coast.
4. The Odwira Festival was organised which enabled the state rulers to gather together to pay allegiance
to the Asantehehe.
5. The Asante kingdom was controlled by strong and able rulers like Osei Tutu, Opoku Ware and Osei
Bonsu who engaged themselves on expansionist missions aimed at enlarging and strengthening the
kingdom.
6. The fact that Asante kingdom was highly centralised enabled people to join in order to fight against
a common enemy.
7. The neighbouring states such as Denkyira and Fante were weaker that the Asante kingdom. This
gave the Asante the advantage of expanding its empire.
8. The Asante army was very strong and well organised. It was made up of soldiers from all the Asante
states.

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9. The Asante used modern weapons such as guns which they bought from the Europeans along the
west African coast.
10. The Asante rulers obtained revenue from the tribute paid by conquered states. This enabled the
Asantehene to maintain his army and his kingdom.

Social organisation of Asante

In the early beginning the Asante lived in separate clans and family groups. When the family and groups
migrated from Asantemanso, they went to places where they lived in settlements. At first the
settlements were not united but later they joined together into states.
An Akwamu priest named Okomfo Anokye together with Osei Tutu introduced the golden stool as a
symbol of unity, which had religious symbolism. It united all the states not only politically but also
socially.
The Asante introduced the national festival called Odwira that united the whole of Asante by making
state rulers to be royal to the Asantehene. The Asante were polytheistic. They worshipped gods and
goddesses. The Asantehene played both political and religious roles. He acted like a religious leader
and presided over religious ceremonies.

The Asante people worshipped their gods through their ancestors. The ancestors acted as intermediaries
between gods and the people. The Asante people sacrificed to their gods. They believed in life after
death and in punishment of wrong doers and reward for those who did well.
By the first half of the 19th century, the Asante had embraced Islam. The Asante Muslim converts
therefore adopted Islamic culture and law (sharia). This became the beginning of the Islamic
influence in Asante.

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CHAPTER 6
CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTION MAKING
A constitution is a set of fundamental principals and laws established to govern and regulate the
behaviour of citizens of a particular state as they relate to each other in their daily activities as well as
regulating the conduct of the people who are entrusted with the responsibility of managing the affairs
of the state.

A constitution therefore clarifies the duties and rights of the citizens as well as the duties, rights and
responsibilities of the rulers.

The constitution regulates the powers of government by controlling the way it behaves as it manages
the country’s affairs. The constitution also regulates the relationship between the government and the
citizens of the state.

A country’s constitution has the following functions:

1. It clarifies the powers, duties and responsibilities of those in power (rulers) and their subjects.
2. It protects the rights and freedoms of all citizens.
3. It limits the powers of rulers who would attempt to oppress their subjects. It also limits the
possibilities of the subjects to insurbodinate the rulers. This is done by limiting some of their rights
and freedoms.
4. A constitution enables a country to follow a well defined cause by spelling out the powers of the
government. This helps to control national instability.
5. A constitution defines and spells out the formal structure of government and the functions and
powers of each state organ for example the powers of the regional government in relation to the
central government and also the powers and duties of the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.
6. A constitution offers the legal framework from which the country’s laws are made.
7. A constitution also reflects the wishes of the people and their social, cultural, economic and
political aspects.

Characteristics of a good constitution

a) A good constitution must define and spell out clearly the structure of government and the functions
and powers of each level and arm of government.
b) The fundamental rights and duties of all citizens must be clearly spelt out and the way the rights will
be guaranteed specified.
c) Roles and powers of specific rulers such as Presidents and Prime Ministers must be stipulated.
d) The separation of powers of the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive must be very clear to
avoid conflicts of roles.
e) The composition, functions and powers of all laws to be enacted by parliament must be made clear.

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Types of constitution
There are various kinds of constitutions in the world. Some of them are democratic constitutions, others
are undemocratic constitutions. There are also unitary or federal constitutions. We also have two other
types of constitutions. These are written constitutions and unwritten constitutions.

Written constitutions
A written constitution is the one in which the basic principles and laws are written down and are
therefore available in a formal document. Examples of the countries with written constitutions are
Kenya, USA and France.

