© ASHRAE.

Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either

print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

re
to
Protecting Building

ks
Occupants from Smoke
During Wildfire and oo
/b
rg
Prescribed Burn Events
e .o
ra
sh

Approved by ASHRAE on November 13, 2024.

.a

ASHRAE® Guidelines are scheduled to be updated on a five-year cycle; the date following the Guideline number is the year
w

of ASHRAE approval. The latest edition of an ASHRAE Guideline may be purchased on the ASHRAE website
(www.ashrae.org) or from ASHRAE Customer Service, 180 Technology Parkway, Peachtree Corners, GA 30092. E-mail:
w

[email protected]. Fax: 678-539-2129. Telephone: 404-636-8400 (worldwide) or toll free 1-800-527-4723 (for orders in
US and Canada). For reprint permission, go to www.ashrae.org/permissions.
w

© 2024 ASHRAE ISSN 1049-894X

PDF includes hyperlinks for convenient navigation. Click on a reference to a section,

table, figure, or equation to jump to its location. Return to the previous page via the
bookmark menu.
 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.
ASHRAE Guideline Project Committee 44
Environmental Health Committee
SPLS Liaisons: Satish N. Iyengar (2024–), Jay Kohler (2020–2024)

Steven J. Emmerich,* Chair Sarah B. Henderson David A. Schaaf, Jr.*

Gregory Nilsson,* Vice Chair Tom M. Javins* Rebecca J. Schmidt*
Randall L. Cooper* Ann Kosmal Emily Snyder
Abdel K. Darwich* Shichao Liu Kevin Y. Teichman*
Michael W. Gallagher* Michael Osborne Amanda Jane Wheeler
Duane Hammond* Alison Savage*

* Denotes members of voting status when the document was approved for publication

ASHRAE STANDARDS COMMITTEE 2024–2025

re
Douglas D. Fick, Chair Satish N. Iyengar Gwelen Paliaga
Adrienne G. Thomle, Vice Chair Phillip A. Johnson Karl L. Peterman

to
Hoy R. Bohanon, Jr. Paul A. Lindahl, Jr. Justin M. Prosser
Kelley P. Cramm Julie Majurin Christopher J. Seeton

ks
Abdel K. Darwich Lawrence C. Markel Paolo M. Tronville
Drake H. Erbe Margaret M. Mathison Douglas K. Tucker

oo
Patricia Graef Kenneth A. Monroe William F. Walter
William M. Healy Daniel H. Nall David P. Yuill
Jaap Hogeling Philip J. Naughton Susanna S. Hanson, BOD ExO
Jennifer A. Isenbeck
/b
Kathleen Owen Wade H. Conlan, CO
rg
Ryan Shanley, Senior Manager of Standards
.o

SPECIAL NOTE
This Guideline was developed under the auspices of ASHRAE. ASHRAE Guidelines are developed under a review process, identifying a Guideline
for the design, testing, application, or evaluation of a specific product, concept, or practice. As a Guideline it is not definitive but encompasses
e

areas where there may be a variety of approaches, none of which must be precisely correct. ASHRAE Guidelines are written to assist professionals
ra

in the area of concern and expertise of ASHRAE’s Technical Committees and Task Groups.
ASHRAE Guidelines are prepared by Project Committees appointed specifically for the purpose of writing Guidelines. The Project Committee
Chair and Vice-Chair must be members of ASHRAE; while other committee members may or may not be ASHRAE members, all must be technically
sh

qualified in the subject area of the Guideline.

Development of ASHRAE Guidelines follows procedures similar to those for ASHRAE Standards except that (a) committee balance is desired
but not required, (b) an effort is made to achieve consensus but consensus is not required, (c) Guidelines are not appealable, and (d) Guidelines
are not submitted to ANSI for approval.
.a

The Senior Manager of Standards of ASHRAE should be contacted for

a. interpretation of the contents of this Guideline,
w

b. participation in the next review of the Guideline,

c. offering constructive criticism for improving the Guideline, or
d. permission to reprint portions of the Guideline.
w
w

DISCLAIMER
ASHRAE uses its best efforts to promulgate Standards and Guidelines for the benefit of the public in light of available information and accepted
industry practices. However, ASHRAE does not guarantee, certify, or assure the safety or performance of any products, components, or systems
tested, installed, or operated in accordance with ASHRAE’s Standards or Guidelines or that any tests conducted under its Standards or Guidelines
will be nonhazardous or free from risk.

ASHRAE INDUSTRIAL ADVERTISING POLICY ON STANDARDS

ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines are established to assist industry and the public by offering a uniform method of testing for rating purposes, by
suggesting safe practices in designing and installing equipment, by providing proper definitions of this equipment, and by providing other information
that may serve to guide the industry. The creation of ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines is determined by the need for them, and conformance
to them is completely voluntary.
In referring to this Standard or Guideline and in marking of equipment and in advertising, no claim shall be made, either stated or implied,
that the product has been approved by ASHRAE.
 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

CONTENTS
ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024
Protecting Building Occupants from Smoke During Wildfire
and Prescribed Burn Events

re
SECTION PAGE
Foreword ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2

to
1 Purpose............................................................................................................................................................. 2
2 Scope ................................................................................................................................................................ 2

ks
3 Definitions and Symbols.................................................................................................................................... 2
4 Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 5

oo
5 Design and Commissioning ............................................................................................................................ 12
6 Operation During a Wildland Fire Event.......................................................................................................... 24
7 References...................................................................................................................................................... 39
/b
Informative Appendix A: Analysis of Particulate Matter Concentrations During Recent
U.S. Western Wildfires...................................................................................................................... 47
rg
Informative Appendix B: Managing Air-Side Economizer and Demand-Control Ventilation for Smoke ................ 51
e .o
ra
sh
.a
w
w
w

NOTE

Approved addenda, errata, or interpretations for this guideline can be downloaded free of charge from the ASHRAE
website at www.ashrae.org/technology.

