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也堕皇2亘噩噩

itio 1门

’
c。 ntents

Prefa.c e xi
A.p plications Index xix

The Whole Numbers 1

1.1 Study Sk让l Tips for Success in Mathematics 2
1.2 Place Value, Na.m es for Numbers, a.n d Reading Ta.b les 8
1.3 Adding Whole Numbers and Perimeter 17
1.4 Subtra.c ting Whole Numbers 28
1.5 Rounding and Estimating 39
1.6 Multiplying Whole Numbers and Area 48
1. 7 Dividing Whole Numbers 61
Integrated Review-Operations on Whole Numbers 75
1.8 An Introduction to Problem Solving 77
1. 9 Exponents, Square Roots, and Order of Operations 87
Group Activity 96
Vocabulary Check 97
Chαpter Highlights 97
Chαpter Review 101
Chαpter Test 108

Integers and Introduction t。 Variables 110

2.1 Introduction to Variables and Algebraic Expressions 111
2.2 Introduction to Integers 118
2.3 Adding Integers 127
2.4 Subtra.c ting Integers 136
Integrated Review-Integers 144
2.5 Multiplying and Dividing Integers 146
2.6 Order of Operations 154
Group Activity 162
Vocα：bulαry Check 163
Chαpter Highlights 163
Chαpter Review 165
Chαpter Test 170
Cumulativ旦 Review 172

Fractions and Mixed Numbers 174

3.1 Introduction to Fractions a.n d Mixed Numbers 175
3.2 Factors and Simplest Form 187
3.3 Multiplying and Dividing Fractions 201
3.4 Adding and Subtracting Like Fractions, Least Common Denominator,
and Equivalent Fractions 212
Integrated Review-Summary on Fractions and Operations on Fractions 226
3.5 Adding and Subtracting Unlike Fractions 228
3.6 Complex Fractions, Order of Operations, and Mixed Numbers 239
3.7 Operations on Mixed Numbers 249
Group Activity 266
Vocαbulary Check 266
Chαpter Highlights 267
Chαpter Review 271
Chαpter Test 277
Cumulαtive Review 279

VII
VIII Contents

Decimals 281
4.1 Introduction to Decimals 282
4.2 Adding and Subtracting Decimals 295
4.3 Multiplying Decimals and Circumference of a Circle 307
4.4 Dividing Decimals 316
Integrated Review-Operations on Decimals 327
4.5 Fractions, Decimals, and Order of Operations 329
4.6 Square Roots and the Pythagorean Theorem 338
Group Activity 346
Vocabulary Check 347
Chapter Highlights 347
Chapter Review 350
Chapter Test 355
Cumulative Review 357

Rati。， Prop。 rtion, and Measurement 360

5.1 Ratios 361
5.2 Proportions 372
5.3 Proportions and Problem Solving 380
Integrated Review-Ratio and Proportion 390
5 .4 Length: U.S. and M巳tric Systems of Measurement 392
5.5 Weight and Mass: U.S. and Metric Systems of M巳asurement 405
5.6 Capacity: U.S. and Metric Systems of Measurem巳nt 415
5.7 Conversions Between the U.S. and Metric Systems 424
GroupActiνity 429
Vocabulary Check 430
Chapter Highlights 430
Chapter Review 434
Chapter Test 439
Cumulative Review 441

Percent 443
6.1 Percents, Decimals, and Fractions 444
6.2 Solving Percent Problems Using Equations 456
6.3 Solving Percent Problems Using Proportions 463
Integrated Review-Percent and Percent Problems 472
6.4 Applications of Percent 474
6.5 Percent and Problem Solving: Sales Tax, Commission, and Discount 485
6.6 Percent and Problem Solving: Inter巳st 492
Group Activity 499
Vocabulary Check 499
Chapter Highlights 500
Chapter Review 503
Chapter Test 507
Cumulative Review 509
 Contents IX

Statistics and Probability 511

7 .1 Reading Pictographs, Bar Graphs, Histograms, and Line Graphs 512
7 .2 Reading Circle Graphs 526
Integrated Review-Reading Graphs 534
7.3 Mean, Media.n, and Mode 536
7.4 Counting a.n d Introduction to Probability 541
Group Activity 548
Voeα：bulary Check 548
Chαpter Highlights 549
Chαpter Review 551
Chαpter Test 556
Cumulαtive Review 560

Introduction to Algebra 562

8.1 Variable Expressions 563
8.2 Solving Equations： τbe Addition Property 574
8.3 Solving Equations: The Multiplication Property 580
Integrated Review-Expressions and Equations 588
8.4 Solving Equations Using Addition and Multiplication Properties 590
8.5 Equations and Problem Solving 599
Group Activity 609
Voeα：bulary Check 610
Chαpter Highlights 610
Chαpter Review 613
Chαpter Test 618
Cumulative Review 620

Geometry 624
9. 1Lines a.n d Angles 625
9.2 Plane Figures a.n d Solids 635
9.3 Perimeter 644
9.4 Area 654
9.5 Volume and Surface Area 664
Integrated Review-Geometry Concepts 673
9.6 Congruent and Similarτriangles 674
Group Activity 683
Vocabulary Check 683
Chαpter Highlights 684
Chαpter Review 687
Chαpter Test 694
Cumulαtive Review 696
x c。ntents

Appendices
Appendix A Tables 698
A.1 Addition Table and One Hundred Addition Facts 698
A.2 Multiplication Table and One Hundred Multiplication Facts 700
A.3 Tables 。f Geometric Figures 702
A.4 Table 。f Percents, Decimals, and Fracti。n Equivalents 704
A.5 Table 。n Finding c。mm。n Percents 。f a Number 705
A.6 丁able 。f Squares and Square R。。ts 706

A.7 c。mp。und Interest Table 707

Appendix B Exp。nents and p。lyn。mials 708
B.1 Adding and Subtracting p。lyn。mials 708
B.2 Multiplication Prope叫ies 。f Exp。nents 716
B.3 Multiplying p。lyn。mials 721
Appendix C Inductive and Deductive Reas。ning 727
Student Res。urces 734
Study Skills Builders 735
Bigger Picture-Study Guide Outline 7 46
Practice Final Exam 7 48

Answers to Selected Exercises Al

Su均 ect Index Il

Photo Credits Pl
Prerace
Basic College Mathematics with Early Integers, Third Edition was written to
provide a solid foundation in the basics of college mathematics, including the top-
ics of whole numbers, integers, fractions, decimals, ratio and proportion, percent,
and measurement as well as introductions to geometry, statistics and probability,
and algebra topics. Integers are introduced in Chapter 2 and integrated through-
out the text. This allows students to gain confidence and mastery by working with
integers throughout the course. Specific care was taken to make sure students have
the most up-to-date relevant text preparation for their next mathematics course or
for nonmathematical courses that requ让e an understanding of basic mathematical
concepts. I have tried to achieve this by writing a user-friendly text that is keyed to
objectives and contains many worked-out examples. As suggested by AMATYC
and the NCTM Standards (plus Addenda), real-life and real-data applications, data
interpretation, conceptual understanding, problem solving, writing, cooperative
learning, appropriate use of technology, number sense, estimation, critical thinking,
and geometric concepts are emphasized and integrated throughout the book.
The many factors that contributed to the success of the previous editions have
been retained. In preparing the Third Edition, I considered comments and sugges-
tions of colleagues, students, and many users of the prior edition throughout the
country.

What’s New in the Third Editi 。n?

• The Martin-Gay Program has been revised and enhanced with a new de-
sign in the text and MyMathLab® to actively encourage students to use the
text, video program, and Video Organizer as an integrated learning system.
• The New Video Organizer is designed to help students take notes and
work practice exercises while watching the Interactive Lecture Series
videos (available in MyMathLab and on DVD). All content in the Video
Organizer is presented in the same order as it is presented in the videos,
making it easy for students to create a course notebook and build good
study habits.
- Covers all of the video examples in order.
- Provides ample space for students to write down key definitions and
properties.
- Includes “ Play” and “ Pause” button icons to prompt students to follow
along with the author for some exercises while they try others on their
own.
η1e Video Organizer is available in a loose-leaf, notebook-ready format. It
is also available for download in MyMathLab.
• Vocabulary, Readiness & Video Check questions have been added prior to
eveηsection exercise set. These exercises quickly check a student ’s under-
standing of new vocabulary words. The readiness exercises center on a stu-
dent’ s understanding of a concept that is necessary in order to continue to
the exercise set. New Video Check questions for the Mar伽－Gay Interactive
Lecture videos are now included in every section for each learning objec-
tive. These exercises are all available for assignment in MyMathLab and
are a great way to assess whether students have viewed and understood the
key concepts presented in the videos.
• New Student Success lips Videos are 3- to 5-minute video segments designed
to be daily reminders to studen也 to continue practicing and maintaining good
organizational and study habits. They are organized in three categories and

XI
XII Preface

are available in My肌1athLab and the Interactive Lecture S巳ries. Th巳 cat巳go-
ri巳s are:

1. Success Tips that apply to any course in college in general, such as Time
Management.
2. Success Tips that apply to any mathematics course. On巳 example is based
on und巳rstanding that mathematics is a course that requires homework
to be completed in a timely fashion.
3. Section- or Content-specific Succ巳ss Tips to help students avoid com-
mon mistakes or to better understand concepts that often prove chal-
lenging. One example of this type of tip is how to apply the order of
operations to simplify an expression.
• Interactive DVD Lecture Series, featuring your t巳xt author (Elayn Martin-
Gay), provid巳s students with active learning at their own pace.η1e videos
o旺er the following resources and more:

A complete lecture for each section of the text highlights key examples
and exercises from the text. “ Pop-ups ” reinforce k巳y terms, definitions,
and concepts.
An interface with menu navigation features allows students to quickly
find and focus on the examples and exercises they need to review.
“
Interac ve Concept Check exercises measure students ’ understanding
of key concepts and common trouble spots.
New Student Success Tips Videos.
• The Interactive DVD Lecture Series also includes the following resources
for test prep:
The Chapter Test Prep Videos help students during their most teachable
moment-when they are preparing for a test. This innovation provides
step-by-step solutions for the exercises found in 巳ach Chapter Test.
For the Third Edition, the chapter t巳st prep videos are also available on
YouTube™. The videos are captioned in English and Spanish.
The Practice Final Exam Videos help students prepar巳 for an end-of-course
final. Students can watch full video solutions to each exercise in the Practice
Final Exam at the end of this text.
• The Martin-Gay MyMathLab cours巳 has be巳n updated and revised to
provide more 巳xercise cov巳rage, including assignable video check ques-
tions and an expanded video program. Tuer巳 ares巳ction lecture videos for
every S巳ction, which stud巳nts can also access at the sp巳ci自c objective lev巳l;
Student Success Tips videos; and an increased numb巳r of watch clips at the
exercise level to help students while doing homework in MathXL. Sug-
gest巳d homework assignments have been premade for assignment at the
instructor ’s discr巳tion.
• New MyMathLab Ready to Go Courses (access code required) provide stu-
dents with all the sam巳 great MyMathLab features that you’re used to, but
make it easier for instructors to get started. Each course includes preas-
signed hom巳work and quizzes to make creating your course even simpler.
Ask your Pearson r巳presentative about the details for this particular course
or to see a copy of this course.
k eVJ PEeAUan3on3 ca eat U ecd
EE & VE

The following key features have been retain巳d and/or updated for the Third Edition
of the text:

Problem-Solving Process This is formally introduced in Chapter 1 with a four-step

process that is integrated throughout the text. The four steps are Understand, Translate,
Solve, and Interpret. The repeated use of these steps in a variety of exampl巳s shows
 Preface XIII

their wide applicability. Reinforcing the steps can increase students' comfort level
and confidence in tackling problems.

Exercise Sets Revised and Updated The exercise sets have been carefully exam-
ined and extensively revised. Special focus was placed on making sure that even- and
odd-numbered exercises are paired and that real-life applications were updated.

Examples Detailed, step-by-step examples were added, deleted, replaced, or up-

dated as needed. Many examples reflect real life. Additional instructional support is
provided in the annotated examples.

Practice Exercises Throughout the text, each worked-out example has a parallel
Practice exercise. These invite students to be actively involved in the learning pro-
cess. Students should tηeach Practice exercise after finishing the corresponding
example. Learning by doing will help students grasp ideas before moving on to other
concepts. Answers to the Practice exercises are provided at the bottom of each page.

Helpful Hints Helpful Hints contain practical advice on applying mathematical

concepts. Strategically placed where students are most likely to need immediate
reinforcement, Helpful Hints help students avoid common trouble areas and mistakes.

Concept Checks This feature allows students to gauge their grasp of an idea as it
is being presented in the text. Concept Checks stress conceptual understanding at
the point-of-use and help suppress misconceived notions before they start. Answers
appear at the bottom of the page. Exercises related to Concept Checks are included
in the exercise sets.

Mixed Practice Exercises In the section exercise sets, these exercises require stu-
dents to determine the problem type and strategy needed to solve it just as they
would need to do on a test.

Integrated Reviews This unique mid-chapter exercise set (and notes where
appropriate) helps students assimilate new skills and concepts that they have
learned separately over several sections. These reviews provide yet another oppor-
tunity for students to work with “ mixed” exercises as they master the topics.

Vocab时aηr Check This feature provides an opportunity for students to become

more familiar with the use of mathematical terms as they strengthen their verbal
skills. These appear at the end of each chapter before the Chapter Highlights.
Vocabulary, Readiness & Video exercises provide practice at the section level.

Chapter Highlights Found at the end of every chapter, these contain key defini-
tions and concepts with examples to help students understand and retain what they
have learned and help them organize their notes and study for tests.

Chapter Review The end of eveηr chapter contains a comprehensive review of top-
ics introduced in the chapter. The Chapter Review offers exercises keyed to every sec-
tion in the chapter, as well as Mixed Review exercises that are not keyed to sections.

Chapter Test and Chapter Test Prep Videos The Chapter Test is structured to
include those exercises that involve common student errors. The Chapter Test Prep
Videos gives students instant access to a step-by-step video solution of each exer-
cise in the Chapter Test.

Cumulative Review This re旧w follows eveηchapter in the text ( except

Chapter 1). Each odd-numbered exercise contained in the Cumulative Review is an
earlier worked example in the text that is referenced in the back of the book along
with the answer.
XIV Preface

Writing Exercises These exercises occur in almost every exercise set and re-
quire students to provide a written response to explain concepts or justify their
thinking.