The following are the characteristics of a written constitution:

1. It is written in an official volume that one can buy in order to study.
2. It is rigid and not easy to alter. Any amendment is made using a procedure that is usually slow and
cumbersome.
3. A written constitution is usually simple, clear and consistent. A special body of experts is therefore
given the responsibility of drafting it using a well formulated procedure.
4. It sets clearly the powers of the judiciary, the executive and the legislature in a particular state.
5. It spells out the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens. To ensure this is accomplished the
draft constitution is taken to the legislature for approval.
6. In some written constitutions, rules are found in traditions. Some of them are based on conventions
and customs of the people.
7. A written constitution is prepared in such a way that one can be able to compare the actions and day
to day activities of the government with what is written and expected to be achieved and maintained.

Advantages of written constitution

The following are the advantages of a written constitution:
a) Once prepared, it is not easy to change or amend it so as to favour particular personalities in power.
b) It becomes easy for the literates to know the expectations of the government because they can buy
the official copies and read themselves. This is because it is readily available for reference and use.
c) No individual can alter or manipulate any part of the written constitution. The legislative body is
the one which has a right of making even a minor amendment or alteration.
d) The legislators and delegates are able to incorporate the traditions, conventions and customs of the
citizens into a written constitution which is people driven and which recognises people’s ethnic
groupings.
e) A well written and acceptable constitution can play the role of uniting all the people in a nation.
f)A written constitution provides a smooth procedure of handing over power after general elections,
death of rulers or resignation. This is because it provides a clear guideline of what should be done if
such a thing happens.
g) A written constitution enables a country to operate in favourable and orderly manner.

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h) A written constitution spells out the fundamental rights of citizens very clearly therefore making
them aware of their rights and also making them have a reference when their rights are infringed.

Disadvantages of written constitution

i) It is too rigid to be easily altered without a lot of consultation.
ii) Amending a written constitution is slow and cumbersome.
iii) The language used to write the constitution volumes is difficult for people who have not learnt
disciplines such as law. Yet it becomes difficult to simplify without altering the meaning and the stress.
iv) If the constitution is not properly formulated, it can make various arms of the government to
conflict.
v) For a good lasting written constitution, very qualified experts are required. These may not be
available in some countries.
vi) The constitution making process is costly and very involving if all the procedures are followed to
the dot.

Unwritten constitution
An unwritten constitution is one which does not exist in a single formal official document. Britain is
an example of a country with unwritten constitution. The sources of the British constitution are the Act
of Parliament, British conventions, the Hansard, Legal publications by reputable authorities, decisions
made by the British law courts from time to time and Royal prerogatives of the King or Queen to
declare war or make treaties of peace.

Advantages of unwritten constitutions

1. It is easy to make amendments in order to cope with the prevailing situations.
2. It is not rigid. Therefore it can be altered without a lot of consultation.
3. This constitution is long lasting because it is native and therefore acceptable by the majority.

Disadvantages of unwritten constitution

a) Fundamental rights of citizens are not clearly spelt out in an unwritten constitution.
b) Unwritten constitution requires very qualified judges and lawyers of the law courts who are able to
cope with the tedious work of referring to many constitutional documents e.g. statutes, historical
documents and customs in order to make any judgement.
c) An unwritten constitution is not clearly expressed as compared to the written constitution.

The independence constitution

The first constitution in Kenya was established during the British colonial rule. This may be referred
to as the colonial constitution. The colonial constitution discriminated against the Africans while it
favoured the whites.

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As the Africans continued to be aware of their rights they appealed to the colonial government to grant
them their rights. Due to political pressure from the Africans, the colonial government unwillingly tried
to change the constitution.
In 1960 and 1962, constitutional conferences were held in London. African representatives attended.
The Lancaster House conference held in London in 1962 concluded the constitution for independent
Kenya. The date for independence was also set. The constitution made is the one we are calling the
independence constitution.
The conference was attended by representatives of the African political parties such as Kenya African
National Union (KANU), Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) and African People’s Party
(APP). KANU and KADU differed in the structure of government they wanted.