© 2024 ASHRAE
180 Technology Parkway · Peachtree Corners, GA 30092 · www.ashrae.org · All rights reserved.
ASHRAE is a registered trademark of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

(This foreword is not part of this guideline. It is merely informative and does not contain requirements
necessary for conformance to the guideline.)
FOREWORD
In recent years, the incidence of wildland fires has increased in both the number of fires per year and the
severity and duration of each event. In some cases, smoke events have lasted several weeks to months. The
smoke produced from wildland fires can have a significant negative impact on ambient air quality, both
local and distant, which in turn can negatively impact health. This guideline provides detailed information
on the impacts of smoke on human health, with best practices in both building design and building operation
to reduce the impact of prolonged smoke events on indoor air quality. The overall goal is to reduce exposure
of occupants to wildland fire smoke, thereby protecting their health and wellbeing.
1. PURPOSE
The purpose of this guideline is to recommend building measures to minimize occupant health impacts from
wildfire and prescribed burn smoke events.

re
2. SCOPE

to
2.1 This guideline applies to commercial buildings; institutional buildings, including health care facilities;
and multiunit residential buildings, as well as dedicated spaces within these building types intended for tem-
porary human occupancy during a wildfire or prescribed burn smoke event.

ks
2.2 This guideline addresses buildings expected to be occupied by potentially at-risk populations, including
children and older adults.

oo
2.3 This guideline provides recommendations related to the design, installation, commissioning, operation,
and maintenance of building envelope, ventilation, and air-cleaning systems.
2.4 This guideline and its measures do not apply to internally generated smoke (e.g., from internal fires or
structure fires).
3. DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS
/b
rg
3.1 Definitions
actuator: a device, either electrically, pneumatically, or hydraulically operated, that acts as a motor to
.o

change the position of movable devices such as valves or dampers.

air cleaning: the use of equipment that reduces the concentration of airborne contaminants, such as microor-
e

ganisms, dusts, fumes, respirable particles, other particulate matter, gases, odors, and/or vapors in air.
ra

air economizer: duct and dampers arrangement with an automatic control system that together allow a cool-
ing system to supply outdoor air to reduce or eliminate the need for mechanical cooling during mild or cold
weather.
sh

air intake: device or opening through which air is withdrawn from or discharged into a conditioned space
(grilles, registers, diffusers, and slots may be used as air inlets).
.a

air leakage
a. the flow of air through the building envelope caused by a specified pressure difference; a measure of
airtightness, cfm, at fixed pressure (m3/s at fixed pressure).
w

b. undesirable or unwanted leakage of air from within a component within an air-distribution system that
w

could include such items as ducts, air terminal devices, and air-handling units (AHUs).
ambient air quality: attributes of the respirable air outdoors, including particulate matter, gases, and bio-
w

aerosols.
as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA): recognition that absolute concentration thresholds may not be
possible under some circumstance.
microbiological contaminants: pollutants of biological origin, including bacteria, molds, and viruses.
blower door: an assembly consisting of a fan/blower and a calibrated flow measuring station (orifice plate,
flow nozzles, flow ring, etc.) used for pressurizing or depressurizing a building envelope.
building automation system (BAS): an energy management system, usually with additional capabilities,
relating to the overall operation of the building in which it is installed, such as equipment monitoring, pro-
tection of equipment against power failure, and building security.
building envelope: outer elements of a building, including walls, windows, doors, roofs, and floors, includ-
ing those in contact with earth.

2 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

building operator: person responsible for operating building automation equipment or who is responsible
for the overall operation of a building.
building pressure: relationship of pressure in a building relative to the pressure outdoors.
centrifugal fan surge: a phenomenon of increased vibration of sound that can occur when a centrifugal fan
operates in its region of high fan pressure and low or minimum airflow.
commercial air scrubber: system designed to purify the air by removing airborne contaminants through one
or more stages of filtration.
commissioning process: a quality-focused process for enhancing the delivery of a project. The process
focuses on verifying and documenting that the facility and all of its systems and assemblies are planned,
designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained to meet the owner’s project requirements.
conditioned space: that part of a building that is heated and/or cooled and/or humidity-controlled for the
comfort of occupants.
demand-control ventilation (DCV): a feedback control method used to maintain indoor air quality by auto-

re
matically adjusting the ventilation rate provided to a space in response to changes in conditions such as
occupancy or indoor pollutant concentration.
direct-expansion cooling: system in which the cooling effect is obtained directly from the phase change of

to
the liquid refrigerant into a vapor.
direct-fired unit: typically a heater, where the gas is fed directly to the burner while the airstream provides

ks
the needed oxygen for combustion.
electronically commutated motors (ECM): brushless electric motors designed with permanent magnets on
the rotor and on-board electronics to control the voltage and current applied to the motor.

oo
electrostatic precipitator: device for removing dust from the air by inducing an electric charge on the dust
particles.

tion of particulate matter. /b

elemental carbon: formed by the complete combustion of organic matter and used to describe the composi-

energy recovery ventilator: heat exchanger assembly for transferring heat between two isolated fluid
rg
sources. The recovery system may be of air-to-air design or a closed-loop hydronic system design.
fan inlet: the suction side of the fan or fan equipment.
.o

filter: device to remove gases from a mixture of gases and/or to remove solid material from a fluid.
filter bypass: unfiltered air that passes through the air-handling unit (AHU) filter installation but remains
e

unfiltered because it bypasses the installed air filters.

ra

filtration: process of passing a fluid through a porous material in such a manner as to remove suspended
matter from the fluid.
heat exchanger: device to transfer heat between two physically separated fluids. Common types are air-to-
sh

liquid coils, fixed plate, rotary wheels, heat pipes, runaround coil loops, and shell and tube.
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter: higher efficiency than MERV 16 (see minimum efficiency
reporting value).
.a

heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system: the equipment, distribution systems, and termi-
nals that provide, either collectively or individually, the processes of heating, ventilating, or air conditioning
w

to a building or portion of a building.

indoor air quality (IAQ): attributes of the respirable air inside a building (indoor climate), including gas-
w

eous composition, humidity, temperature, and contaminants.

infiltration: uncontrolled inward air leakage to conditioned spaces through unintentional openings in ceil-
w

ings, floors, and walls from unconditioned spaces or the outdoors, caused by the same pressure differences
that induce exfiltration.
intake air vent: an open duct that goes from an outside vent that serves as a path for outdoor air to enter a
structure.
maximum tip speed: the maximum allowable velocity of a fan or impeller blade tip to prevent structural fail-
ure.
means of egress: a continuous and unobstructed path of travel from any point in a building or structure to a
public way.
mechanical ventilation: the active process of supplying or removing air to or from an indoor space by pow-
ered equipment such as motor-driven fans and blowers but not by devices such as wind-driven turbine venti-
lators and mechanically operated windows.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 3