Applications Real-world and real-data applications have been thoroughly updat-

ed, and many new applications are included. These exercises occur in almost every
exercise set and show the relevance of mathematics and help students gradually and
continuously develop their problem-solving skills.

Review Exercises Tues巳巳xercises occur in each exercise set (except in Chapter 1)

and are keyed to earlier sections. They review concepts learn巳d earlier in th巳 text
that will be needed in then巳xt section or chapter.

Exercise Set Resource Icons Located at the opening of each exercise set, these
icons remind stud巳nts of the resourc巳s available for extra practic巳 and support:

MyMathlab®

See Student Resources descriptions on pag巳 xv for details on th巳 individual resources
available.

Exercise Icons These icons facilitate the assignment of specialized exercises and
let students know what resources can support them.
。 DVD Video icon: exercise worked on the Interactive DVD Lecture Series.
今 Triangle icon: identifies exercises involving geometric conc巳pts.
也 Pencil icon: indicates a written response is needed.

国 Calculator icon: op阳1al exercises intended to be 创刊d using a scientific

or graphing calculator.

Group Activities Found at the end of 巳ach chapter, these activities are for indi-
vidual or group completion, and are usually hands-on or data-based activities that
巳xtend the conc巳pts found in the chapter, allowing students to make decisions and
interpretations and to think and write about alg巳bra.

Optional: Calculator Exploration Boxes and Calculator Exercises The optional

Calculator Explorations provide keystrokes and 巳xercises at appropriate points
to give students an opportunity to becom巳 familiar with these tools. S巳ction exer-
cises that are best comple时 by using a calculator are id巳ntified by 国 for ease of
assignment.
 Preface xv

Student and Instructor Resources

STUDENT RES。 URCES

Video Organizer Interactive DVD Lecture Series Student Solutions Manual

Videos
Designed to help students take notes Provides completely worked-out
and work practice ex巳rcises while Provides students with active learning solutions to the odd-numb巳red
watching the Interactive L巳cture at their pace. section exercises; all exercises in the
Series videos. 币1e Video Organizer: The videos offer: Integrated R巳views, Chapter Reviews,
Chapter Tests, and Cumulative
• Covers all of the video • A complet巳 lecture for each
Reviews
examples in order text section. The interface
• Provides ample space for allows easy navigation to
students to write down k巳y 巳xamples and exercises
definitions and rules stud巳nts need to revi巳w.
• Includes “ Play ” and “ Pause” • Interactive Conc巳pt Check
button icons to prompt stu- exercis巳S
dents to follow along with • Student Success Tips Videos
the author for some 巳xercises • Practice Final Exam
while they try others on their • Chapt巳r Test Prep Videos
own
• Includes Student Success Tips
Outline and Questions
Available in loose-leaf, notebook-
ready format and in MyMathLab.
Answ巳rs to exercises available to
instructors in 岛1yMathLab.

INSTRUCT。R RES。URCES

Annotated Instructor ’s Edition Instructor ’s Resource Manual with Tests and

Mini-Lectures
Contains all the content found in the student edition,
plus the following: • Mini-lectures for each text section
• Additional practice worksheets for 巳ach section
• Answers to exercis巳S on the same text page
• Several forms of test per chapt巳r-fre巳 response
• Teaching Tips throughout the text placed at k巳y
and multiple choice
points
• Answers to all it巳ms
Instructor ’s Solutions Manual
TestGen® (Available for download from the IRC)

Instructor-to-Instructor Videos-available in the Online Resources

Instructor Resources section of the MyMathLab course. MyMathLab® (access code required)

MathXL® ( access code 叫uired)

XVI Preface

AC K n o w e Auqd me n L CJV
-
+

There ar巳 many people who helped me develop this text, and I will attempt to thank
some of them here. Emily Keaton and Cindy Trimble w巳re invaluable for contribut-
ing to th巳 OV巳rall accuracy of the text. Dawn Nuttall was invaluable for her many
suggestions and contributions during the development and writing of this Third
Edition. Allison Campbell and Lauren Mors巳 provided guidanc巳 throughout the
production process.
A very special thank you goes to my editor, Mary Beckwith, for being th巳re
24/7/365, as my students say. And my thanks to the staff at Pearson for all their
support: Heather Scott, Patty B巳rgin, Matt Summers, Michelle Renda, Roxanne
McCarley, Rachel Ross, Michael Hirsch, Chris Hoag, and Paul Corey.
I would like to thank the following reviewers for their input and suggestions:
Anita Aikman, Collin County Community Sonya Johnson, Central Piedmont
College Community College
Sheila Anderson, H ousatonic CommuniηDeborah Jones, High Tech College
College Nancy Lange, Inver Hills Community
Adrianne Arata, College of the Siskiyous College
Cedric Atkins, Mott Communiη College Jean McArthur, Joliet Junior College
Laurel Berry, Bryant & Stratton College Carole Shap巳ro, Oakton Community
Connie Bull巳r, Metropolitan Community College
College Jennifer Strehler, Oakton Community
Lisa Feintech, Cabrillo College College
Chris Ford, Shasta College Tanomo Taguchi, Fullerton College
Cindy Fowler, Central Piedmont Leigh Ann 矶Theeler, Greenνille
Community College Technical Community College
Pam Gerszewski, College of the Albemarle Val巳rie Wright, Central Piedmont
Doug Harley, Del Mar College Community College
I would also like to thank the following dedicated group of instructors who
participated in our focus groups, Martin-Gay Summits, and our design revi巳w for the
series. Their f巳edback and insights have h巳lped to strengthen this edition of the text.
Th巳se instructors include:

Billie Anderson, Tyler Junior College Dena Frickey, Delgado Community

Cedric Atkins, Mott Communiη College College
Lois Beardon, Schoolcra卢 College Cindy Gaddis, Tyler Junior College
Laurel Berry, Bryant & Stratton College Gary Garland, Tarrant County
John Beyers, Universi砂 of Maryland Community College
Bob Brown, Community College of Kim Ghiselin, State College of Florida
Baltimore County-Essex Nita Graham, St. Louis Community
Lisa Brown, Community College of College
Baltimore County-Essex Kim Granger, St. Louis Community
N eKeith Brown, Richland College College
Gail Burkett, Palm Beach State College Pauline Hall, Iowa State University
Cheryl Cantw巳11, Seminole State Pat Hussey, Triton College
College Dorothy Johnson, Lorain County
Ivette Chuca, El Paso Community Community College
College Sonya Johnson, Central Piedmont
Jackie Cohen, Augusta State College Community College
Julie Dewan, Mohawk Valley Ann Jones, Spartanburg Community
Community College College
岛1onette Elizalde, Palo Alto College Irene Jones, Fullerton College
Kiel Ellis, Delgado Community Paul Jones, University of Cincinnati
College Mike Kirby, Tidewater Community
Janice Ervin, Central Piedmont College
Community College Kathy Kopelousous, Lewis and Clark
Richard Fielding, Southwestern College Community College
 Preface XVII

Tara LaFrance, Delgado Community Linda Padilla, Joliet Junior College

College Armando Perez, Laredo Community
John LaMaster, Indiana Purdue College
Uniνersity Fort Wayne Davidson Pierre, State College of Florida
Nancy Lange, Inver Hills Community Marilyn Platt, Gaston College
College Chris Riola, Moraine Valley Community
Judy Langer, Westchester Community College
College Carole Shap巳ro, Oakton Community
Lisa Lindloff, McLennan Community College
College Janet Sibol, Hillsborough Communiη
Sandy Lofstock, St. Petersburg College College
Kathy Lavelle, Westchester Community Anne Smallen, Mohawk Valley
College Community College
Nicol巳 Mabine, North Lake College Barbara Stoner, Reading Area
Jean McArthur, Joliet Junior College Community College
K巳vin McCandless, Evergreen Valley Jennifer Strehler, Oakton Community
College College
Ena Michael, State College of Florida Ellen Stutes, Louisiana State Uniνersity
Daniel Mill巳r, Niagara County Eunice
Community College Tanomo Taguchi, Fullerton College
Marcia Molle, Metropolitan Community Robyn Toman, Anne Arundel
College Community College
Carol Murphy, San Diego MaryAnn Tuerk, Elgin Communi砂
Miramar College College
Charlotte Newsom, Tidewater Walter Wang, Baruch College
Community College Leigh Ann 轨电巳eler, Greenville
Cao Nguyen, Central Piedmont Technical Community College
Community College Darlen巳 Williams, Delgado Communiη
Greg Nguyen, Fullerton College College
Eric Oilila, Jackson Community Valerie Wright, Central Piedmont
College Community College

A special thank you to those stud巳nts who participated in our design r巳view:
Katherine Browne, Mike Bulfin, Nancy Canipe, Ashley Carpenter, Jeff Chojnachi,
Roxanne Davis, Mike Dieter, Amy Dombrowski, Kay Herring, Todd Jaycox,
Kale巳na Levan, Matt Montgomery, Tony Plese, Abigail Polkinghorn, Harley Price,
Eli Robinson, Avery Rosen, Robyn Schott, Cynthia Thomas, and Sherry 矶Tard.

比队U协ν(Jay
XVIII Preface

About the Author

Elayn Martin-Gay has taught mathematics at the University of New Orleans for more
than 25 years. Her numerous teaching awards include the local University Alumni
Association’s Award for Excellence in Teaching, and Outstanding Developmental
Educator at University of New Orleans, presented by the Iρuisiana Association of
Developmental Educators.
Prior to writing textbooks, Elayn Martin-Gay developed an acclaimed series
of lecture videos to support developmental mathematics students in their quest for
success. These highly successful videos originally served as the foundation material
for her texts. Today, the videos are specific to each book in the Martin-Gay series.
The author has also created Chapter Test Prep Videos to help students during their
most “ teachable moment ” - as they prepare for a test - along with Instructor-to-
Instructor videos that provide teaching tips, hints, and suggestions for each devel-
opmental mathematics course, including basic mathematics, prealgebra, beginning
algebra, and intermediate algebra.
Elayn is the author of 12 published textbooks as well as multimedia, interac-
tive mathematics, all specializing in developmental mathematics courses. She has
also published series in Algebra 1, Algebra 2, and Geometry. She has participated
as an author across the broadest range of educational materials: textbooks, videos,
tutorial software, and courseware. This provides an opportunity of various combina-
tions for an integrated teaching and learning package offering great consistency for
the student.
Applicati 。 ns lnaex
Advertising/marketing length of planet days, 183, 293 base increase in part喃time
advertising expenditures, 47 孔1ir Space Station orbit workers, 476-477
money earned on top movies, 294 altitude, 14 before-tax pay, 314
revenue from downloaded ozone hole shrinkage, 35 brand values, 44
singles, 294 planet distance from Sun, 177, Burger King restaurants
sales promotions, 173 356 worldwide, 44
television advertising planet orbits, 44 change from book purchases, 303
expenditures, 105 planet radius/diameter change from car part
calculations, 32 purchases, 303
Agriculture
radius of planets, 172 checking account transactions,
average size of privately owned
solar system exploration 85, 167,171, 172,346
farms, 484
missions, 513 commission calculations,
bamboo growth height, 35
U.S. astronauts, 198 487-488, 490,491
circumferenee of largest barn in
Venus ’ orbit around the cost of eyeglasses, 303
world, 651
Sun, 293 cost of soybeans per
focus on sustainable, 186
weight of person on Earth, 72 bushel, 315
kelp growth height, 35
cost of wheat per bushel, 315
peach production, 21 Automobiles/motor vehicles discount and sale price
soybean production, 45 cell phone use while driving, 371 calculation, 488-489, 491
Animals gas mileage calculations, 32, 325, estimated total costs, 46
amount spent on pet food, 387 370,371 fastest-growing occupations, 455
average weight, 367 Japanese exports to Europe, 453 Gap Corporation stores
bees chasing individuals, 236 loss in Jeep shipments, 153 worldwide, 27
budget for zoo, 369 miles per gallon, 275 gender of employees in biomed-
condor extinction, 153 most popular car color, 444 ical engineering firm, 183
condor population increase, 37 motorcycle sales, 26 grocery item unit prices, 370
cows ’ grain consumption, 59 percentage of theft, 449 grocery scanner speed, 370
diving speed of falcons and price per liter of gasoline, 423 hamburger sales, 262
pheasants, 606 trade-in value, 198 hotels in U.S., 198
endangered species, 514, 620, traffic causing speed slowdown, hourly pay, 84
623 681 hours worked per week, 552
ground speed of sloth, 236 truck hauling rates, 72 IKEA employees by region, 186
legal lobster size, 254 vehicles produced in North Japanese motor vehicle exports
length of pelican’s bill, 393 America, 26 to Europe, 453
mosquito control, 387 jobs with highest number of
Aviation
sheep population, 26 increase, 534
airport arrivals/departures, 38
speed of insects, 292 loss in Jeep shipments, 153
cost to passengers to travel
threatened species estimation, Macy ’s department stores
5,000 miles, 369
21-22,43 sales, 84
flight time calculations, 233
Astronomy/space helium content of Goodyear motion picture industry, 480
average surface temperature, 122 blimps, 14, 83 music industry revenue, 484
cubic meters of space shuttle net income, 134
cargo compartment, 572 Business number of books in shipping
distance between Earth and amount printer paper needed, box, 324
Moon, 14 386 number of books sold in
eclipses of Sun, 264 art inventories, 184 first 24 hours after release,
height of gantry used for Apollo automobile trade-in value, 198 325
launch, 681 average consumer spending, 278 number of CDs shipped, 124
Hubble Space Telescope average size of privately owned office desk costs, 293
mirrors, 336 farms, 484 online retailing, 224
XIX
xx Applications Index