KANU preferred a strong unitary constitution while KADU wanted a majimbo or Federal
constitution. KADU was in favour of majimbo constitution because it feared that smaller
communities would be dominated by large ones such as the Luo and the Kikuyu. KANU believed
that a unitary government would protect the interests of the smaller communities.
The outcome of the 1962 conference was a federal form of constitution. This was followed by the
formation of a coalition government between KANU and KADU.

Provisions of the independence constitution

The independence constitution provided a regional (majimbo) government. The country (Kenya) was
therefore split into six regions each with its own regional government and assembly with full legislative
powers.
There was a central government consisting of two chamber national assembly namely the senate and
the House of Representatives. The central government was headed by a Prime Minister from the party
with majority seats. Nairobi was the headquarters of the central government.
The Queen remained as the head of state. She was represented by the Governor General whose duties
were to approve legislation, to ensure there was internal security, to deal with all foreign affairs and to
give assent to bills to become laws.
The independent constitution recommended a multi-party system of government. The party with the
majority was to form the government. It recommended a Bill of Rights whose role was to protect the
fundamental interests of the individuals.
It also recommended formation of a Central Land Board for dealing with all issues concerning land and
an independent public Service Commission for appointing, disciplining and firing civil servants.
The independence constitution recommended the setting up of an independent electoral commission
for setting constitutional boundaries and conducting elections.
An electoral commission was established. It was made up of the speakers of both the House of
Representatives and the Senate, nominated representatives of each region and a nominated
representative of the Prime Minister.

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The independence constitution provided an independent judiciary that showed complete impartiality
when judging cases. No one was allowed to influence the decisions of judges and they enjoyed security
of tenure.
Lastly, the independence constitution organised for the protection of the minority rights. This was
mainly to ensure that the European and Asian minorities were protected and their properties were
safeguarded.

The Kenya Constitution

Kenya is governed by a democratic constitution. A democratic constitution recognises and protects
human rights for instance the right to acquire and own property, right to life and the rights safeguarding
the individual’s freedom of expression, association, conscience, movement and assembly. It also
recognises the freedom of worship, belief and opinion.

The Kenya constitution ensures that people have full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms.
It also ensures that all people are equal before the law. An individual has right to equal protection and
equal benefit of the law. He has the right to a fair trial. According to the Kenya constitution, no person
may be required to perform forced labour or be held in slavery.

Constitutional making process

Constitution making can take place in a number of ways as follows:
a) Having it done by Parliament whereby at least 65% of all parliamentary members must vote for a
change to the Kenya constitution.
b) Using a constitutional review commission. This commission may be set up by the President or by
Parliament.
c) Having a constitutional conference attended by selected people from various interests in society.
They then make a draft constitution that can if necessary pass through a referendum.
d) Having a national convention composed of representatives from all walks of life who identify and
discuss important national issues in order to prepare a constitution.

Constitutions are therefore made through established procedures that are agreed upon by the majority.
In Kenya the constitutional making process is as follows:
1. The general public is provided with civic education to enable them to take part in the constitution
making process. To begin with, they are made to understand what a constitution is and why it is
necessary in any state. They are then enlightened on the shortcomings of the current constitutions
and also its strength.
People are then requested to give their views on various aspects of the constitution. A commission is
set to visit all the constituencies in Kenya to listen and record the views of the public.
All the views obtained from the constituencies of Kenya are compiled together. The wishes of the
majority are isolated and used to prepare a draft constitution which is forwarded for further discussion.

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2. The recommendations are printed, published and circulated to the public. The commission once more
visit the public to give their remarks. All the provinces are covered to ensure that the outcome reflects
the will of the people.
3. A national constitutional conference is organised and attended by delegates from each district in
Kenya. The commission then submits the recommendations which are largely the opinions of the
public for further discussion and careful scrutiny.
Some of the recommendations may be rejected. Other recommendations are accepted while some are
amended. The National Constitution conference members may reject some recommendations and
replace them with their own.
4. Sometimes the National Constitutional Conference members are unable to reach a consensus
concerning certain recommendations. If this happens the recommendations causing disagreement
are referred back to the public to be resolved through a referendum which is organised by the
Constitution of Kenya Review Commission. The referendum is conducted within two months.
5. After this is done the draft constitution is forwarded to the National Assembly by the Attorney
General after receiving it from the Commission. The draft constitution is treated as a bill and then
published for discussion. Once it is recommended by the Members of Parliament after passing
through all the stages a bill undergoes before becoming law, it is finally presented to the President
for assent.
6. Finally, the constitution is published in the Kenya Gazette and after this implementation begins.