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

minimum efficiency reporting values (MERV): scaled rating of the effectiveness of air filters. The scale is
designed to represent the worst-case performance of a filter when dealing with particles in the range of 0.3 to
10 μm. The MERV rating is from 1 to 16. Higher MERV ratings correspond to a greater percentage of parti-
cles captured on each pass, with a MERV 16 filter capturing more than 95% of particles over the full range.
(Informative Note: MERV is the ASHRAE rating scale for air filters. Europe uses different standards for fil-
ter classes. See www.emw.de/en/filter-campus/comparison-of-filter-classes.html to obtain the filter type that
corresponds to the MERV ratings mentioned throughout the document. Other filter rating systems exist, and
equivalent filter performance for PM2.5 should be specified.)
N95: a rating for face masks indicating 95% removal of 0.3 μm and greater particles that are not oil-based.
natural ventilation: movement of air into and out of a space through intentionally provided openings (such
as windows and doors) by means of nonpowered ventilators.
negative air machine: a type of air scrubber that exhausts air to the outdoors at a rate faster than air is being
supplied to the space, causing the space to become negatively pressurized.
operator: see building operator.

re
outdoor air: (a) air outside a building or taken from the external atmosphere and, therefore, not previously
circulated through the system; (b) ambient air that enters a building through a mechanical ventilation sys-

to
tem, through intentional openings for natural ventilation, or by infiltration.
particle sensor: a device used to sense and measure particles in the air.

ks
particulate matter (PM): a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in air. When the acronym
“PM” is followed by a number, it typically refers to the subset of particulate matter with an aerodynamic
diameter less than or equal to that number in microns. For example, “PM2.5” refers to particulate matter that

oo
is 2.5 μm or less in aerodynamic diameter.
personal protective equipment (PPE): equipment worn to minimize exposure to hazards that can cause inju-
ries or illnesses.
/b
photocatalytic oxidation: a process where ultraviolet (UV) light activates a catalyst to form reactive oxygen
species that react with other components in air to form byproducts.
rg
portable air cleaner (PAC): a mobile device used to remove airborne impurities from air in a single room or
space.
.o

prescribed burn: any fire intentionally ignited by management actions in accordance with applicable laws,
policies, and regulations to meet specific land or resource management objectives; also referred to as “pre-
e

scribed fires,” “planned fires,” and “controlled burns.”

pressure drop: difference in pressure between two points in a flow system, usually caused by frictional
ra

resistance to fluid flow in a conduit, filter, or other flow system.

recirculating air: (a) air taken from a space and returned to that space, usually after being passed through a
sh

conditioning system; (b) the part of the return air that is reused; (c) air removed from a space and reused as
supply air.
recirculation filter: device to remove gases from a mixture of gases and/or to remove solid material from a
.a

fluid that is intended to be recirculated.

relief fan: a fan typically used during economizer operation that exhausts air at a predetermined rate, track-
w

ing with building pressure to offset the outdoor air that is introduced to the system to maintain the desired
building pressure.
w

retrofit: modification of existing equipment, systems, or buildings to incorporate improved performance,

updated operation, improved energy performance, or all three.
w

roof-top packaged units: HVAC unit, typically mounted on a roof, containing coils, a compressor, and fan
with the conditioned air being discharged directly into the rooms below or through a duct system.
sensor: device or instrument designed to detect and measure a variable.
smoke detector (duct-mounted or area detector): a fire-protection device that automatically detects and
gives a warning or alert signal in the presence of smoke.
Smoke Readiness Plan: documentation of the preparatory steps and mitigation strategies that a facility will
use before, during, and after a wildfire smoke event to maintain the quality of indoor air.
smoke: the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or
combustion, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass.
sorbent media air filters: device to remove gases from a mixture of gases and/or to remove solid material
from a fluid via absorption, adsorption, or both.

4 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

static pressure: the resistance to airflow in ductwork or across an appurtenance such as a filter, damper, or
grille.
testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) contractor: a person or organization certified to test, adjust, and
balance HVAC systems to ensure optimal performance.
variable-frequency drive (VFD) or variable-speed drive: electronic device that varies its output frequency
and voltage to vary the rotating speed of a motor, given a fixed input frequency; used with fans or pumps to
vary the flow as a function of a system pressure.
ventilation: the process of supplying air to or removing air from a space for the purpose of controlling air
contaminant levels, humidity, air pressure, or temperature within the space.
video image smoke and fire detection (VISD): a digital video camera coupled with a computer running
video analytic software that can recognize smoke and fire in the image.
volatile organic compounds (VOCs): organic compounds in the vapor state present in the ambient or indoor
air.

re
wildfire: any fire started by an unplanned ignition caused by lightning, volcanoes, or other acts of nature;
unauthorized activity; accidental, human-caused actions; or a prescribed burn that has developed into a wild-
fire.

to
wildland fire: generic term used to describe wildfires and prescribed burns.
wildland urban interface (WUI): the zone of transition between unoccupied land and human development.

ks
It is the line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undevel-
oped wildland or vegetative fuels.

oo
3.2 List of Acronyms
ALARA as low as reasonably achievable
AHU air-handling unit
BAS
BoD
building automation system
Basis of Design /b
rg
CADR clean-air delivery rate
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
DCV demand-control ventilation
.o

DHC dust-holding capacity

HVAC heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
e

IAQ indoor air quality

ra

HEPA high-efficiency particulate air

MERV minimum efficiency reporting value
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
sh

OPR owner’s project requirements

PAC portable air cleaner
.a

PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

PM particulate matter
w

PPE personal protective equipment

TAB testing, adjusting, and balancing
w

UV ultraviolet
VAV variable air volume
w

VFD variable-frequency drive

VISD video image smoke and fire detection
VOC volatile organic compound
WUI wildland urban interface
4. BACKGROUND
4.1 Wildland Fires. There are many different types of fire that can occur on the landscape, which are
broadly classified into controlled fires and wildfires. Controlled fires include prescribed burns for ecological
restoration or wildfire risk reduction, land clearing, pile burning of waste biomass, and agricultural fires.
Wildfires, on the other hand, are unpredictable and can be caused by human activity or infrastructure, light-
ning strikes, or when controlled fires escape containment. Although many wildfires are suppressed when
they are small, some cannot be suppressed when the weather conditions are unfavorable and they grow very