Business (continued) amount of netting to go around Demographics/statistics

paychecks received in one trampoline, 650 average teenagers drive in
year, 85 amount of new homes miles, 325
percentage discount on built, 551 dog ownership in U.S., 313
stereos, 449 amount of paint for room, 324 foreign languages spoken, 512
percentage of nursing job amount of shingles for gender of veterinarians, 453, 480
openings due to retirement, roof, 661 Iceland ’s population, 13
475 angle between walls in Vietnam in largest cities, 521
percent of decrease in Veterans Memorial, 634 Native Americans in
employees, 479 angle incline in Khaf陀、 California, 607
PetSmart employee numbers, 84 Pyramid, 634 in New Zealand of Maori
price after discount, 102 antenna height, 344 descent, 211
price calculations for electronics building height, 353, 540, 712 number of veterinarians, 480
purchases, 603 circumference of spa, 648 percentage of armed forces
price calculations for pizza, 662 circumference of suspension personnel in branches of
price difference between bridge, 314 service, 528-529
items, 46 cost of wallpaper border, 647 percentage of visitors to U.S. by
Procter & Gamble sales, 45 decrease in chair manufactur- region, 526, 527, 558
projected loss in membership ing, 480 population increases/decreases/
and income, 153 dimensions of triangular densities, 44, 102, 293
projected restaurant sales, 313 park, 681 population of Japan, 484
public television licensees, 186 elevator shaft height and depth, population of sheep vs. people
sale price, 36 169 in New Zealand, 26
sales promotions, 173 height of doorway, 315 population of states, 210, 481
sales tax rate, 486, 487, 490 height of tower, 695 population over age 65, 60
shared earnings, 68 lawn dimensions, 354 population projections/
shipment refusal due to length of boards needed by estimates, 25, 36, 102
damages, 371 carpenter, 404 projected population of U.S., 310
stock market loss, 152 length of corral, 326 top chocolate-consuming
Target store locations, 27, 84 length of diagonal of city countries, 305
total amount of investment, 494 block, 344 visitors to carnivals, fairs,
total cost before taxes, 107 length of rope, 395- 396 festivals, 14
total cost of several items, 85, length of wall in blueprint, 385
86,105,109 machinery producing damaged Education/schools/students
total earnings, 102 items, 371 applications for mathematics
total revenues, 580 manufacturing materials scholarships, 478
trade balance, 142 calculations, 255 associate degrees awarded, 483
T-shirt costs by size, 59 number of bricks for side of bachelor degrees awarded, 483
unit price in dollars, 365 building, 661 base number of absences,
value of common U.S. coins, 306 park dimensions, 341 475-476
weight of cartons, 414 perimeter of room, 646- 647 class enrollment, 72
work shifts, 198 railing purchases for deck, 304 class trip costs, 173
size of soundproof walls, 441 college enrollment, 44, 46
Chemistry/physics
smelter production of alumi- college library reading
boiling temperature of ele-
num in China, 453 promotion, 39
ments, 126 ua
.
sound barriers along college professor salaries, 390
decibel levels of common
A
ECZ帽UD

highway, 403 college textbook costs, 293

sounds, 37
tiles needed for floor construc- cost of books, 480
它M

melting point of elements, 153

H口。的问晤。比由

tion, 404 favorite school subject, 236

oxygen supplied by lawn, 387
volume enclosed by dome at four or more years of college by
Cons位uction/manufacturing person 25 years or older, 551
HCN

Hayden Planetarium, 672

F
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amount of baseboard around volume of pyramid, 691 gender at school board

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room, 695 wall, 198 meeting, 367

且只
 Applications Index XXI

grade point average calculation, stock market loss, 152 Geography/geology

537, 559 tax revenue from travel acres burned from wildfires, 586
Head Start enrollment industry, 45 Andrea Doria wreckage
increase, 46 U.S. Mint operations, 186 exploration, 124
height of students in class, 558 Appalachian Trail mileage by
Food/nutrition
homework in evening, 273 state, 474
caffeine content in selected
increase in number of high area of Yellowstone National
foods, 515
school teachers, 484 Park, 83
calories in food items, 84
mean time in class Colorado area calculations, 54
calories in Starbucks tea, 386
experiment, 536 common city names in U.S., 83
canned foods packing
number of DVD players dam heights, 36
calculations, 105
needed, 441 depth of cave, 119
cheesecake calories, 84
number of freshman, 183 depth of oceans, 123, 135, 142
cheese pallet packing
number of freshmen in high distance around 如1eteor Crater,
calculations, 58
school, 697 652
cholesterol in lobster, 388
number of sophomores, 184 distance between cities, 25, 36,
fat content, 58, 59, 104
percentage of A in class, 198 46, 102,385, 436
fiber content of foods, 522
percentage of students living at distribution of dams by
food order cost comparisons, 85
home, 445 continent, 532
grams of fat in hamburgers,
public schools in U.S., 103 ele飞ration of selected lakes, 125,
275
residence of college students, 530 142,167, 171
hot dogs consumed in U.S., 84
selection of m勾 or, 200, 209 fraction of water in oceans, 237
olive oil calories, 58
student government highest and lowest point in U.S.,
sodium recommendation per
fundraiser, 38 123,138-139
week, 86
student government presiden- highest point in selected
soft drink consumption by
tial elections, 38 states, 14
teenage males, 76
teacher salaries, 79-80 highest U.S. dams, 534
sugar calories, 109
test scores, 46, 535, 558-559 inches corresponding to miles
total calories from fat,
textbook costs, 58 on map, 380-381
481-482
total semester bill, 86 孔1ississippi River Basin
tuna (canned) calories, 84
tuition costs, 104, 483 drainage, 35
university enrollment, 606 Gardening/landscaping mountain heights, 15, 25, 36, 46,
amount of border material 73, 169, 171
Finance needed,304 national parks in U.S., 194,
average credit card late fee, 304 amount of fertilizer needed, 200,238
bank costs, 105 382-383, 385 percentage of land area of
checking account transactions, amount of insecticide needed, continents, 530
85,167, 171,172, 346 356,695 ratio of number of mountains
credit card balance transfers, appraising value of tree, 573 over 14,000 feet, 368
326 bamboo and Pacific Kelp river lengths, 77-78, 356
family monthly budgets, 553 growth, 616 size of oceans, 532
federal tax returns filed dimensions of triangular surface land area by continent,
electronically, 597 park, 681 223
foreign exchange rates in fencing needs to enclose U.S. boundary calculations, 84
dollars, 315 field, 645 volume of Mt. Fuji, 671
interest earned on savings garden length, 80-81 Wyoming area calculations, 54
account, 572 growth of bamboo, 403
loan payments, 85 largest zucchini grown, 414 Geometry
national debt of France, 16 lawn dimensions, 354 area of rectangle, 54, 57-59, 86,
percentage of adults in favor oxygen supplied by lawn, 387 104,105, 109, 264, 276
of keeping penny in circula- park dimensions, 341 area of square, 86, 91, 94, 106,
tion, 453 railing purchases for deck, 304 107
savings account balances, 36, 103 tree height, 344, 440, 677, 681 area of triangle, 334
XX.II Applications Index

Geometry (continued) cost of flooring tiles, 697 postal revenue from each
circumference of circle, 356 cost of wallpaper border, 647 item, 86
diameter of circle, 210 estimating height of building to price comparisons, 109
perimeter of geometric figures, paint, 691 proofreading pages, 102
20, 24, 95,102 fencing requirements, 25 ratio of amount of ice cream by
perimeter of rectangle, 25, 27, garden length, 80-81 average citizen, 368
47, 57, 82,109, 273,278 gutter measurements and rope length measurements, 72
perimeter of square, 27 ， 饵， costs, 25 seats in lecture hall, 58
109,264 invisible fence wire needed, 25 shipping orders, 78-79
perimeter of triangle, 20, 47 length of boards needed by song downloads for each
radius of circle, 210 carpenter, 404 person, 69
number of bricks for side of tallest and shortest man in
Health/medicine/human body building, 661 world, 403
allergy shot reaction times, 69 paint costs, 109 tea bags produced in one day, 60
aspirin use, 222, 453 railing purchases for deck, 304 total cost of an order for
blood cholesterol levels, 36 tiles needed for floor construc由 DVDs,55
blood pressure medication tion, 404 total land area, 105
results, 547 travel projections for China, 607
blood types among donors, 274 如'liscellaneous
types of books available in
blood types among U.S. allowable weight in elevator, 411
library, 531
population, 454 amount of rock salt in ice
types of milk beverage
caffeine content in selected cream, 388
consumed, 535
foods, 515 amount of water in aquarium, 417
UPS delivery fleet, 15
calories in Starbucks tea, 386 apartments in building
UPS tracking requests per
cholesterol in lobster, 388 calculations, 58
day, 14
components of bones, 454 area covered by house on lot, 80
volume of packing boxes, 693
distribution of blood types, 199 average adult height, 299- 300
waste of grain products in
emergency room visits resulting crayon use by children, 324
home, 453
in prescriptions, 388 dimensions of aquarium, 672
window washing calculations, 61
fiber content of foods, 522 drinking glass packing
words per book estimates, 55
fluid intake measurements, 26 calculations, 107
home health aide earnings, 83 height of burning building, 681 Politics
medicine dose calculations, human chain length, 47 Congressmen who were Boy
324,381- 382,388, 414, 420, Indian reservations in U.S., 184 Scouts, 37
423,622 legal lobster size, 254 electoral votes in various states,
muscles used to smile and length of toy sailboat, 691 605
frown, 84 magic squares, 162 presidents born in Ohio, 183
nurse shortages, 607 mail volume, 46 votes for incumbents vs.
organ transplant patients in measurements of Statue of challengers, 616
U.S., 13 Liberty, 387, 403 votes in presidential election, 103
percentage of physician money collected for fundraiser,
Real estate
assistants, 480 556
amount of new homes built, 551
rehabilitation of heart attack national parks in U.S., 194, 200,
commission rate on home, 492
patients, 262 238
house sale profits, 82
sodium recommendation per Nobel Prize winners per
interest rate on mortgage, 497
week, 86 country, 74
percentage of sale going to real
u
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间

total calories from fat, 481-482 number of fish in tank, 681

estate companies, 210
weight of liver, 425 number of Kohl ’ s stores in
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price of home, 482

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California and Texas, 607

Home improvement number of libraries, 210 Recreation/entertainment
U《
HUHO“N

amount of baseboard around pages remaining to read in automobile races, 237

room, 695 book, 35 circumference of spa, 648
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amount of paint for room, 324 paychecks received in one dimension of CDs, 424- 425, 438
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amount of shingles for roof, 661 year,85 favorite music types, 557
 Applications Index XX.Ill

fireworks legality, 184 diameter of beach ball, 671 Temperature/weather

gross ticket sales, 304 football field diagonal average, 73, 122, 141, 158,
Lego bricks sales, 83 length, 344 518-519
length of largest yacht, 439 football points scored, 15, 84 average rainfall, 304
loss in U.S. movie screens, 153 football stadium capacit弘 620 average windspeed, 304
lottery winnings, 72, 78, 82 football total loss, 152 calculation of, 168, 169
money earned on top football touchdowns made, 73 in Celsius, 134
movies, 294 football yardage gains, 580 frequency distributions, 517
Monopoly money football yard loss, 168 highs and lows, 36, 85, 124, 131,
requirements, 83 gender on teams, 184 165-167, 535,598
moviegoers viewing 子D golf course distance between inches of rain, 276
movies, 209 holes, 72 number of hurricanes making
movie ratings, 390 golf scores, 149, 161, 167, 524 landfall, 521
movie ticket costs, 105 golf shirt costs, 105 prediction of decrease, 152
movie ticket sales per length of polo field, 681 record high, 123, 552
moviegoer, 369 marking foul lines on baseball record low, 135
museum attendance, 16, 84 field, 650 snowiest city, 304
number of frequent moviegoers, number of baskets in attempts tornado occurrences, 37
209 in basketball, 384 tropical storms turning in to
number of roller coasters in Olympic medals awarded, 552 hurricanes, 183
amusement parks, 205-206 Olympic swimming speeds, 293
opening day film income, 15 professional golfer earnings, Time/distance
percentage of frequent 325 conversions of time, 82
moviegoing, 480 snowboarding trails, 481 distance between cities, 25, 36,
radio station formats, 337 soccer field dimensions, 344, 46, 102,385, 436, 587,
ratio of digital films to total 653,663 602-603, 606
films released, 367 Super Bowl scores, 524-525 distance between Earth and
孔1oon , 14
Razor scooters, 83
Technology distance estimation on maps
release of 子D movies, 360
cell phone use, 453 and blueprints, 42, 46
revenue from downloaded
characters per line of print on distance from home to gym, 215
singles, 294
computer, 59 distance traveled on trip, 46,
ticket prices and sales, 55, 59
cost of blank CDs, 79 103,587
Total Gym weight resistance, 480
cost of DVD players, 79 flight time calculations, 233
travel distance on Ferris
Facebook usage, 101 golf course distance between
wheel, 314
federal tax returns filed holes, 72
Sports electronically, 597 odometer readings, 35
artificial wall climbing, 482 Great Internet Mersenne Prime planet distance 仕om Sun, 177, 356
baseball field dimensions, 353 Number Search, 14 travel distance on Ferris
baseball player’s salary, 45, 107 Internet usage, 85-86, 98, 101 wheel, 314
baseball ’s Hank Aaron career megabytes of information held
RBis, 26 by CDs and DVDs, 54, 59 Transportation
basketball court area, 568, 572 online retailing, 224, 533 bridge lengths, 76, 83
basketball free throws, 271 perimeter of smartphones, 303 bridges per highway miles, 72
basketball points scored, 44, 61 pixel calculations, 59 distance from home to gym, 215
birth dates of track stars, 27 printer pages per minute, 54 flight time calculations, 233
Boston Marathon participa- printer shipments, 69 highway mileage in selected
tion, 36 smartphone ownership in states, 28
capacity of NCAA U.S., 210 interstate highway speeds, 222
stadiums, 607 smartphone sales, 388 lane divider placement, 72
Daytona 500 winner state government services light pole placement, 72
speeds, 305 online, 198 miles driven by categories,
deep-sea diver bends, 152 thickness of MacBook 210,362
deep-sea diver depth, 167, 171 Air, 292 miles driven on trip, 35, 46
XXIV Applicati。ns Index

Transportation (continued) fastest computer, 16 largest inflatable beach ball, 671

parking lot dimensions, 82 highest freestanding tower, 14 largest Monopoly board, 27
railroad track inspection, 222 highest town, 14 largest permanent maze, 37
weight of freight truck, 232 largest bridge in New York, 83 largest U.S. flag, 660
largest commercial building, 59 smallest jigsaw puzzle, 27
World records largest commercially available tallest and shortest man in
calculations for largest cereal pizza, 660 world, 403
bowl, 663, 671 largest free-floating soap tallest buildings, 13, 20, 77,
calculations for largest pumpkin bubble, 671 540,553
pie, 663 largest hotel lobby, 59 tallest waterfall, 26