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CHAPTER 7
DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Democracy is a Greek term derived from the Greek words demos, which means people and Kratia
signifies power or rule.
The word democracy may mean people’s rule. It may also imply a system of government where the
people of a country take part in decision making through elected representatives. Abraham Lincoln
defined democracy as ‘a government of the people, for the people and by the people.’
His definition is very popular and easy to comprehend. Any country with a true democratic system of
government allows the people to enjoy the rights and freedoms such as rights to life, right to liberty
and freedom of speech, freedom of political opinion and freedom of religion. It handles legal matters
in accordance with the law. All people in the country are regarded as equal before the law irrespective
of their status, race or religion.
In a democratic country, people’s opinions are taken very seriously because the government has to live
to people’s expectations. A country which does not honour the opinions of the people (public opinion)
becomes unpopular and it is disowned by the majority who later vote it out of power.
From the above explanation we may summarise the main features of democracy as below:

a) Democracy gives room for consent to various aspects. This is either done directly or through
people’s representatives.
b) Democracy emphasises on equality of all the people. The government therefore tries to provide all
the people with equal opportunities.
c) Democracy gives people freedom to organise and enjoy their rights.

Types of democracy
The two common types of democracy are:
1. Direct democracy
2. Indirect democracy

Direct democracy
A direct democracy is one which people in a country are allowed to participate directly in all decision
making. It is sometimes called pure democracy. This kind of decision making was very common among
the Bushmen of South Africa and the people of the Greek city states.
Unfortunately direct democracy cannot work in countries with large populations because all the people
cannot be consulted before decisions are made. It therefore succeeds in countries or communities with
very few people where the opinion of every person is considered to be very useful before final decisions
on various issues are made. What is agreed upon by all is accepted by all of them without any question.

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Direct democracy principles have been applied in Kenya in the attempt to allow people to exercise their
democratic rights. Kenyans for example have been consulted to give their opinion concerning the
constitutional review.
Incase some issues are not agreed upon by members of the constitutional conference, a referendum has
to be used so as to act according to the will of the people.

Indirect democracy
This is sometimes referred to as representative democracy.
In this case, people do not participate directly in decision making. They normally use their
representatives. The people by way of voting elect the representatives and they specifically express
people’s feelings on public issues. Indirect democracy is practical in large modern states because there
are huge in size and population.
The disadvantages of this method are that the people who are elected can easily ignore the people who
elected them. They can also fail to consult the electorate in order to be able to air their views in the
parliament.

There are two types of representative democracy. These are:

i) Parliamentary democracy
ii) Presidential democracy

Parliamentary democracy
Here people cast votes to elect their representatives. Those who are elected choose one person to take
leadership as Prime Minister.
The one who is chosen appoints the other ministers from among the members of parliament. Those
appointed forms the cabinet. The Prime Minister can be forced to resign if the other legislators cast a
vote of no confidence on him. If this is done, another Prime Minister is elected to form the government.

Presidential Democracy
Here the President and other members of Parliament are elected directly by the electorate. They then
form a government that lasts for a specified period of time. In the Kenyan case, it is 5 years. Non of the
two arms of the government, executive and legislature has full control over the other in this type of
democracy. They only act as checks and balances therefore ensuring that non of them tries to
overshadow the other.

Principles of democracy
Democratic principles are the moral professional standards that are necessary in a democracy.
They play the role of showing whether a country is democratic or not. The principles of democracy are
found in the Bill of Rights that is the framework for the adoption of social, economic and cultural
policies.