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 5

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

large.1 When such fires occur at the interface of wildland and human habitation (referred to as wildland
urban interface, or WUI), they can burn a vast amount of anthropogenic material in addition to natural bio-
fuels. All fires generate smoke pollution, but large landscape and WUI wildfires often cause episodes of
severely degraded air quality that lasts for days, weeks, or months. Prescribed burns, when properly con-
ducted, should be low intensity fires with a defined duration and smoke management plan. This guideline
was primarily developed to address episodes of severe wildfire smoke, but it can be applied to smoke from
all types of fires, including prescribed burns. As different terms are used to describe landscape and wildfires
and/or prescribed burns, this document uses the term wildland fire smoke as a generic term unless a specific
source is being addressed.
Wildfire risk is increasing worldwide for complex and interrelated reasons.2 Before colonization, indige-
nous people in North America, Australia, and elsewhere practiced systematic prescribed burning to shape
the landscape and maintain ecological balance.3 Settlers in these regions favored fire suppression to protect
lives and property, thereby excluding fire from naturally flammable landscapes and causing fuels to accumu-
late.4 Although forest management practices have been changing over the past decades, the accumulation of

re
landscape fuels now coincides with a drier, hotter, and windier climate, which are all conditions that increase
wildfire risk.5 In addition, wildfire seasons are becoming longer or becoming year-round in some areas.6
Overall, two important trends are expected to affect smoke pollution in the years ahead: increased frequency,

to
size, and intensity of wildfires, and increased use of prescribed burns to reduce wildfire risk.
4.2 Composition of Wildland Fire Smoke. Smoke from wildland fires is a complex and dynamic form of

ks
air pollution. Its composition depends on the fuels being burned, their moisture content, the temperature of
the fire, the weather conditions, the distance the smoke has traveled, and other factors.7 Most simply, smoke
is composed of gases and particles. From a health perspective, the most important gases are oxides of nitro-

oo
gen (NOX), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and secondary
ground-level ozone (O3) formed when NOX and VOCs interact with ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.
The particulate matter (PM) in smoke ranges in size from less than 0.1 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM0.1
/b
to greater than 10 µm (PM10) but is often characterized by particles less than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diam-
eter (PM2.5, or fine particulate matter). Most wildland fire smoke particles are less than 1.0 µm, though the
rg
size distribution changes as smoke ages in the atmosphere.8 The composition of the particles is highly vari-
able with respect to elemental carbon, organic carbon, and other substances such as heavy metals.7 Smoke
becomes even more complex when anthropogenic materials burn along with landscape fuels.
.o

4.3 Ambient Air Quality Impacts of Wildland Fire Smoke. “Ambient air quality” is a term used to
describe the status of outdoor air concerning the mix of air pollutants from all anthropogenic and natural
e

sources. Many jurisdictions have regulatory standards that describe the legally allowable concentrations of
ra

different pollutants in ambient air. These concentrations are typically reduced slowly over time to ensure that
air quality always improves. The pollutants for which such standards exist are known as “criteria air pollut-
ants,” and they usually include PM2.5 and/or PM10, O3, NOX, oxides of sulfur (SOX), and carbon monoxide
sh

(CO).9 These pollutants are typically measured by a distributed network of regulatory monitoring stations
using instruments that meet high standards for accuracy and precision. Concentrations are often logged at
one-minute intervals and reported as one-hour averages. Many air quality monitoring programs also include
.a

measurements of some VOCs, PAHs, lead, and other hazardous compounds known as “toxic air pollut-
ants.”9 Most of these compounds must be quantified by laboratory analysis of air samples, so a small num-
w

ber of measurements are made at a small number of locations compared with the criteria air pollutants. Toxic
air pollutants are not regulated in the same way as criteria air pollutants. Whereas criteria air pollutants are
w

measured in ambient air to assess compliance, emissions of toxic air pollutants are regulated at their source.
Wildland fire smoke could affect ambient concentrations of all criteria air pollutants, but its largest
w

impacts are on PM2.5.7 Under typical air quality conditions in most high-income countries, the 24-hour
average mass concentration of PM2.5 is less than 25 micrograms of particulate matter per cubic meter of air
(µg/m3) in dense urban environments and less than 10 µg/m3 in many other locations. In comparison, days
affected by moderate wildland fire smoke can have concentrations up to five times higher, and days affected
by extreme wildfire smoke can have concentrations more than fifty times higher. Wildfire smoke episodes
can last for days, weeks, or months, and their day-to-day PM2.5 concentrations tend to be highly variable
because the fire dynamics change and the winds shift. In comparison, the effects of smoke on concentrations
of other criteria air pollutants are typically quite small (Figure 1).
The effects of wildland fire smoke on ambient concentrations of toxic air pollutants are poorly under-
stood compared with the effects on criteria air pollutants. Because these pollutants are measured infre-
quently at a small number of locations, existing monitoring networks often do not capture the impacts of
smoke. As international interest in smoke grows, more research studies are being designed to characterize its