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
colours are charmingly blended. We may assume as certain that Deioces
possessed a principality, the central point of which was Ecbatana (or
Agbatana; old Persian Hagmatana, now Hamadan), a place which for
thousands of years has held the rank of a capital. This principality probably
never embraced the whole of Media (i.e., nearly the present provinces of Irak
Adjemi and Azerbijan with a portion of Turkish Kurdistan), but by his
successors it was enlarged into the great Median empire. Of course there was
no smooth and formal constitution, no fixed frontier, no exact determination
of the prerogatives of different chiefs in the particular districts. From of old
the Assyrians had made frequent attempts to subjugate the country of the
Medes, but perhaps never quite possessed the whole land with its numerous
inaccessible mountains and warlike robber tribes. Nevertheless they made
successful expeditions into the interior of Media even down to the time at
which Herodotus regards Media as independent. Neither the liberation of
Media nor the foundation of the monarchy is an event which can be limited to
a particular year, the thing took place gradually. In the period not long before
Deioces, according to Herodotus’ reckoning, very many tributary Median
chieftains are mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions; this confirms, in some
measure at least, the statement that “anarchy” then prevailed. In 715 b.c.
there was carried off as prisoner one Daiaukku; this is certainly the same
name, perhaps the same person (for his captivity may have been brief), as
Daiokes, which appears in Herodotus in the Ionic form Deiokes. We can
certainly identify Herodotus’ first king with the prince whose land, called Bit
Daiaukku (i.e., land of Daiaukku), King Sargon of Assyria conquered in 713
b.c. The man who thus gave his name to the land must have occupied a high
station. The date is not very remote from that assigned by Herodotus to
Deioces; for we get from Herodotus as the date of Deioces 709-656, or, if we
correct his error in dating the end of the empire, 700-647. Deioces was not a
king of kings; he was forced to bow to the Assyrians repeatedly, but he was
the founder of the empire. Three kings followed him. It is possible that there
were really more, and that in the summary list the shorter reigns are passed
over. Nor can we place much reliance on Herodotus’ assertion that each
successive ruler was the son of his predecessor.
In perfect harmony with the conditions of development
[ca. 700-625 b.c.] of a small state into a great power is the statement of
Herodotus that the second king of the Medes, Phraortes
(Frawarti; according to Herodotus’ reckoning 656-634 [647-625]), extended
his sway beyond the limits of Media, and first of all subjugated Persis, or
Persia proper, the secluded mountain-land southeast of Media. During all this
time indeed, as we learn from Darius’ great inscription, Persis had kings of its
own; but these were simply vassals of the sultan who had his seat in
Ecbatana. After conquering the Persians, Phraortes, says Herodotus,
subjugated piece after piece of Asia, until he was discomfited and slain in the
attempt to conquer the Assyrians in Nineveh, whose empire was by that time
completely lost. Allowing for some exaggerations with respect to the extent of
the empire, there is nothing in these statements that need excite suspicion.
Independent evidence seems to show that towards the middle of the seventh
century the Assyrian empire had fallen very low; and that the inhabitants of
the cluster of vast cities to which Nineveh belonged were able to repel the
first attack of an enemy who could hardly have been their match in the art of
siege-warfare is perfectly natural. Besides, the stability of the Median military,
political, and court institutions, which were afterwards taken over unaltered
by the Persians, must surely have required for its development a longer time
than some modern inquirers, following exclusively the cuneiform inscriptions,
have assumed for the actual duration of the Median empire.
Phraortes’ successor, Cyaxares (Huwakhshatara; according to Herodotus’
reckoning 634-594 [625-585]), brought the empire to the highest pitch of
power. He is said to have introduced fixed tactical arrangements into the
army. It was to him that the pretenders whom Darius had to overcome traced
their descent, as he tells us himself. Cyaxares, according to Herodotus, took
the field successfully against Nineveh, but as he was besieging the city the
inroad of the “Scythians” compelled him to forego for a time all the fruits of
victory. Who these Scythians were is unknown. Herodotus took them for the
people tolerably familiar to the Greeks, whose true name was Scolotæ; but his
evidence does not go for much, since he often falls into the popular misuse of
the term “Scythian” as a name for all the peoples of the steppes, and brings
the inroads of these Scythians into a most unlikely connection with the
desolating raids of Thracian tribes (the Trares or Treres, commonly called
Cimmerians) in Asia Minor. We must content ourselves with assuming that we
have here one of those irruptions of northern barbarians into Iran of which we
hear so often in later times. Probably these nomads came, as Herodotus
indicates, through the natural gate between the Caucasus and the Caspian
Sea, the pass of Derbend, though it is quite possible that they came from the
east of the Caspian, from the steppes of Turkestan. Whether these Scythians
are really the same people who made their way as far as Palestine and Egypt
is, indeed, far from being as certain as is commonly supposed, nor can the
date of the irruption into these countries be determined. At any rate, the
barbarians overthrew the Medes and flooded the whole empire. From what we
know of the doings of Huns, Khazars, Turks, and Mongols in later times we
can infer how these Scythians behaved in Iran. Cyaxares must have come to
some sort of terms with them: and at last he rid himself of them in a truly
Eastern fashion, by inviting most of them (i.e., of their chiefs) to a feast,
where he made them drunk and slew them at their wine. It is not in the least
surprising that Cyaxares afterwards had Scythians in his service; savages like
these have no steady national feeling, and serve any potentate for pay.
With the Scythian disorders we might combine the
[ca. 625-600 b.c.] contests which, according to Ctesias, the Parthians and
Sacæ (i.e., the inhabitants of the Turkoman desert, who
are also called “Scythians” by the Greeks) waged with Cyaxares, or Astibaras,
as Ctesias calls him. But it is not safe to do so, as the whole narrative is only
the framework for a pretty romance.
Cyaxares marched a second time against Nineveh and destroyed it about
607. Not only Ctesias but also Berosus asserts that the king of the Medes
achieved this great success in league with the king of Babylon. In order to
protect himself against his ally, who by the fall of the Assyrian empire had
grown too powerful, the Chaldean had recourse to a double precaution: he
married his son, afterwards the potent Nebuchadrezzar, to Amyite or Amyitis,
daughter of the Median king; but he also erected extensive fortifications. After
the fall of Nineveh, Nebuchadrezzar made himself master of Syria and
Palestine, and Cyaxares acquired most of the rest of the Assyrian territory.
Probably Assyria proper belonged to him also, and we can thus explain
Xenophon’s error that the Assyrian cities before their destruction belonged to
the Medes (Anab., III, 4, 7-10). When Cyaxares afterwards began the war
with the Lydians he was already master of Armenia and Cappadocia, though
he probably did not acquire them until after he had got rid of the Scythians
and destroyed Nineveh.
The pretext for the war was afforded by the flight of
[ca. 600-550 b.c.] some Scythians in Cyaxares’ service to Alyattes, king of
Lydia; but the real cause was doubtless thirst of
conquest. The war lasted for five years with varying fortune, and was ended
by the battle during which the eclipse of the sun, said to have been predicted
by Thales, took place. The terrified combatants saw in this a divine warning
and hastily concluded peace. An impression so profound could be produced by
nothing short of a total eclipse. Now, according to Airy’s calculation, of all the
eclipses of that period the only one which was total in the east of Asia Minor
(where we must necessarily look for the seat of war) was that of May 28th,
585. The 28th of May 585 b.c. is perhaps the oldest date of a great event
which can be fixed with perfect certainty down to the day of the month. The
conclusion of peace which followed affords us a remarkable instance of
diplomatic mediation in very ancient times. The peace was brought about by
Syennesis, prince of Cilicia, and Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon. Astyages,
son of Cyaxares, married Aryenis, daughter of Alyattes. But according to
Herodotus’ calculation the above date does not fall within the time of
Cyaxares; and even with the necessary correction Astyages ascended the
throne in this same year. We might suppose that the battle fell in the father’s,
the peace in the son’s time. But, as we saw above, the dates of these reigns
are not of a sort in which we can place much confidence, and it is more likely
that the reign of Astyages did not last so long as tradition asserts. Thus
Cyaxares probably died after 585.
Of the reign of his son Astyages (in Ctesias, Astyigas; in a Babylonian
inscription Ishtuvegu) we have no particulars. It is not even certain that he
was cruel, for Herodotus’ account of him and of the revolt of Cyrus is not
impartial, based as it is on the narratives of the descendants of Harpagus,
who had an interest in portraying in unfavourable colours the prince whom
their ancestor had betrayed. On the other hand, Ctesias’ Median authority
(Nicolaus Dam., 64 et seq.), which sets Astyages in a very favourable light,
has no better claim to credence on this point.c

NEW LIGHT ON THE MEDES

In our account of the capture of Nineveh, mention was made of a

philological error of the Greeks which endured until the very end of the
nineteenth century. Now that the matter has been cleared up, we are in
possession of the somewhat startling fact that Cyaxares was not a Median
prince and that the Medes had nothing whatever to do with the tragic end of
the Assyrian capital. The Medes were indeed the people whose cities
Shalmaneser II laid waste and from whom he exacted tribute; against whom
Tiglathpileser III led an expedition in 737; whose princes asked the help of
Esarhaddon to repel the nomadic invasion which was threatening their land
and the neighbouring kingdom of Urartu; but they were not the nation that
came only too willingly to the assistance of Nabopolassar. They were, in fact,
closely akin to the very people whom Esarhaddon was implored to drive back,
and are known as the Manda.
Thus a readjustment of a very important period of ancient history has been
made possible within the last few years; and it is proposed here to orient the
reader and to outline what is now regarded as the true state of affairs. It
seems inadvisable entirely to discard that universally used phrase “the Median
empire,” and to a certain degree its retention is justifiable, but it is equally
important that the remarkable results of recent research should be carefully
explained and that the ancient misconceptions as to the Medes shall be
entirely swept away.
First of all it must be understood that the political situation of Western Asia,
even as late as the reign of Esarhaddon, differed very materially from that of
the time of Nabonidus, only a little more than a century after. Babylonia was
held fast under the Assyrians’ heel. The power of Elam was still a thing of the
future. But to the north and east of Assyria there were several countries
which, however much they were tributary to the government at Nineveh,
were still kingdoms of some power and importance.
Urartu, concerning whose history much has already been told, in the region
around Lake Van was one of these, and beyond it, north and east, lay the
land known in ancient geography as Media. Its people first appear upon the
Assyrian monuments as the Amada, but later and more frequently they are
called Mada. “The Mada,” says Professor Sayce, “were the Kurdish tribes who
lived eastward of Assyria and whose territory extended as far as the Caspian
Sea. They were for the most part Indo-European in language and Aryan in
descent, and lived like the Greeks, in small states, each of which obeyed a
‘city lord’ of its own.”
Such was the status of the “true Medes.” There is nothing in their condition
or history to distinguish them from many other insignificant peoples whose
destiny it was to come in contact with the world-empires of antiquity. Their
influence on history has been nothing, and their political condition—that of a
number of petty independent principalities—naturally worked against the
attainment of any great degree of importance. Such information as we have
of the rulers and cities of this land that had no central government and was
never completely a portion of the Assyrian empire, comes from the
inscriptions of the Ninevite kings. Esarhaddon tells of three, Uppis of Partakka,
Sanasana of Partukka, and Ramateya of Urakazabarna, who asked his help
against the invading nomads.
Sargon II seems to have had the country under heavy tribute, and we may
read how, after a rebellion in the north had been put down, there arrived at
the conqueror’s new city of Kar-Sharrukin no less than twenty-eight princes
from different parts of Media bringing rich presents. But beyond these and a
few other citations there is nothing in the story of Media to attract the
attention of even a close student of world-history.
Southeast of Urartu was the little kingdom of Man or Minni, whose people
were the Manna of the Assyrian texts. We hear of it at the close of the eighth
century b.c. when Iranzu was king, and Rusas, the sovereign of Urartu,
attacked it, taking two cities. Sargon II came to the rescue of his small
neighbour, and Rusas gave up his spoil. After Iranzu’s death, his son Aza was
promptly slain by Rusas, but another son, Ullusunu, who gave oath of fidelity
to Assyria, was put on the throne by Sargon. Ullusunu, however, soon broke
his vows, and there ensued the bloody conflict whose story has been related
in the history of Assyria. The Manna, with the Cimmerians and the people of
Urartu, formed a great coalition against Esarhaddon of which the nomad chief
Kashtariti was head; but this fell to pieces through internal dissension.
Only one other matter of interest concerning these countries need detain
us, and that is the fact that they are the nations which Jeremiah believed
would work the vengeance of the Lord upon Babylon. The prophet
undoubtedly thought that a period of greatness was in store for these
peoples, and he looked to them, and not to Elam and Persia, to fulfil his
prophecies.
“Make bright the arrows; gather the shields; the Lord hath raised up the
spirit of the kings of the Medes.… Set ye up a standard in the land, blow the
trumpet among the nations, prepare the nations against her [Babylon], call
together against her the kingdoms of Ararat [Urartu], Minni, and Ashchenaz.
[28] … Prepare against her the nations with the kings of the Medes, the
captains thereof and all the rulers thereof.…” (Jeremiah li. 11, 27, 28.)
It is clear that Jeremiah had the “true Medes” in mind when he uttered
these words, since he speaks of the “kings of the Medes,” whereas the
Manda, as we shall presently see, had a strongly organised government under
one king.
Modern investigation is tending to establish the fact that this prophecy of
Jeremiah is one originally uttered against Nineveh and subsequently changed
to apply to the capital of Nebuchadrezzar, since the mention of Urartu and
Minni with at least a possible future describes conditions that could scarcely
have existed at a date much later than the fall of Nineveh. There are other
examples of this sort of adaptation in the Bible; for example, Isaiah’s
prophecy of Moab’s doom.
We come now to that recently discovered people, of great importance as
the first of the Indo-European family to affect the current of world-history in
Western Asia, but of whose story the modern world has remained in complete
ignorance until the present day.
By the time of Esarhaddon the wave of Indo-European migration had begun
to assume threatening proportions to the Semitic nations of Mesopotamia,
although from southern Russia the tide had been pouring in for many
centuries. Media was populated, and then the nomadic stream parted, one
great mass moving westward into Asia Minor, and another to the east, and
then south as far as Elam, neither making any disturbance in the Assyrian
empire. Nevertheless the Semites soon found themselves surrounded,
peacefully but positively, by an alien race.
Northeast of Assyria, and extending to the southern shores of the Caspian,
was the ancient kingdom of Ellipi, with its capital at Ecbatana—the Achmetha
of the Bible. Of its fortunes we got a glimpse now and then in the course of
Assyrian history: Sargon laid it under tribute, and it entered into alliance with
Elam in the desperate struggle with Sennacherib—and then the curtain of
oblivion falls. We know its fate—the nomads descended upon it. In this region
the new-comers seem quickly to have effected the organisation of a new
state. To the Assyrians they are known as the Manda, and there is little doubt
that they are identical with the Scythians of classical history.
As far back as Esarhaddon’s day there are allusions to this people on the
monuments. That monarch perceived the danger threatening his country, and
made at least one successful effort to prevent the Scythian or Cimmerian
stream from pouring into Mesopotamia. At a battle fought in Cilicia he boasts
that he conquered the Cimmerian leader, Teuspa or Teispes, whom he calls a
“Manda.” Asshurbanapal, too, in a recently discovered inscription, expresses
gratitude to the gods for a victory over “that limb of Satan,” Tuktammu of the
Manda. “It is possible,” says Professor Sayce, “that Tuktammu is the Lygdamis
of Strabo, who led the Cimmerians into Cilicia, from whence they afterward
marched westward and burned Sardis.”
In the course of a single century, therefore, new political conditions had
rapidly developed. In the border regions of Assyria “was enacted the same
drama which centuries later took place in Italy, as the northern barbarians
came southward over the mountains and seized the plains of Lombardy. Rome
could only make a feeble resistance, and a little later even the capital went
down before them. The parallel goes even that far also, for Nineveh likewise
was done to destruction through the help of these same barbarians who now
settled in her outlying provinces.”
The first Scythian invasion of Assyria took place in the reign of
Asshurbanapal’s successor, Asshur-etil-ili. The Manda burned Calah, and swept
on as far as the border of Egypt, when they were turned back only by
Psamthek’s gold. The next visit was at the invitation of Nabopolassar, and it is
not necessary to repeat here how the Scythian king of Ecbatana, the Cyaxares
of the Greeks, came to the help of the king of Babylon, nor indeed how, in the
division of the Assyrian empire, the Manda found themselves lords of the land
north from the Babylonian frontier. Suffice it to say that the thirst for empire-
making was now strong upon them, and we will quote Professor Rogers’ brief
account of the short-lived Scythian empire: “To them [the Manda] had fallen
in the partition of the Assyrian empire the whole of the old land of Assyria
with northern Babylonia. The very ownership of such territory as this was
itself a call to the making of an empire. To this the Manda set themselves with
extraordinary and rapid success. … As early as 560 b.c. their border had been
extended as far west as the river Halys, which served as a boundary between
them and the kingdom of Lydia, over which Crœsus, of proverbial memory,
was now king (560-546 b.c.). If no violent end came to a victorious people,
such as the Manda now were, it could not be long before the rich plains, the
wealthy cities, and the great waterways of Babylonia would tempt them
southward and the great clash would come. If to such brute force of conquest
as they had already abundantly shown they should add gifts for organisation
and administration, there was no reason why all their possessions should not
be welded again into a great empire.… Their king was now Astyages, or, as
the Babylonian inscriptions name him, Ishtuvegu. Our knowledge of him is too
scant to admit of a judgment as to his character. A man of war of
extraordinary capacity he certainly was, but perhaps little else. However that
may be, he was not to accomplish the ruin of Nabonidus.”
Thus we get an idea of the ambitions and achievements of the Manda after
the fall of Nineveh. The petty kingdoms in the north—Media, Man, Urartu, and
others—were all theirs. The next logical step was “the ruin of Nabonidus.”
To accomplish this, as we know, was the destiny of Cyrus, since in the year
550 b.c., as is told elsewhere, the Scythian empire, called the Median by the
Greeks, after less than a century of existence came to an end.
It is, perhaps, worthy of note how this extraordinary confusion of names
came about. Professor Sayce thus explains it: “When in the generations which
succeeded Darius Hystaspes, Cyrus became the founder of the Persian
empire, the Medes and the Manda were confounded one with the other.
Astyages, the suzerain of Cyrus, was transformed into a Mede, and the city of
Ecbatana into the capital of a Median empire. The illusion has lasted down to
our own age. There was no reason for doubting the traditional story; neither
in the pages of the writers of Greece and Rome, nor in those of the Old
Testament, nor even in the great inscription of Darius at Behistun, did there
seem to be anything to cast suspicion upon it. It was not until the discovery of
the monuments of Nabonidus and Cyrus that the truth at last came to light,
and it was found that the history we had so long believed was founded upon
a philological mistake.”a