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The principles of democracy are:

1. Rule of law
This implies that there must be equality before the law. All people in a country are subject to the same
law. People must obey the law. Those who violate the established laws are prosecuted and punished if
found guilty. The law should apply to all people equally without any discrimination on the basis of
gender, race, ethnicity, religion, political affiliation, colour, disability, social status and other physical
or social characteristics.

2. People’s participation in governance

In a democratic country, people should participate in the governing of their country. They should be
involved in the decision-making processes.
A person can participate in government by getting involved in voting to elect the most responsible
representative of the people in the country’s parliament. A person can also contest for a parliamentary
or civic post.
One can be a member of a non-governmental organisation or association that is free to hold discussions
on matters affecting the country e.g. Maendeleo ya Wanawake. Such an organisation can help to control
the activities of the government inorder to prevent it from abusing its powers.

3. Economic liberty
Democratic governments allow their citizens to have freedom of action, choice and decision when
dealing with issues pertaining to their economic status. This may be achieved through allowing
privatisation of business partners, and market for selling one’s goods. All this gives individuals lawful
authority to genuinely attain and control their own wealth.

4. Respect for and protection of human rights

Human rights should be respected and protected because they are essential aspects of democracy which
promote the respect for human life and dignity. Human rights are recognised and protected to preserve
the dignity of individuals and communities and to promote social justice and the realisation of the
potential of all human beings.

5. Need to conduct free and fair elections

Elections should be held every time after an agreed period of time. In Kenya elections are held after
every five years. Elections should not involve some unfair practices such as corruption, intimidation
and rigging.

6. Respect of other people’s opinions

In a democratic country, the opinions of political opponents should never be dismissed.

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The opinions of political opponents should help those in control to streamline or even adjust their
actions.

7. Bill or Rights
Every democratic country should have a Bill of Rights, which contain the rights and freedoms of all
the citizens and the limitations of these rights and freedoms.

8. Equal status of all people (citizens)

There should be no discrimination based on colour, race, gender, political position or ethnic group.
All people should be regarded as equal before the law and therefore be provided with equal
opportunities and privileges.

9. Transparency and Accountability

Any country which claims to be democratic must operate in such a way that the citizens are aware of
what the government is doing and what it is intending to do. There should be high degree of openness
on the side of the government. The government should listen to and respect the views of its citizens
and otherwise act accordingly.
Transparency and accountability may be achieved through constant meetings of the authorities with the
people and through advertisements done through the mass media and print media.

10. Application of democratic principles such as liberty and social justice.

11. Separation of functions between the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary.

12. Provision of equal opportunities for all citizens without discrimination.

NB: The process of building a democracy is referred to as democratisation. The agents of

democratisation are interest groups, political parties, civil society, the mass media and state
institutions such as Judiciary, Parliament, the civil service and other state sponsored bodies such as
human rights commission and anti-corruption authorities

Human rights
Human rights can be defined as set of basic rules of justice to which each human being is entitled. They
can also be defined as things that any individual is allowed to do or have by the law. One is legally
allowed to do or have those things irrespective of race, religion, political opinion, creed, sex, language,
place of origin, age, one’s tribe, colour or other local connections.

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In Kenya, every person is guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, association and movement. He or
she is also guaranteed the right to life, right to own property and right to personal liberty. Governments
do not give these rights. They are the rights needed to live a human life.
As one enjoys these fundamental rights, he or she should follow the law. He or she should not interfere
with other people’s rights or with the functioning of the government or the whole society’s enjoyment
of rights. The rights of the individuals are contained in chapter five of the constitution. The functions
of Human Rights are:

1. To safeguard the individual’s security, life and liberty.

2. To safeguard the individual’s freedom of conscience, movement, association and speech, etc.
3. To safeguard the individual’s private property and home.
4. Human rights empower people to air their own views independently without fear. People should
have the freedom of expression.
5. They ensure that the weak and the poor are not oppressed by the rich and powerful.
6. The human rights fulfil the moral and spiritual requirements of individuals.
7. They limit conflicts between people therefore inculcating to people the need for unity.
8. The human rights guide the government on how to deal with its citizens so that the citizens can gain
confidence with the government.

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