6 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
ks
oo
/b
rg
e .o
ra
sh

Figure 1 Daily 24-hour concentrations (June to October) of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen diox-
ide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and ground-level ozone (O3) in one community affected by severe wildfire
.a

smoke. In each case, the maximum value on the y-axis is the median concentration over the time series multiplied
by 45, which reflects the difference between the median and maximum PM2.5 concentrations. The dashed lines
show the most relevant U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) value for PM2.5 (35 g/m3 for a 24-
w

hour average), NO2 (100 ppb for a one-hour average), and O3 (70 ppb for an eight-hour average). The NAAQS for
SO2 is not shown because the value is beyond the maximum of the y-axis (75 ppb for a one-hour average). The
w

figure demonstrates how elevated PM2.5 ambient concentrations are during wildfire season compared with the
typical background, and how much more elevated PM2.5 concentrations are than concentrations of other criteria
air pollutants.
w

air quality impacts more completely by measuring criteria air pollutants, toxic air pollutants, and the compo-
sition of particulate matter.10 Such studies have reported that wildfire smoke can include high concentrations
of harmful VOCs, secondary O3, PAH, metals, and other compounds, and that the air quality impacts are
highly variable.11–14 A recent study conducted with regulatory data compared smoke-impacted and non-
smoke-impacted days and reported that the most elevated ambient air toxics were formaldehyde (43%
increase on smoke-impacted days), acetaldehyde (36% increase), and acrolein (34% increase).15 While
smoke is a complex and dynamic mixture with many constituents that can affect human health, it is import-
ant to recognize that only a few can be easily measured in real time.
Evidence on the indoor infiltration of organic and inorganic gases during wildfire smoke is very limited.
A recent study measured vapor-phase PAH concentrations indoors and outdoors before, during, and after

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 7

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

wildfires at 15 locations. They found 12 unique PAHs were only detected in outdoor air during the wildfires
and that PAH concentrations were often higher indoors than outdoors during wildfires, highlighting the
importance of indoor sources.16 However, PAHs and other contaminants, such as heavy metals, can bind to
indoor particulate matter, and studies have shown they persist in dust after the outdoor smoke has
cleared.17,18 More general studies on inorganic gases show they have somewhat lower indoor infiltration
than PM2.5, especially when windows are closed.19 However, there is not enough information to provide
evidence-based guidance on reducing indoor exposure to the gases in wildfire smoke. Limiting indoor infil-
tration of outdoor air through the building envelope is likely to reduce indoor exposure to gases as well as
PM2.5. Filtering the indoor air, on the other hand, will reduce exposure to harmful constituents that have
adsorbed to the PM2.5 but will not reduce concentrations of gaseous pollutants unless activated carbon or
similar technologies are used.
4.4 Focus on Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5). The mass concentration of PM2.5 is often used as a proxy
for the complex wildland fire smoke mixture, its air quality impacts, and its potential health effects. There
are three key reasons for this. The first and most important is that PM2.5 can penetrate deep into the human

re
lungs, where the particles cause local irritation and systemic inflammation that can affect other organ sys-
tems.20 Short-term and long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 has been conclusively linked to a wide range
of acute and chronic health effects by a large body of scientific research.21,22 While most of these studies

to
have focused on PM2.5 from sources other than wildland fire, the growing literature on the health effects of
wildland fire smoke has been largely consistent with the broader health evidence on PM2.5.23–25 The co-

ks
pollutants in wildland fire smoke may cause health effects in addition to or synergistically with those of
PM2.5 exposure, but they have not been well studied to date.
Second, the known health effects of ambient PM2.5 have led to its regulation as a criteria air pollutant in

oo
most jurisdictions, meaning that it is routinely measured at one-hour intervals across many locations, espe-
cially in high-income countries. Third, wildland fire smoke leads to larger and more consistent increases in
ambient PM2.5 than other criteria air pollutants (Figure 1).7 In brief, PM2.5 has well-established health
/b
effects, is routinely measured in many locations, and is more impacted by wildland fire smoke than other
pollutants. This makes PM2.5 the best information for assessing the air quality impacts of smoke and its
rg
potential health effects. Furthermore, PM2.5 emissions from wildland fires are relatively easy to model and
include in air quality forecasts that predict concentrations over the coming days. Many agencies now rou-
tinely produce smoke forecasts for the next 24 to 72 hours, which are valuable tools for short-term planning
.o

and response.26–28
The health effects associated with PM2.5 are primarily due to the small size of the particles, though the
e

composition of the particles also plays a role. Different constituents, such as elemental carbon, organic car-
bon, and heavy metals, have been associated with modified toxicity of PM2.5 at the same mass concentra-
ra

tion. The toxicity of PM2.5 in wildland fire smoke is a very active area of research,29–31 but the available
evidence does not support distinguishing between different types of smoke based on fuels burned, fire inten-
sh

sity, or distance traveled. As such, this guideline focuses on reducing the mass concentration of PM2.5
indoors whenever ambient air quality is affected by smoke from wildland fires.
4.5 Health Effects of Wildland Fire Smoke. Short-term exposure to PM2.5 in wildland fire smoke has
.a

been associated with a comprehensive and growing range of acute health effects. There is consistent evi-
dence that wildfire smoke exposure leads to higher rates of acute respiratory outcomes, including respiratory
w

symptoms, use of rescue medications, reduced lung function, outpatient physician visits, emergency depart-
ment visits, ambulance dispatches, hospital admissions, and deaths.23,24 Some of this evidence suggests that
w

the respiratory effects of wildland fire smoke PM2.5 may be greater than those of PM2.5 from other sources,
even at the same concentrations.32,33 It is not yet clear whether these differences are due to differences in the
w

PM2.5 composition and toxicity between sources or unmeasured copollutants in wildland fire smoke.
Although wildland fire smoke makes first contact with the respiratory system, it can affect many other
parts of the body due to the inflammation and oxidative stress it causes in the lungs. There is increasingly
consistent evidence that short-term exposure to smoke PM2.5 is associated with acute cardiovascular out-
comes, including reduced heart rate variability, increased blood pressure, unstable angina, heart attacks,
strokes, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, and death.30 In contrast with respiratory outcomes, the effects of wild-
land fire smoke PM2.5 on cardiovascular outcomes may be smaller than or more consistent with the effects
of PM2.5 from other sources.
A rapidly growing body of evidence also indicates that wildfire smoke PM2.5 has negative effects
beyond the respiratory and cardiovascular system, including cognitive function,34 immune function,35 kid-
ney disease,36 and blood sugar control among those who use insulin.37 These types of effects associated
with smoke exposure are consistent with the wider literature on the effects of PM2.5 from other sources.