FOOTNOTES

[24] [It is interesting to note that this description tallies very well with
what the Assyrian monuments have taught us concerning the Mada or true
Medes, whom the Greeks confused so hopelessly with the Manda or
Scythians of whom Cyaxares and Astyages were kings.]
[25] [The philological confusion is now complete. Deioces may have
been a Median prince, since the political conditions described by Herodotus
are precisely those that existed in Media; whereas, so far as we can
ascertain from the Babylonian monuments, the Manda had a strong central
government ruling at Ecbatana.]
[26] [Professor Sayce in the article “Babylonia and Assyria,” in the New
Volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica, says: “Under his
[Asshurbanapal’s] successor, Asshur-etil-ilani, the Scythians penetrated into
Assyria and made their way as far as the borders of Egypt. Calah was
burned, though the strong walls of Nineveh protected the relics of the
Assyrian army which had taken refuge behind them.” This occurred about
626 b.c.]
[27] [Of course since the Scythians themselves were besieging Nineveh,
this could not be. But it is easy to see how the application of one name to
another people could have been responsible for Herodotus’ words.]
[28] Probably the Agusi of the Assyrian texts.

CHAPTER III. THE EARLY ACHÆMENIANS AND THE

ELAMITES, CYRUS AND CAMBYSES
 When we speak of the political history of Persia, our thoughts turn naturally
enough to Greece also. Yet there was a period of Persian history, which was
brilliant, even though brief, in which Greece had no share even as a
participant or objective point. And indeed the interest which Greece had for
the Persian monarchs during the something more than two hundred years of
Persian supremacy has no doubt been exaggerated in the minds of
subsequent generations, because the whole picture has been seen through
the eyes of Greek and not of Persian historians. The first great profane history
that was ever written—the history, namely, of Herodotus—had for its main
subject the Græco-Persian war.
The earliest pages of this history gave expression to the then current notion
that almost from time immemorial there had existed a deadly feud between
Greece and Persia, and the realm even of mythology is invaded in the effort to
explain the origin of this feud, and to fix the responsibility for it upon an
Asiatic nation. Yet, in point of fact, it is probable that no such widely prevalent
feeling of antagonism between the representative nations of Asia and Europe
had existed for any very great length of time, before the period at which
Herodotus wrote. Indeed it is clear that a feud between the Persians, as such,
and the Greeks could not have dated earlier than from about the year 550
b.c., since it was only then that the Persian empire came into existence. Nor is
there anything to show that the first two rulers of the empire, namely, Cyrus
and Cambyses, had turned their attention particularly to the region beyond
the Hellespont. Cyrus indeed invaded Asia Minor, and in so doing necessarily
came closely into contact with a Greek civilisation; but the express object of
this invasion was the conquest of Lydia, which was accomplished through the
overthrow of Crœsus, and Cyrus himself then turned back to conquer
Babylonia, and whatever plans he may have had looking to the extension of
his power in Asia Minor or beyond the Ægean Sea, he did not live to execute
them. The short reign of Cambyses was occupied almost exclusively with the
Egyptian conquest. Still it was inevitable that a conquering Asiatic power that
had extended its bounds to the very walls of the Greek cities of Asia Minor
must go farther in the same direction. It was equally certain that Greece must
resent the infringement of its territories and thus the feud between the East
and West was at once as inevitable and as bitter as if it had been much more
ancient in origin than it really was.
The fullest details of the wars which grew out of this feud we shall have
occasion to examine when we turn to Grecian history; nor can we quite
disregard them here. Our chief concern for the moment, however, is with the
history of the Medo-Persian empire in its Asiatic and African aspects. It is
interesting to reflect that this empire was the greatest in mere geographical
extent that the world had ever seen, far greater than Egypt, greater than the
Assyrian empire at its widest reach, and greater than any empire that was to
succeed it until modern times, except for the brief decade when Alexander the
Great held the destinies of the East and the West subject to his master will.
It should be remembered, too, that this empire of the Medes and Persians
held sway for a much longer period than is sometimes assumed. Cyrus, the
founder of the Medo-Persian empire, came into power in the year 550 b.c.,
and the battle of Platæa, in which the army of Xerxes was completely
overthrown and the last Persian force that ever attempted to invade Europe
completely shattered, took place less than three-quarters of a century later.
One is prone at first thought to date the fall of the Persian empire from this
latter event; but to do so is to take a very narrow or European view of history.
The Persians did not again invade Greece, it is true, but Persian money
became a disturbing influence in Greek political life and continued such for a
century and a half, or as long as Greece maintained independent national
existence.
So powerful has been the influence of Greece in an intellectual way that
one is prone to forget how insignificant a people the Hellenes were in regard
to those matters which are usually made the test of national supremacy.
Once, and once only, a united Greece became a mighty factor in international
warfare; that exceptional time was the all-essential one, when Greece drove
back the Persian invaders. But the territory of Greece remained unchanged
after this momentous factor, and neither then nor at any subsequent period
had the Greeks any thought of making wide conquests until the day of
Agesilaus; and the aspirations of that Spartan chief, who at one time seemed
likely to anticipate Alexander in a Persian conquest, were cut short by those
suicidal internal dissensions which were the bane of the political life of Greece
at all periods of her history. Meantime, while Rome was waxing strong in the
West, she had not yet reached the horizon of a world-influence, Persia
remained, notwithstanding her defeat on Grecian territory, the undisputed
mistress of Asia and therefore the most powerful nation in the world, for more
than two centuries after the death of Cyrus. And then it was no Greek, but the
conqueror of Greece, the Macedonian Alexander, who wrested the sceptre
from the Persian hand.
Two centuries and a half of supremacy! That does not seem a long period
when one has the thousands of years of Egyptian history in mind or the other
thousands when the plain of Mesopotamia was the centre of the Asiatic world.
Yet after all in the narrow view it will be apparent that very few times in the
world’s history has a single nation maintained supremacy for a much longer
period than two or three centuries. Egyptian history is very far from being a
record of unbroken power, and the centre of Mesopotamia shifted from south
to north and back again at intervals of a few centuries at longest. When,
therefore, one considers the two and a half centuries of unbroken Persian
power, and reflects how enormously wide was the extent of that dominant
influence, it is clear that he has to do with one of the greatest nations of
which history has any record.
Of the very early history of Persia there is almost
[ca. 836-546 b.c.] nothing known. From the obelisk of Shalmaneser II we
learn how after successfully invading the land of Namri,
the Assyrian king marched into the territory of Parsua (Persia) and received
tribute. This was in the year 836 b.c. Again tribute was collected in 830, and in
the following year the country was plundered and ravaged by the Assyrian
army. About 813 Shamshi-Adad IV paid an unwelcome visit to his province.
From these and other references we may conclude that from the time the
Indo-Europeans were fairly settled in the land, Parsua was a dependency of
the Assyrian empire, regaining its liberties whenever the fortunes of Assyria
were at low ebb, and losing them in a corresponding degree when a strong
brain and hand held the reins in the capitals on the Upper Tigris. Then, as we
have seen, Persia fell into the hands of the Scythian or Median emperor that
ruled at Ecbatana, from whom it was delivered by Cyrus the Great.
But before taking up the history of Persia, it is
[ca. 730-550 b.c.] necessary to say something about the kingdom of Elam,
for as we shall presently see, that was the land from
which Cyrus came. Elam lay to the east and across a mountain range from
Babylonia. Of the early fortunes of the country—the time of Chedorlaomer
and other Elamite invaders of Babylonia we have now nothing to do; what
concerns us is that in the eighth century b.c., Teispes, the king of Persia
obtained possession of the Elamite province of Anshan. In all probability the
Persian conqueror gave the new territory to his son Cyrus I; for according to
Professor Sayce, “While Cyrus I, the great-grandfather of Cyrus the Great,
reigned in Anshan, it is probable that Ariaramnes, the great-grandfather of
Darius, succeeded his father, Teispes, in Persia. Both Ariaramnes and Cyrus I
were sons of Teispes, and since Darius in his inscription at Behistun declares
that ‘eight’ of his predecessors had been kings before him ‘in two lines,’ it is
clear that both Ariaramnes and his son Arsames must have enjoyed royal
power. We must assume, therefore, with Sir Henry Rawlinson, that Teispes
was the conqueror of Anshan and that upon his death his kingdom was
divided, the newly acquired conquest being assigned to Cyrus I, and his
ancestral dominion to Ariaramnes.” (Higher Criticism and the Monuments, p.
519.)
Thus we see that a piece of the oldest history has become the newest. It
must be clearly understood that Cyrus was not originally a king of Persia, but
of the Elamite province of Anshan—a district that by his time included
Shushan, the old Elamite capital, as well. Three years after the conquest of
Astyages, that is in 546 b.c., he first calls himself king of the Parsu (Persians),
but not before. How he came to be lord of Persia, we do not know, since this
land was a totally different country from Elam, but it is extremely probable
that his new title had some connection with the overthrow of the Scythian
emperor. It is on the statement of Darius I that Cyrus has gone down in
history as a Persian prince. Why this is so seems clear enough. Darius had to
reconquer the disintegrated empire of Cyrus and Cambyses, and in doing so
he wished to make himself appear the legitimate successor of his two great
predecessors; therefore he makes Cyrus, like himself, a Persian prince, and we
have seen how far this is true. But from Cyrus to Darius, ought we not to
speak of the Elamite empire?
With the reader in possession of these facts, we now turn to an account of
the origins of the Achæmenian dynasty and the reign of Cyrus the Great.a
Cyrus’ father was, just as Herodotus tells us, Cambyses (Kambujiya), his
grandfather Cyrus, his great-grandfather Sispis (i.e., the Persian Chaispi,
Greek Teispes). We can combine the contents of a cylinder of his, on the one
hand with the list of Darius’ ancestors in Herodotus (VII, 11), and on the
other hand with Darius’ own statement in the great Behistun inscription. The
last list is shorter by three than that of Herodotus; but, as Darius says that
eight of his family were kings, and that they reigned in two lines, while
neither he nor his successors in their inscriptions give the title of King to his
immediate predecessor, we must assume that the Behistun list of ancestors is
somewhat curtailed; and we can with some probability draw out the complete
list in exact harmony with Herodotus. We shall indicate the kings by figure
and give the names in the ordinary Greek form.
 Achæmenes. 1. Teispes. 2. Cambyses. 3. Cyrus. 4. Teispes.