8 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Many acute respiratory, cardiovascular, and other health effects associated with short-term smoke exposures
have now been reported within the first hours of increasing PM2.5 concentrations,34,37 highlighting the
potential role of the indoor environment as a protective space.
Much less is currently known about the longer-term health effects associated with seasonal smoke expo-
sures. It is plausible that extreme exposures during a severe wildfire season could cause health effects that do
not resolve after the smoke has cleared, such as permanent detriments to lung function. It is also plausible
that repeated seasonal exposures to wildland fire smoke can induce the onset of chronic diseases, consistent
with the well-known effects of long-term exposure to urban air pollution from other sources. Indeed, two
recent studies have shown an increased incidence of cancer after exposure to smoke from a coal mine fire38
and higher cancer rates in populations nearer to repeated wildfire activity.38 While coal mine and wildland
fire smoke may differ in composition and toxicology, the PM2.5 exposures for affected populations can be
similar in magnitude and duration. Overall, longer-term health effects associated with wildland fire smoke
exposure is an active and growing area of epidemiologic research.40
The longer-term effects of wildland fire smoke exposure on children, infants, pregnant women, and

re
developing fetuses are all areas of particular concern. These groups are generally very sensitive to air pollu-
tion, and smoke exposure in early life may affect health throughout the life course.41 For example, exposure
to wildfire smoke PM2.5 during gestation has been associated with adverse birth outcomes such as preterm

to
birth, low birth weight, and being small for gestational age.42 In turn, all of these outcomes are associated
with lifelong detriments to health. For example, a recent study found that adults who had been born preterm

ks
were more affected by wildfire smoke exposure than those who had been born at full term.43 Rhesus
macaque studies have found associations between smoke from the severe 2018 Camp Fire wildfire and
increased risk of pregnancy loss with exposure near conception,44 and biological and behavioral impacts of

oo
exposure specifically with exposure during the first third of pregnancy.45 Other recent work on infant rhesus
macaque monkeys exposed to wildfire smoke has found that they had smaller lung size and poorer immune
function than unexposed infants and that some of these traits were passed down to their offspring.35,46

other sources. /b
Again, much of this research on wildland fire smoke PM2.5 is consistent with the research on PM2.5 from

All of this evidence supports the need to protect people from exposure to wildland fire smoke. Although
rg
most epidemiologic research has used outdoor concentrations of PM2.5 to estimate smoke exposures, it
must be acknowledged that most people in high-income countries spend at least 90% of their time indoors.47
.o

As such, the health effects associated with smoke PM2.5 must be predominantly due to indoor exposures,
and it follows that the burden of acute and chronic health effects can be reduced if the indoor impacts of out-
door smoke can be limited in places where people spend their time.
e

4.6 At-Risk Populations. Some people are more susceptible to experiencing health effects due to smoke
ra

exposure. Anyone with a reactive respiratory condition such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD) may be at risk of sudden airway closure and difficulty breathing, even after short exposures
to relatively low PM2.5 concentrations.48 These individuals may also be at increased risk of longer-term
sh

health effects, especially those with conditions defined by degenerative lung function, such as COPD.40
People with other chronic conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, neurological disease, mental illness,
and dementia may also be at higher risk.23,24 In general, people with conditions that compromise their daily
.a

health are more likely to be adversely affected by exposure to wildland fire smoke.
The effects of smoke exposure also vary by age. There is evidence that the developing fetus can be
w

affected by maternal smoke exposure, and there may be critical developmental windows when exposures
cause specific harm, such as birth defects. Newborn infants may be especially sensitive to smoke exposure
w

in the first months of life when their lungs undergo rapid changes. Human lungs continue to grow and
develop well into adolescence. Young children are at particular risk because they have a high baseline respi-
w

ration rate, they tend to be more active than adults, and they often spend more time outdoors.49,50 On the
other end of the spectrum, there are natural decreases in lung function that occur with age, so older adults
may be at higher risk from smoke exposure even if they are in good health.51
There are some indoor environments where people who are more susceptible to wildland fire smoke con-
gregate. Inpatients at hospitals and other acute care facilities are in a state of compromised health, and
smoke exposure in these environments may exacerbate their conditions and complicate care. Likewise, long-
term care and assisted living facilities house individuals who are generally unable to care for themselves
independently and may be at higher risk from smoke exposure. Although the populations of prisons may be
younger than those in acute or residential care, the baseline health of incarcerated people is significantly
lower than that of the general population.52 In all of these cases, the populations at risk are congregated in
the same setting for 24 hours per day, seven days per week, so limiting smoke in these indoor environments
is the only way to reduce their smoke exposure.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 9

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

There should also be special attention paid to indoor environments where infants and children congre-
gate, such as daycares, schools, and summer camps. In most cases, these spaces will be used by children
during daytime hours only, and most of their exposures will occur in their homes and other environments.
However, these hours will be the most active time of the day for most children, with higher respiration rates
and deeper breaths during play. Once again, limiting smoke in these indoor environments is an important
way to help protect the short- and long-term health of infants and children.49,53
4.7 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). Most people in high-income countries spend more than 90% of their time
indoors,47 where the built environment mediates their exposure to the outdoor air. Indoor air quality (IAQ) is
a complex product of multiple factors, including outdoor air quality; indoor emissions; systems used for
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC); and other mechanisms, such as deposition, chemical
transformation, and air cleaning. The ASHRAE Position Document on Indoor Air Quality recognizes that
IAQ affects human health, comfort, well-being, learning outcomes, and work performance.54 It is the
ASHRAE position that provision of acceptable IAQ is an essential building service and that all decisions
about buildings and HVAC systems must consider the implications for IAQ. This guideline is written under

re
the assumption the HVAC systems are well-maintained and working as designed in the buildings for which
Smoke Readiness Plans are being developed.

to
There are currently no federal government standards for PM2.5 in indoor air environments. For informa-
tional purposes, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) primary (health-based) national ambi-
ent air quality standards (NAAQS), established under the Clean Air Act, include both 24-hour and annual

ks
PM2.5 standards, which work together to protect the public from health effects associated with long- and
short-term fine-particle exposures. The annual PM2.5 NAAQS is currently set at a level of 12.0 μg/m3
(annual mean, averaged over three years) and the 24-hour PM2.5 NAAQS is currently set at a level of

oo
35 μg/m3 (98 percentile, averaged over three years) at the time of publication of this guideline. The science
upon which the NAAQS are based and the standards themselves are periodically reviewed and sometimes
revised. Refer to the EPA website55 for the most up-to-date standards. Refer to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard

/b
62.1 56 Informative Appendices E and N (considering occupant age, etc.) or standards published by other
international environmental associations. The goal should be to keep indoor PM2.5 concentrations as low as
rg
reasonably achievable.
4.8 Indoor Infiltration of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) from Wildland Fire Smoke. Wildland fire
smoke can enter the indoor environment through mechanical HVAC systems, natural ventilation systems,
.o

doors, windows, and any other openings in the building envelope. The proportion of outdoor smoke that gets
indoors is often called the coefficient of infiltration, for which the theoretical range is 0% to 100%. Different
e

constituents of the complex smoke mixture may infiltrate indoors with different efficiencies, depending on
the physical and chemical properties that influence their behavior. Outdoor gases infiltrate the indoor envi-
ra

ronment at a range of different coefficients under typical ambient air quality conditions,57,58 and less is
known about the infiltration of outdoor gases during episodes of landscape fire smoke.
sh

Several studies have measured PM2.5 infiltration during episodes of wildland fire smoke using simulta-
neous measurements of indoor and outdoor concentrations.59–67 Many of these studies have been conducted
in residential environments, often as part of trials testing the efficacy of air-cleaning interventions. In the
.a

absence of any interventions, studies in residential environments have reported infiltration coefficients rang-
ing from as low as 20% to as high as 100%, depending on the characteristics of the homes and occupant
w

behaviors. Factors associated with higher residential infiltration coefficients include leakier building enve-
lopes and more use of doors and windows by building inhabitants.
w

There are relatively fewer studies examining PM2.5 infiltration into larger buildings during episodes of
wildland fire smoke. In general, larger buildings have been more resilient to smoke than residential environ-
ments, with infiltration coefficients ranging from as low as 20% to as high as 80% in some cases.61 Factors
w

associated with higher commercial infiltration coefficients include natural ventilation and the use of large
doors such as loading bays.60,67 Factors associated with lower infiltration coefficients include mechanical
ventilation, closed windows, restricted use of entry doors, and distance from points of entry.
4.9 Indoor Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Should Be as Low as Reasonably Achievable (ALARA).
Very few studies have reported PM2.5 infiltration coefficients of less than 20% during wildfire smoke epi-
sodes, even when significant efforts were made to limit smoke infiltration and clean the indoor air.59 This
may represent a practicable lower threshold when considering the as low as reasonably achievable
(ALARA) approach to indoor PM2.5 control when the outdoor air is affected by wildland fire smoke.
Outdoor concentrations of PM2.5 can vary widely during smoke episodes (Figure 1), with 24-hour mea-
surements easily 300 µg/m3 or higher in some areas. Such outdoor concentrations translate to indoor concen-
trations of 60 µg/m3 or higher under the assumption of a 20% infiltration coefficient with no indoor PM2.5

10 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

sources. This reduction in PM2.5 constitutes cleaner indoor air compared with the outdoor environment, but
not clean indoor air as it might be defined by existing guidelines and standards. For example, the EPA main-
tains a 24-hour average standard of less than 35 µg/m3 of PM2.5 in outdoor air on 98% or more of days, aver-
aged over a three-year period. The equivalent Canadian standard was set at 28 µg/m3 from 2015 to 2020 and
27 µg/m3 from 2020 to 2025. This value may be further reduced in 2025, reflecting that there is no known
threshold of PM2.5 exposure without observable effects on population health. Recognizing this, the World
Health Organization (WHO) recently revised its 24-hour PM2.5 concentration guideline to 15 µg/m3.68
Currently, there are no regulated limits for indoor concentrations of PM2.5. The ALARA principle is
suggested, referencing the most up-to-date sources of information, including (but not limited to):
a. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.156 Informative Appendices E and N
b. EPA website69
c. Websites for local health authorities that describe exposure considerations for PM2.5
It should be noted that the ALARA approach to indoor PM2.5 may need to be balanced against other

re
potential health hazards. For example, wildfires often occur during hot weather when indoor overheating can
pose a significant health risk, especially for susceptible populations. In such cases, building operators may

to
need to balance indoor PM2.5 concentrations with occupant thermal safety. Similarly, wildfires may occur
during periods of heightened risk for diseases caused by infectious aerosols, which may pose a significant
health risk to some building occupants. In such cases, building operators may need to adjust the balance

ks
between outdoor air intake and recirculated indoor air. Overall, design engineers and building operators
should be prepared to address multiple health hazards based on the characteristics of the individual building
and the population it serves. Under ideal circumstances, buildings can help to protect their occupants from

oo
multiple and overlapping health threats.
To provide some further information on short-term health-based PM2.5 concentrations, Table 1 includes

and used in many parts of Canada.129 /b

the evidence-based smoke-adapted Air Quality Health Index (AQHI-Plus) developed in British Columbia

For any given building, the only way to understand the indoor infiltration of outdoor PM2.5 is to mea-
rg
sure indoor and outdoor concentrations simultaneously. There is now a proliferation of affordable sensor
technology for measuring PM2.5 with reasonable accuracy and precision, though data quality can vary
.o

within and between devices as described in Section 6.2.8. Many studies on smoke infiltration have leveraged
these sensors to estimate infiltration coefficients and evaluate the effects of different interventions on those
coefficients.59,60,64 The best Smoke Readiness Plans will include indoor and outdoor PM2.5 measurements
e

to ensure that indoor concentrations are truly ALARA for the building.
ra

4.10 Emerging Air-Cleaning and Sensor Technologies. Many existing technologies can reduce the indoor
impacts of outdoor wildland fire smoke, and this guideline provides information on their use. At the same
sh

time, rapid technological changes are occurring in the field of IAQ that will complement this guideline in
years to come. The global COVID-19 pandemic has led to unprecedented interest in IAQ improvements as
an intervention to control the transmission of infectious airborne disease. This paradigm shift has been com-
.a

pared to much earlier efforts to provide sanitation, clean drinking water, and safe food70 and is likely to yield
significant HVAC and air filtration innovations. At the same time, there are rapid advances in more reliable
and low-cost sensors that can measure PM2.5 and other constituents of wildland fire smoke.
w