First line. 5. Cyrus. 6. Cambyses. 7. Cyrus (Great King). 8. Cambyses (Great King).

Second line. Ariaramnes. Arsames. Hystaspes. 9. Darius (Great King).

Achæmenes (Persian Hakhamani), ancestor of the whole family, is perhaps

not an historical personage, but a heros eponymus. According to our
calculation Teispes, the first king, flourished about the year 730, therefore
somewhat earlier than the foundation of the Median empire, but somewhere
about the time which Herodotus assigns for the beginning of the
independence of Media. Perhaps the rise of the provincial dynasty is
connected with the weakening of the Assyrian power in Iran. Now on the
cylinder Cyrus calls himself and his forefathers up to Teispes not kings of
Persia but kings “of the city of Anshan.” Similarly on a lately discovered
monument of still greater importance, a Babylonian tablet, he is called “king
of Anshan,” but also “king of Persia.” It may be that the Achæmenians ruled in
a part only of Persis; but we have just as good a right to assume that, as
Herodotus and Ctesias assert, Cyrus’ father at least was governor of the whole
province. His mother, according to Herodotus, was the daughter of Astyages.
This may very well be historical, though the confirmation by the oracle which
describes him as a “mule” (Herod., I, 55) does not go for much, since these
oracles are tolerably recent forgeries, and it is conceivable that we have here
nothing more than an example of the well-known tendency of lords of new
empires in the East to claim descent, at least in the female line, from the
legitimate dynasty. Ctesias, indeed, tells us that Cyrus afterwards married a
daughter of the dethroned Astyages, Amytis (which was also the name of
Astyages’ sister, wife of Nebuchadrezzar). Of course this does not absolutely
exclude the possibility of Cyrus being the son of another daughter of the king.
Stripped of its romantic features, Herodotus’ narrative
[550-546 b.c.] of the rise of Cyrus is in fundamental harmony with the
new document which we possess on the subject, in the
shape of annals inscribed on a Babylonian tablet. According to Herodotus,
Cyrus and the Persians revolted; Harpagus the Mede, who was in league with
him, was despatched against him. A part of the Median army fought, but
another part went over to Cyrus or fled. In a second battle Astyages was
defeated and taken prisoner. Now the tablet tells us among other things: “and
against Cyrus king of Anshan, … went and … Ishtuvegu, his army revolted
against him and in hands took, to Cyrus they gave him.” Thereupon, it
proceeds, Cyrus took Ecbatana and carried off rich booty to Anshan. This
summary account of the Babylonian annalist by no means excludes the
supposition that Cyrus had fought a previous battle against Astyages. Both
accounts say that the treachery and faithlessness of the army procured Cyrus
the victory. We might even harmonise the Babylonian document with Ctesias’
narrative that Cyrus was at first hard pressed and driven back as far as
Pasargadæ, if there were not other grounds, quite apart from its fabulous
embellishments, which render this account improbable.
The date of the overthrow of Astyages and the taking of Ecbatana is,
according to the Babylonian tablet, the sixth year; and, as it is in the highest
degree probable that the years in this memorial are those of the Babylonian
king Nabunaid [Nabonidus] we must place these events in the year 550.
Hitherto it has been supposed, following Herodotus, that the reign of Cyrus
(559-529) was to be reckoned from the fall of the Median empire, and that
accordingly the latter event was to be placed in 559. But now we see that
Cyrus numbered his years from the time when he ascended the throne in
Persia.[29] Whether the revolt against Astyages began when he ascended the
throne, we do not know. We may very well believe Herodotus (I, 330), that
Cyrus treated Astyages well, down to his death. On this point Ctesias agrees
with Herodotus.
After the taking of Ecbatana, which made Cyrus the
[550-538 b.c.] Great King, he must have had enough to do to subdue
the lands which had belonged to the Median empire.
Little reliance can be placed on Ctesias’ account of these struggles. Herodotus
(I, 153) states that the Bactrians, who according to Ctesias were soon
subdued, were, like the Sacæ, not subjugated until after the conquest of
Babylon.
The next war was against the powerful and wealthy king Crœsus of Lydia,
who ruled over nearly the whole western half of Asia Minor. It was a
continuation of the war between the Medes and Lydians which had been
broken off in 585. Here again the story in Herodotus is embellished with many
marvellous incidents, and is employed to exemplify moral doctrines.
If Crœsus really began the war, he assuredly did so not frivolously but
deliberately, in order to anticipate the inevitable attack. A fierce struggle
seems to have taken place in Cappadocia (Herod., I, 76, and especially
Polyænus, VII, 8, 1 et seq.), which already belonged to Cyrus. Crœsus
retreated to prepare for another campaign, but Cyrus followed hard after him,
routed him when he offered battle, and captured his capital Sardis after a
short siege. Not only Herodotus, but also apparently his contemporary
Xanthus the Lydian, quite independently of Herodotus, told how Cyrus would
have burned Crœsus alive. However, Crœsus was pardoned, after all, perhaps
because some external circumstance interposed (because a sudden shower
prevented the fire from burning?), or because the conqueror changed his
mind before it was too late. The pious and believing saw in the event a direct
intervention of Apollo on behalf of the man who had honoured the Delphic
shrine so highly.
The date of Crœsus’ fall is not quite certain. It may have been 547 or 546.
When Cyrus had marched away, the Lydian Pactyas, whom Cyrus had
appointed guardian of the treasures, raised a revolt, but it was speedily put
down by the king’s generals. From that time forwards the Lydians never made
the slightest attempt to shake off the Persian rule.
But now began that struggle of the Persians with the Greeks which has had
so much importance for the history of the world. The Lydian kings had
subdued a number of Greek cities in Asia Minor; but even these latter shrank
from submitting to the still barbarous Persians, whose rule was far more
oppressive, inasmuch as they ruthlessly required military service. But
Harpagus, and other Persian leaders, quickly took one Greek town after the
other; some, like Priene, were razed to the ground. Some of the Ionians, such
as the Teians, and most of the Phocæans, avoided slavery by emigrating.
Miletus alone, the most flourishing of all these cities, had early come to an
understanding with Cyrus, and the latter pledged himself to lay no heavier
burden on it than Crœsus had before him. In most of the cities the Persians
seem to have set up tyrants, who gave them a better guarantee of obedience
than democratic or aristocratic governments. In other respects they left the
Greeks alone, just as they left their other subjects alone, not meddling with
their internal affairs so long as they paid the necessary contributions, and
supplied men and ships for their wars. Most of the other peoples in the west
of Asia Minor submitted without much resistance, except the freedom-loving
Lycians. Driven into Xanthus, the capital, they perished in a body rather than
surrender. Some Carian cities also defended themselves stoutly. This may
have given a Persian here and there an inkling, even then, that the little
peoples on the western sea were, after all, harder to manage than the nations
of slaves in the interior of Asia. Sardis became and remained the mainstay of
the Persian rule in western Asia Minor. The governorship was one of the most
influential posts in the empire, and the governor seems to have exercised a
certain supremacy over some neighbouring governorships.
Though Cyrus had made, and continued to make, conquests in the interior
of Asia, he was still without the true capital of Asia, Babylon, the seat of
primeval civilisation, together with the rich country in which it lay, and the
wide districts of Mesopotamia, Syria, and the border-lands over which it ruled.
Before the capture of the city, in the summer of 539, a great battle took
place, in consequence of which Cyrus occupied the capital without any further
serious fighting, since the Babylonian troops had mutinied against their king.
Late in the autumn of 539 Cyrus marched into Babylon, Nabonidus, the king,
having previously surrendered himself. The entrance of Cyrus took place on
the 3rd Marsheshwan, which month corresponds nearly to our month of
November. If, as the strict rule requires, we make the small remainder of the
year after the taking of the city to be the first year of Cyrus’ reign, then the
events in the text fall in 538. According to Berosus, Cyrus appointed
Nabonidus governor of Karmania, east of Persis; but in the annals inscribed
on the tablet it is said to be recorded that Nabunaid died when the city was
taken. Cyrus certainly did not put down the Babylonian worship, as the
Hebrew prophets expected; he must even have been impressed by the
magnificence of the service in the richest city of the world, and by the vast
antiquity of the rites. But he was no more an adherent of the Babylonian
religion, because the priests said he was, than Cambyses and the Roman
emperors were worshippers of the Egyptian gods, because Egyptian
monuments represent them as doing reverence to the gods exactly in the
style of Egyptian kings. Sayce doubts whether Cyrus could read their
documents; we doubt whether Cyrus understood their language at all, and
regard it as inconceivable that he learned their complicated writing; indeed,
on the strength of all analogies, we may regard it as scarcely probable that he
could read and write at all.
 The countries subject to Babylon seem to have
[538-529 b.c.] submitted without resistance to the Persians. The fortress
of Gaza alone, in the land of the Philistines, perhaps
defended itself for a time. On the other hand, some of the Phœnician cities,
which offered a sturdy resistance to other conquerors, submitted immediately,
and remained steadily obedient to the Persians down almost to the end of the
empire. It seems, however, that, as the real prop of the naval power of Persia,
they were almost always treated with special consideration by the latter. In
the very first year of his reign in Babylon (538) Cyrus gave the Jewish exiles
in Babylon leave to return home. Comparatively few availed themselves of this
permission, but these few formed the starting-point of a development which
has been of infinite importance for the history of the world.
How far to the east Cyrus extended his dominion we do not know, but it is
probable that all the countries to the east which are mentioned in the older
inscriptions of Darius as in subjection or rebellion were already subject in the
time of Cyrus. In this case Chorasmia (Kharezm, the modern Khiva) and
Sogdiana (Samarcand and Bokhara) belonged to him. Agreeably with this,
Alexander found a city of Cyrus (Cyropolis) on the Jaxartes, in the
neighbourhood of the modern Khokand. He doubtless ruled also over large
portions of the modern Afghanistan, though it is hardly likely that he ever
made his way into the land of the Indus. The story of his unsuccessful march
on India seems to have been invented by way of contrast to Alexander’s
fortunate expedition.

THE DEATH OF CYRUS

Different accounts of Cyrus’ death were early current.

[529 b.c.] Herodotus gives the well-known didactic story of the
battle with Tomyris, queen of the Massagetæ, as the
most probable of many which were told.b His account is much too picturesque
to be omitted here, notwithstanding its somewhat doubtful authenticity.
“When Cyrus considered the peculiar circumstances of his birth, he believed
himself more than human. He reflected also on the prosperity of his arms, and
that wherever he had extended his incursions, he had been followed by
success and victory.
“The Massagetæ were then governed by a queen, who was a widow, and
named Tomyris. Cyrus sent ambassadors to her with overtures of marriage;
the queen, concluding that his real object was the possession, not of her
person, but her kingdom, forbade his approach. Cyrus, on finding these
measures ineffectual, advanced to the Araxes, openly discovering his hostile
designs upon the Massagetæ. He then threw a bridge of boats over the river,
for the passage of his forces, which he also fortified with turrets.
“Whilst he was engaged in this difficult undertaking, Tomyris sent by her
ambassadors this message: ‘Sovereign of the Medes, uncertain as you must
be of the event, we advise you to desist from your present purpose. Be
satisfied with the dominion of your own kingdom, and let us alone, seeing
how we govern our subjects. You will not, however, listen to this salutary
counsel, loving anything rather than peace: If, then, you are really impatient
to encounter the Massagetæ, give up your present labour of constructing a
bridge; we will retire three days’ march into our country, and you shall pass
over at your leisure; or, if you had rather receive us in your own territories, do
you as much for us.’ On hearing this, Cyrus called a council of his principal
officers, and, laying the matter before them, desired their advice how to act.
They were unanimously of opinion, that he should retire, and wait for Tomyris
in his own dominions.
“Crœsus the Lydian, who assisted at the meeting, was of a different
sentiment, which he defended in this manner: ‘I have before remarked, O
king! that since Providence has rendered me your captive, it becomes me to
exert all my abilities in obviating whatever menaces you with misfortune. I
have been instructed in the severe but useful school of adversity. If you were
immortal yourself, and commanded an army of immortals, my advice might be
justly thought impertinent; but if you confess yourself a human leader, of
forces that are human, it becomes you to remember that sublunary events
have a circular motion, and that their revolution does not permit the same
man always to be fortunate. Upon this present subject of debate I dissent
from the majority. If you await the enemy in your own dominions, a defeat
may chance to lose you all your empire; the victorious Massagetæ, instead of
retreating to their own, will make farther inroad into your territories. If you
conquer, you will still be a loser by that interval of time and place which must
be necessarily employed in the pursuit. I will suppose that, after victory, you
will instantly advance into the dominions of Tomyris; yet can Cyrus the son of
Cambyses, without disgrace and infamy, retire one foot of ground from a
female adversary? I would therefore recommend, that having passed over
with our army, we proceed on our march till we meet the enemy; then let us
contend for victory and honour. I have been informed that the Massagetæ
lead a life of the meanest poverty, ignorant of Persian fare, and of Persian
delicacies. Let these therefore be left behind in our camp: let there be
abundance of food prepared, costly viands, and flowing goblets of wine. With
these let us leave the less effective of the troops, and with the rest again
retire towards the river. If I err not, the foe will be allured by the sight of our
luxurious preparations, and afford us a noble occasion of victory and glory.’
“The result of the debate was, that Cyrus preferred the sentiments of
Crœsus: he therefore returned for answer to Tomyris, that he would advance
the space into her dominions which she had proposed. She was faithful to her
engagement, and retired accordingly: Cyrus then formally delegated his
authority to his son Cambyses; and above all recommended Crœsus to his
care, as one whom, if the projected expedition should fail, it would be his
interest to distinguish by every possible mark of reverence and honour. He
then dismissed them into Persia, and passed the river with his forces.
“As soon as he had advanced beyond the Araxes into the land of the
Massagetæ, he saw in the night this vision: He beheld the eldest son of
Hystaspes having wings upon his shoulders; one of which overshadowed Asia,
the other Europe. Hystaspes was the son of Arsamis, of the family of the
Achæmenides; the name of his eldest son was Darius, a youth of about
twenty, who had been left behind in Persia as not yet of age for military
service. Cyrus awoke, and revolved the matter in his mind: as it appeared to
him of serious importance, he sent for Hystaspes to his presence, and,
dismissing his attendants, ‘Hystaspes,’ said the king, ‘I will explain to you my
reasons, why I am satisfied beyond all dispute that your son is now engaged
in seditious designs against me and my authority. The gods, whose favour I
enjoy, disclose to me all those events which menace my security. In the night
just passed, I beheld your eldest son having wings upon his shoulders, one of
which overshadowed Asia, the other Europe; from which I draw certain
conclusions that he is engaged in acts of treachery against me. Do you
therefore return instantly to Persia; and take care, that when I return
victorious from my present expedition, your son may give me a satisfactory
explanation of his conduct.’
“The strong apprehension of the treachery of Darius induced Cyrus thus to
address the father; but the vision in reality imported that the death of Cyrus
was at hand, and that Darius should succeed to his power. ‘Far be it, O king!’
said Hystaspes in reply, ‘from any man of Persian origin to form conspiracies
against his sovereign: if such there be, let immediate death be his portion.
You have raised the Persians from slavery to freedom; from subjects, you
have made them masters: if a vision has informed you that my son designs
anything against you, to you and to your disposal I shall deliver him.’
Hystaspes, after this interview, passed the Araxes on his return to Persia, fully
intending to watch over his son, and deliver him to Cyrus.
 “Cyrus, advancing a day’s march from the Araxes, followed, in all respects,
the counsel of Crœsus; and leaving behind him the troops upon which he had
less dependence, he returned with his choicest men towards the Araxes. A
detachment of about the third part of the army of the Massagetæ attacked
the Persians whom Cyrus had left, and, after a feeble conflict, put them to the
sword. When the slaughter ceased, they observed the luxuries which had
artfully been prepared; and yielding to the allurement, they indulged
themselves in feasting and wine, till drunkenness and sleep overcame them.
In this situation the Persians attacked them: several were slain, but the
greater part were made prisoners, among whom was Spargapises, their
leader, the son of Tomyris.
“As soon as the queen heard of the defeat of her forces, and the capture of
her son, she despatched a messenger to Cyrus with these words: ‘Cyrus,
insatiable as you are of blood, be not too elate with your recent success.
When you yourself are overcome with wine, what follies do you not commit?
By entering your bodies, it renders your language more insulting. By this
poison you have conquered my son, and neither by your prudence nor your
valour. I venture a second time to advise what it will be certainly your interest
to follow. Restore my son to liberty, and, satisfied with the disgrace you have
put upon a third part of the Massagetæ, depart from these realms unhurt. If
you will not do this, I swear by the Sun, the great god of the Massagetæ,
that, insatiable as you are of blood, I will give you your fill of it.’
“These words made but little impression upon Cyrus. The son of Tomyris,
when, recovering from his inebriated state, he knew the misfortune which had
befallen him, entreated Cyrus to release him from his bonds: he obtained his
liberty, and immediately destroyed himself.
“On the refusal of Cyrus to listen to her counsel, Tomyris collected all her
forces: a battle ensued, and of all the conflicts which ever took place amongst
barbarians, this was I believe by far the most obstinately disputed. According
to such particulars as I have been able to collect, the engagement began by a
shower of arrows poured on both sides, from an interval of some distance;
when these were all spent, they fought with their swords and spears, and for
a long time neither party gained the smallest advantage: the Massagetæ were
at length victorious, the greater part of the Persians were slain, Cyrus himself
also fell; and thus terminated a reign of twenty-nine years. When after
diligent search his body was found, Tomyris directed his head to be thrown
into a vessel filled with human blood, and having insulted and mutilated the
dead body, exclaimed, ‘Survivor and conqueror as I am, thou hast ruined my
peace by the successful stratagem against my son: but I will give thee now,
as I have threatened, thy fill of blood.’—This account of the end of Cyrus
seems to me most consistent with probability, although there are many other
and different relations.”c
If we accept Herodotus’ statements, we must look for the Massagetæ
beyond the Jaxartes. In Ctesias Cyrus is mortally wounded in battle with the
Derbices, who probably dwelt near the Middle or Upper Oxus. A fragment of
Berosus says that Cyrus fell in the land of the Dai (Dahæ), i.e., in the modern
Turkoman desert, perhaps in the southern or southwestern portion of it; this
account may very well be derived from contemporary Babylonian records. Be
that as it may, Cyrus met his death in battle with a savage tribe of the
northeast. The battle was probably lost, but the Persians rescued his body,
which was buried at Pasargada, in the ancient land of his race. To this day
there is to be seen at Murghab, north of Persepolis (on the telegraph line from
Abushehr to Teheran), the empty tomb and other remains of the great
mausoleum, which Aristobulus, a companion of Alexander, described from his
own observation; and on some pillars there the inscription is to be read: “I am
Cyrus, the king, the Achæmenian.” Till lately the same inscription was also to
be found high on the pillar which bears in bas-relief a winged figure of a king.
This figure is furnished with a “pshent,” i.e., such an ornamented crown as is
worn by kings and gods on Egyptian monuments. This was no doubt meant
by Cambyses as a special mark of honour to his father, whose monument
must have required years to finish. It is quite natural that the ancient art of
Egypt should have made a deep impression even upon those of its conquerors
who in other respects had little liking for Egyptian ways.b

CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF CYRUS

Cyrus played too great a part in the world and did too much for the
progress of humanity that we should leave him without some account of the
character and influence on history of a man of whom even so cynical a
historian as Eduard Meyer has said, tersely but in words that demand special
emphasis, “To honour and spare an adversary of equal birth, once he had
been conquered, remained a privilege of all his successors.” After this we
must indeed expect eulogy, but the short extracts given here, the first ancient
and the last modern, are both founded on careful and loving study of the
man’s character.a

Xenophon’s Estimate of Cyrus

 The reflection once occurred to me, how many democracies have been
dissolved by men who chose to live under some other government rather than
a democracy; how many monarchies, and how many oligarchies, have been
overthrown by the people; and how many individuals, who have tried to
establish tyrannies, have, some of them, been at once entirely destroyed,
while others, if they have continued to reign for any length of time, have been
admired as wise and fortunate men. I had observed, too, I thought, many
masters, in their own private houses, some indeed having many servants, but
some only very few, and yet utterly unable to keep those few entirely
obedient to their commands. While I was reflecting upon these things, I came
to this judgment upon them; that to man, such is his nature, it was easier to
rule every other sort of creature than to rule man. But when I considered that
there was Cyrus the Persian, who had rendered many men, many cities, and
many nations, obedient to him, I was then necessitated to change my
opinion, and to think that to rule men is not among the things that are
impossible, or even difficult, if a person undertakes it with understanding and
skill. I knew that there were some who willingly obeyed Cyrus, that were
many days’ journey, and others that were even some months’ journey, distant
from him; some, too, who had never seen him, and some who knew very well
that they never should see him; and yet they readily submitted to his
government; for he so far excelled all other kings, as well those that had
received their dominion from their forefathers, as those that had acquired it
by their own efforts, that the Scythian, for example, though his people be
very numerous, is unable to obtain the dominion over any other nation, but
rests satisfied if he can but continue to rule his own; so it is with the Thracian
king in regard to the Thracians, and with the Illyrian king in regard to the
Illyrians; and so it is with other nations, as many as I have heard of; for the
nations of Europe, at least, are said to be independent and detached from
each other. But Cyrus, finding, in like manner, the nations of Asia
independent, and setting out with a little army of Persians, obtained the
dominion over the Medes by their own choice, and over the Hyrcanians in a
similar manner; he subdued the Syrians, Assyrians, Arabians, Cappadocians,
both the Phrygians, the Lydians, Carians, Phœnicians, and Babylonians; he
had under his rule the Bactrians, Indians, and Cilicians, as well as the Sacians,
Paphlagonians, and Magadidians, and many other nations of whom we cannot
enumerate even the names. He had dominion over the Greeks that were
settled in Asia; and, going down to the sea, over the Cyprians and Egyptians.
These nations he ruled, though they spoke neither the same language with
himself nor with one another; yet he was able to extend the fear of himself
over so great a part of the world that he astonished all, and no one attempted
anything against him. He was able to inspire all with so great a desire of
pleasing him, that they ever desired to be governed by his opinion; and he
attached to himself so many nations as it would be a labour to enumerate,
which way soever we should commence our course from his palace, whether
towards the east, west, north, or south.d

A Modern Estimate of the Character and Importance of Cyrus

The giant figure of Cyrus the Great appears all the more splendid in the
sunlight [by contrast with the surrounding gloom]. He is fitly called the Great,
as belonging to the small number of the immortals to whom humanity cannot
deny this highest title. If he be great, it is because he attained unheard-of
success with insignificant means. With the assistance of his son and his
comrades he founded an empire such as the Assyrians never possessed even
in the day of their highest power: an empire which stretched from the Pontus
Euxinus to Meroë, from Cyrene to the Oxus and the Indus; the first world-
empire, the realm of Alexander before Alexander’s time.
But he was not, like the latter, opposed to a huge and crumbling monarchy,
already in the death agony, an easy prey to any leader of mercenaries, and
proved to be so by Agesilaus in Asia Minor, and by Amyntas in Egypt; he was
not, like Alexander, victorious over a small, dominant nation, which, in
recompense for its narrow-minded policy, stood alone in the last decisive
struggle, while he himself had an army of better morale and greater skill, with
better weapons and superior numbers—a really overwhelming force. On the
contrary, he led a handful of Persians against four nations, the largest and
most powerful of their time; against the two powers which had overcome the
greatest of all military states, the powers which had destroyed Asshur. The
two rising kingdoms of Media and Lydia were in the full vigour of their youth,
and had hurried from victory to victory, from conquest to conquest; the power
and prosperity of the two ancient civilised peoples of the Nile and Euphrates
dated from the very beginning of history and had risen anew and more
formidable from every defeat; but he flung them all in the dust forever.
He was great, too, if it be great to fight and even to fall for the sake of
justice. He is no proconsul, to turn, like a matricide, against the republic the
sword with which she had entrusted him; no Albanian chief, Frankish king, or
Mongolian khan to fall on foreign countries for the purpose of satisfying the
greed for prey and lust of war proper to his race; but a king who, attacked by
Media, attacked by the coalition of Lydia with Babylon and Egypt, only draws
the sword in defence of the double crown of his ancestors—the most
legitimate of all conquerors.
More than this, he was the most humane. His shield is stained by no
horrible deeds of blood, of frightful revenge and cruelty, such as disgrace the
son of Olympias. He spared, and made gifts to conquered enemies. Even after
the second subjugation of the treacherous Lydians, he would not permit them
to be destroyed by thousands, as Alexander did in the case of the heroes of
Tyre, of the Pasargadæ who were faithful even unto death, of the nobility of
Persia, or of the Sogdianians in revenge for their victory, as even the great
Roman slaughtered his enemies at Thapsus and the betrayed Usipetii, and as
the Franks slew the Saxons at the massacre on the Aller. He did not, like the
Macedonian at Persepolis, burn and destroy hostile capitals; he did not
mutilate captive kings and leaders, nor drag them round the walls as the latter
did Bessus and the lion of Gaza; nor send them to the scaffold as the Roman
sent the chivalrous king of the Arvernians; he did not basely murder his own
countrymen as the “crazy god,” Alexander, murdered the Branchidæ, Clitus,
and the grey-haired Parmenio. Oriental as he was, and belonging to a savage
people and a far earlier period, he is still always far more humane.
Thus he was the greatest, far beyond the spirit of his nation and his age,
anticipating the remotest future both as man and statesman. Because no wide
stream of blood separated him from the vanquished, he found the only
possible basis for his giant structure in the raising of conquerors and
conquered to equal privileges. With the certainty of victory, the daring trust
which belongs to the greatest, he could see and spare the subject in the
enemy, raise the conquered at once to the rank of citizen, entrust his army to
Mazares the Mede, and to Harpagus the Median grandee, prince, and general;
in the newly conquered Lydia he could venture to invest the Lydian dynasts,
with the civil power, and to set up as rulers in Ionia the native aristocracy, in
Judea the descendant of the ancient kings and high priests.
It was in accordance with his teachings that his son marched in the festive
procession of the people in newly conquered Babylon, and after the conquest
of Egypt entrusted the civil administration, with the capital Saïs, to an
Egyptian, Psamthek’s admiral, Uzahorsem, the son of the high priest of Saïs,
who held it as “the king’s cousin,” i.e., viceroy, and on whose withdrawal the
Egyptian prince Aahmes was associated with the Persian Aryandes.
Thus Cyrus divided the civil and military administration, a new departure
amongst orientals, and long uncomprehended and unimitated. The military
power he reserved to his faithful Medes and Persians; the civil he bestowed
on native princes, and so arranged an automatic system which created the
best bulwark against the loss of the border provinces, a bulwark which all the
mistakes and crimes and all the cowardice of his successors destroyed only
after the expiration of two hundred years—a result different indeed from the
ephemeral creation which Alexander cemented with the blood of whole
nations.
But gentleness and mercy constituted also the best policy. For defeating
opponents without a battle they were the sharpest of weapons, carried by a
commanding personality who not only compelled the admiration of his own
people, but also brought his enemies to their knees, and showed his victory in
the light of an inevitable decree of fate, thus infusing dejection and treachery
into the ranks of the enemy. Who is there that approaches him? He is not only
beloved by his own people as a father incomparable in every way, not only
does all the splendour of story play round him as round Alexander and
Charlemagne, but legends also have clustered about him, and the poetry of
Xenophon and Antisthenes glorifies and idealises him. The Median prince and
the Egyptian admiral, the nobility and priesthood of Babylon, as well as the
Greek captains of the kings of the Lydians and Egyptians, with Eurybates of
Ephesus and Phanes of Halicarnassus, throw themselves at his feet
voluntarily, and to the betrayal of their own rulers; without a struggle the
greatest empires, the two conquerors of Nineveh, surrender to him both
themselves and their own kings in chains, as had been done to none other;
even Tyre, that proud and mighty city, unconquered and unconquerable, with
whose lion courage his predecessor and his successor, Nebuchadrezzar and
Alexander alike, wrestled so fiercely and so long, did homage to him of her
own free will, as did the sea-king of Samos, which was as far beyond reach as
Tyre herself. Above all, the little people of the Jews hailed him at the waters
of Babylon as they have done no mortal before or since, as the victor and
rescuer, the liberator and saviour, the favoured of God and lord of the earth.
He rewarded them for it and so purchased for himself the most exalted, the
most undying greatness: amongst all the rulers of the East whom we see
conquering, destroying, murdering, and deporting, he is the only one who
raised a downtrodden people from the dust, snatched it from its brethren’s
fate of annihilation, restored it to its existence as a nation under princes of its
own race, to its own peculiar development and its mission in the history of the
world. He saved it, as he did his own people, which owed to him its
consecration to eternal youth in history; so that, in spite of all the storms
which have raged over it, it has escaped the fate of the thousand tribes which
traversed the wide country of Iran before and after it, and are now vanished
and forgotten.
 Thus the consequences of his achievements are lasting, though in the
course of thousands of years these achievements themselves have vanished,
like all earthly things. He was not the product and child of his age, like the
son of Philip, the nephew of Marius, the son of Pepin, or the offspring of the
Revolution: but he was its creator and father, solitary and unique in the
world’s history; he took firmer grip of the wheel of time than any other
mortal; in the term of his life he brought an epoch to its close, snatched the
lordship of the earth from the Semites and Egyptians, and won it for the
Aryans for all time.f

CAMBYSES

Cyrus bequeathed the crown to his eldest child,

[529-525 b.c.] Kambujiya, called by the Greeks Cambyses, and the
government of several provinces to Bardius (Smerdis), his
second son. He thought that this pre-settlement of the succession would
prevent the disputes usually accruing to the succession of a new king in the
East. But this hope was disappointed. Cambyses had hardly ascended the
throne when he murdered his brother: but the crime was committed with
such care and secrecy that it passed unnoticed by the people, and it was
thought by the subjects and court that Bardius was shut up in some distant
palace in Media, from whence he would shortly reappear.
Freed from a rival who might have been dangerous, Cambyses then gave
his full attention to war. Alone among the great nations of the old world,
Egypt, protected by the desert and the marshes of the Delta, was able to
withstand the power of the Persians, and followed in peace the course of her
development. Since his unfortunate intervention in Lydia, Aahmes had always
avoided any ground for strife with his neighbours. His ambition went no
further than the establishment of the old suzerainty of Egypt in Cyprus.
Thanks to this prudence, he lived on amicable terms with Cyrus, and profited
by twenty-five years of tranquillity to develop the natural resources of his
country. The course of the canals was repaired and enlarged, agriculture was
encouraged, and commerce extended.
But it was impossible to withstand the hatred of his subjects, and it
compassed his ruin. Cyrus dead, Aahmes resigned himself to war. There was
no lack of serious counts against him: he had made an alliance with Lydia; he
had intrigued with Chaldea; and Cambyses, being young, was more disposed
to excite than to calm the warlike spirit of his compatriots. According to the
Persians, Cambyses asked the daughter of the old king in marriage, hoping
that his refusal would furnish him with an insult to avenge. But Aahmes
substituted Nitetis the daughter of Uah-ab-Ra for his own daughter. Sometime
afterwards, when Cambyses was with her, he called her by the name of her
pretended father; whereupon she said: “I see, O king! that thou dost not
suspect how thou hast been deceived by Amasis [Aahmes]; he took me,
loaded me with jewels, and sent me to thee as his own daughter. It is true I
am the child of Apries [Uah-ab-Ra] who was his lord and master, until he
rebelled and was put to death with the other Egyptians.” The anger of
Cambyses, son of Cyrus, was thus roused, and he took up arms against
Egypt.
In Egypt the story was different: Nitetis was sent to Cyrus, and she was the
mother of Cambyses, and the conquest was only the re-establishment of the
legitimate family against the usurper Aahmes; and thus Cambyses ascended
the throne, less in the character of a conqueror, than in that of Uah-ab-Ra’s
grandson. It was by an equally puerile fiction that the Egyptians in their
decadence consoled themselves for their weakness and disgrace. Always
proud of their past glory, but henceforth powerless to conquer, they pretended
that they were only vanquished and governed by themselves. It was not
Persia that imposed her king upon Egypt, but Egypt who loaned hers to Persia
and thence to the rest of the world. The desert and marshes formed a perfect
bulwark for the Delta against the attacks of the Asiatic princes. There were
ninety leagues of distance, which no army could traverse in less than three
weeks, between the last important garrison of Syria and Lake Serbon, where
the Egyptian outposts were encamped. In times past the stretch of desert was
less, but the incursions of the Assyrians and Chaldeans had depopulated the
country and given over to the nomadic Arabs regions which had been formerly
quite accessible. An unforeseen event, however, showed Cambyses a way out
of the difficulty. Phanes of Halicarnassus, one of the generals of Aahmes,
deserted, and fled to Persia. He was a man of judgment and energy, and fully
acquainted with Egypt. He advised the king to make friends with the sheikh
who governed the coast, and get a passport from him; so the Arab had
camels, loaded with sufficient water for the whole army, stationed all along
the road.
On arriving at Pelusium, the Persians learned that
[525-523 b.c.] Aahmes was dead, and that he had been murdered by
Psamthek III. In spite of their confidence in their gods
and themselves, the Egyptians now began to be alarmed. They were not only
threatened by the nations of the Tigris and Euphrates, but the whole of Asia
and the Hellespont also seemed ready to invade them. The allies upon whom
Aahmes had counted, such as Polycrates of Samos, and old subjects like those
of Cyprus, had abandoned his cause, which now seemed hopeless, and
supplied the Persians with forces. The people, consumed with fear of the
invader, regarded the slightest phenomenon of nature as a bad sign. Rain is
rare in the Thebaïd, and storms rarely come more than once or twice in a
century; so, as some days after the accession of Psamthek, “rain fell in
torrents at Thebes, which was a rare event, the battle before Pelusium was
fought with the bravery of despair.”
Phanes had left his children in Egypt. His old soldiers, the Carians, and the
Ionians in the service of the Pharaoh, killed them before his eyes, poured their
blood into a goblet half full of wine, and after drinking the mixture, they
dashed like madmen into the thickest of the fight. Towards evening the
Egyptian line began to waver, and the rout began. Instead of rallying the rest
of his forces, and defending the passage of the canals, Psamthek lost his head
and took refuge in Memphis. Cambyses sent to demand his surrender, but the
maddened people killed the envoys. After a siege of some days, the town
opened the gates, and Upper Egypt submitted without further resistance; and
the Libyans and Cyrenians offered a tribute without even waiting for it to be
demanded. It is said that ten days after the surrender of Memphis, the
conqueror wishing to test the imperturbability of his prisoner, gave orders for
his daughter, who was dressed as a slave, his sons, and the sons of the chief
Egyptians to march past him on their way to their execution. But Psamthek
saw the procession without evincing a sign of emotion; when, however, one of
his old boon companions went by, dressed in rags like a beggar, he burst into
tears and struck his forehead in despair. Cambyses, astonished at this display
of despair in a man who had seemed so self-controlled, sent to ask him the
reason of his grief, whereupon he said: “O son of Cyrus, my personal
misfortunes are too great for tears, but not so with those of my friend. When
a man falls from luxury and plenty into misery on the threshold of old age,
one can but weep for him.” When the messenger repeated these words to
Cambyses, he saw their truth, and Crœsus was moved to tears, for he was
with Cambyses in Egypt, and all the Persians present also began to weep. So
Cambyses, touched with compassion, treated his prisoner like a king, and
would probably have replaced him as a vassal on the throne, had he not
learned that a conspiracy was being formed against him; so he entrusted the
government of Egypt to Aryandes, the Persian.
Thus, for the first time in the memory of man, the Old World was under one
master; but it was impossible to keep the people of the Caucasus and those
of Egypt, the Greeks of Asia Minor and the Iranians of Media, the Scythians of
Bactriana and the Semites of the Euphrates, under one ruler, so the empire
dissolved as quickly as it had been formed.
At first Cambyses tried to win over his new subjects by
[523-522 b.c.] complying with their customs. He adopted the double
cartouche, the protocol, and the royal costume of the
Pharaohs; and in the double hope of appeasing their personal rancour and of
conciliating the loyalist party, he repaired to Saïs, violated the tomb of
Aahmes, and burnt his mummy; and after accomplishing this posthumous act
of justice, he treated Ladike, the widow of the usurper, with deference and
sent her back to her parents. He gave orders for the evacuation of the great
temple of Nit, where Persian troops were installed to the great distress of the
devotees, and repaired the harm they had done at his own expense. His zeal
even led him to receive instruction in the Egyptian religion, and to be initiated
in the mysteries of the goddess, by the priest Uzaharrasenti. In fact, he acted
in Egypt as his father had done in Babylon, and he had his reasons for this
condescension to the vanquished, for he hoped to make Memphis and the
Delta the basis for his operations in southern Africa. He seemed to care little
about the voluntary submission of Cyrene; at least Dorian tradition maintains
that he scorned the gifts of Arcesilaus III and gave to his soldiers, in handfuls,
the five hundred minas (Egyptian measure) of gold which the prince had paid
him as a tribute. The Greeks of Libya were not rich enough to arouse interest,
but the fame of Carthage, exaggerated by time and distance, excited his
cupidity. Carthage was then at the height of her grandeur. She commanded
the old Phœnician settlements in Sicily, Africa, and Spain, her navy had
unrivalled sway over the western basin of the Mediterranean, and her
merchants penetrated into the distant fabulous regions of southern Europe
and Mauretania.
At first Cambyses wished to attack the city by sea, but the Phœnicians who
manned her fleet declined to act against their colony. Forced therefore to
approach it by land, he sent to Thebes an army of fifty thousand men to take
possession of the oasis of Ammon, and to clear the road for the rest of the
troops. The fate of this avant-garde was never clearly learnt. It crossed the
great oasis, and took a northeasterly course towards the temple of Ammon.
The natives relate that when halfway, it was surprised by a Sudanese storm,
and was buried under the heaps of sand. This story was probably true, for it
never reached the oasis, and never returned to Egypt. The expedition towards
the south promised to be more fortunate, for it seemed that there would not
be great difficulty in reaching the heart of Africa if it went up the Nile.
Cambyses had the country explored by spies, and their account led him to
start off from Memphis at the head of an army. The expedition was partially a
success, and partially a failure. It seems that the invaders went up the Nile as
far as Napata, and then pushed right across the desert in the direction of
Berua; their provisions were exhausted when they were a quarter of the way
there, and famine forced them to retreat, after having lost several lives. The
result of the expedition was the subjugation of the cantons of Nubia, nearest
to Syene, to the Persian dominion; however, the Egyptian people, always
disposed to believe unfavourable reports of their masters, only took the failure
at Berua into consideration.[30]
Cambyses had from his infancy been subject to epileptic fits, during which
he was quite furious and unconscious of his actions. The failure of his efforts
in Africa increased his illness, and added to the frequency and length of the
attacks; he lost his former political power, and gave full fling to his naturally
violent temper. The Apis bull had died during his absence, and after the
expiration of the regulation number of days of mourning for the departed, a
new Apis had been installed, when the Persian army returned from Memphis.
Finding the town en fête, Cambyses thought it was rejoicing at his
misfortunes, and he sent for the magistrates and priests, and condemned
them to punishment without listening to their explanations. The ox was
brought to him, and he stabbed it with his dagger in the thigh. The animal
expired a few days later, and the sacrilege caused more excitement amid the
devotees, than the ruin of the country. The rancour of the people was
increased when they saw the conqueror now as active in offending their
deities as he had previously been anxious to conciliate them. He entered the
temple of Ptah and mocked at the grotesque forms under which this god was
worshipped. He violated the ancient tombs so as to examine the mummies.
Even the Aryans and the people of his court were not safe from his rage. He
killed his own sister, whom he had married in spite of the law forbidding
marriage between children of the same father and mother. He killed the son
of Prexaspes [by shooting an arrow into his heart as a proof that his aim was
not the unsteadier for drink[31]], he buried twelve of the Persian generals
alive, ordered the execution of Crœsus, and then, repenting of his
precipitancy, condemned the officers who had not executed the order, which
he regretted having given. The Egyptians maintained that the gods struck him
with madness as a punishment for his sacrilegious conduct.
 As there was nothing to detain him longer on
[522 b.c.] the banks of the Nile, he started on his return to
Asia. On arriving at the north of Syria, he was
met by a herald, who proclaimed, within earshot of the whole army,
that Cambyses, son of Cyrus, had ceased to reign, and Bardius, son
of Cyrus, was now king in his place. Cambyses thought at first that
his orders had not been obeyed, and that his brother’s life had been
spared by the man sent to assassinate him. But he soon learned that
his orders had been only too faithfully fulfilled, and he bemoaned the
useless crime, when he found that the usurper was a certain
Gaumata, or Gometes, so strikingly like Bardius that the people were
easily deceived. This Gaumata had a brother Patizeithes, to whom
Cambyses had entrusted the care of his household. They were both
cognisant of the death of Bardius, but they knew that the majority of
the Persians were still ignorant of his death, and believed that the
prince was still alive.
Gaumata therefore incited the rebellion in the town of Pasargada
at the beginning of March, 522, and after a little hesitation Persia
and Media and the body of the empire declared in his favour and
solemnly accepted him on the 9th Garmapada (July), 522. Utterly
overwhelmed at the turn of affairs, Cambyses took the head of the
troops which had remained faithful to him, but he died in a
mysterious way. The inscription of Behistun seems to intimate that
he lost his life by his own hand in a fit of despair. Herodotus says
that as he was mounting his horse his dagger entered his thigh at
the same spot as he had stabbed the Apis bull.
“Feeling that his death was at hand, he asked the name of the
place where he was, and he was told it was Ecbatana.” Now, some
time before he had been told by the oracle of Buto that he would
end his days at Ecbatana. He had always thought that Ecbatana was
in Syria, so when he heard the name of the place, he recollected the
words of the oracle, and said, “It is here that Cambyses, son of
Cyrus, is destined to die”; and he expired twenty days later without
leaving any posterity, or nominating a successor.g