Low-cost PM2.5 sensors are increasing in availability, reliability, and durability and are highly recom-
mended to be considered in new designs or added to existing buildings where practical. Strategic location in
w

high use areas allows these sensors to act as one of the indicators of the effectiveness of any adaptations or
design features of the HVAC system to reduce the impact of smoke on IAQ. They can also give information
w

on when to trigger the Smoke Readiness Plan. In addition to measuring PM2.5, some instruments include
additional sensors, such as for CO, CO2, relative humidity (RH), or temperature.
Informative Note: Devices intended for smoke detection from internal structural fires are not included in
this section. Building fire suppression, detection, and control measures are not included in this guideline.
Given the breadth of air sensor technologies entering the market, the U.S. EPA71 has compiled informa-
tion on the performance, siting, operation, and best practices for effectively using these sensors. The ideal
application would be to monitor the space year-round and collect data on IAQ trends. These data can provide
information on the baseline condition or the normal PM concentrations in the building. Because indoor
activities can generate PM2.5, it is critical to place the sensor at its projected location prior to a smoke event
to understand how the background concentrations change as a function of occupancy and activities in the
building. These data can then be used to inform the Smoke Readiness Plan. For example, a certain PM con-

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 11

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Table 1 “Risk Categories for Ambient 1-hour PM2.5 Concentrations Based on the Smoke-Adapted Air Quality Health
Index (AQHI-Plus) in Canada

Range of 1-Hour PM2.5 Health Message for People at Health Message for the
Concentrations Risk Category Higher Risk General Population
0 to 30 g/m3 Low Enjoy your usual activities Enjoy your usual activities
3
31 to 60 g/m Moderate Consider reducing activities if you Enjoy your usual activities
experience symptoms unless you experience
symptoms
61 to 100 g/m3 High Reduce or reschedule strenuous Consider reducing activities if
activity you experience symptoms
>100 g/m3 Very high Avoid strenuous activity Reduce or reschedule
strenuous activity, especially if
you experience symptoms

re
Informative Note: This table is intended to provide general health-based guidance for short-term (1-hour) PM2.5 concentrations, not long-term IAQ standards. This
Guideline recommends that indoor PM2.5 should be ALARA, which often will be lower than the 1-hour 30 g/m3 threshold for the low-risk category shown here.

to
centration or deviation from typical background concentration could trigger specific actions, such as increas-
ing filtration or building pressurization set points.

ks
Some sensors can send data to a cloud application that will increase resiliency in case the local storage is
lost. These data can be made public or secure depending on the user’s settings.
These low-cost sensors should not be used to report PM2.5 concentrations for any regulatory require-

oo
ments. They are only to be used as an indicator to compare existing conditions to baseline conditions and/or
to monitor the effectiveness of adaptations made to the HVAC system. PM2.5 sensors may not give the exact
concentration of PM2.5 in the air unless they are calibrated or corrected for the specific conditions. Raw sen-

/b
sor data can still be useful for understanding air quality, such as by examining trends over time or comparing
air quality in different locations (e.g., indoors vs. outdoors). Short-term (e.g., one-minute) sensor readings
should not be directly compared with health-based scales such as the Air Quality Index (AQI) for PM2.5,
rg
which uses a much longer averaging time (e.g., 24-hours). Whenever possible, it is best practice to set the
averaging period for the sensor data to at least 15-minute intervals to provide the most meaningful estimates.
.o

More information on indoor and outdoor PM2.5 monitoring is available in Section 6.2.8.
Another newer technology that could be used is video image smoke and fire detection (VISD), which
e

consists of a digital video camera coupled with a computer running video analytic software that can recog-
nize smoke and fire in the image. VISD systems can monitor outside the building and look for visible indica-
ra

tions of a fire or smoke to determine if the smoke is from outside the building or inside the building.
4.11 Need for This Guideline. Every building is different, but the principles of smoke infiltration are the
sh

same across all buildings. Smoke can be actively drawn indoors through the outdoor air intake of an HVAC
system, and it can move passively indoors through doors, windows, and other openings in the building enve-
lope. It follows that minimizing indoor smoke impacts requires two approaches: preventing smoke from
.a

entering buildings and removing smoke that does enter buildings. The specifics of the Smoke Readiness
Plan will depend on the characteristics of the building, including occupancy type, the HVAC system, build-
ing envelope, types and operation of doors and windows, and patterns of use. This guideline provides a gen-
w

eral framework and best practices for creating a Smoke Readiness Plan for a building, including preseason
preparation, activation during smoke episodes, evaluation, deactivation once the smoke has cleared, and
w

assessment of any necessary updates to the Smoke Readiness Plan.

w

5. DESIGN AND COMMISSIONING

5.1 Overview. This section is a guide for designers. The measures listed here are intended to protect indoor
air quality (IAQ) during periods of wildland fire smoke and may be applied during initial design or as a ret-
rofit.
5.2 Definition of the Design Challenge Concepts. IAQ is protected from PM2.5 in smoke by two means:
• Reduction of PM2.5 infiltration
• Removal of PM2.5 in indoor air
Smoke and related contaminants enter a building through various paths:
• Intakes—outdoor air intakes at HVAC systems
• Doors—entrance and egress points into the building
• Envelope elements—windows, skylights, or other penetrations in the contiguous envelope

12 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
ks
Figure 2 Schematic for single-zone design equation.

oo
• Leakage through the contiguous envelope
• Emissions from contaminated clothing from occupants
5.3 Selection of Design Outdoor and Indoor Contaminant Levels. To perform design calculations, the
/b
design team must select representative concentrations for both outdoor air and indoor air. Without indoor
and outdoor concentrations, the design calculations in Section 5.4 cannot be performed. Design measures
rg
should be communicated to stakeholders in a Basis of Design (BoD), which articulates the design concentra-
tions used for that design. The actual conditions faced by the system during an event will undoubtedly vary
from the design concentrations.
.o

5.3.1 Selection of an Outdoor Design Concentration of PM2.5. Select outdoor design concentration of
PM2.5 based on Informative Appendix A.
e

5.3.2 Selection of an Indoor Design Concentration of PM2.5. This guideline recommends an indoor
ra

design strategy of as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), with a target of 20% of the outdoor concentra-
tion. As shown in Table 1 in Section 4.9, there are various alternative health-based target concentrations to
sh

consider when determining the indoor design concentration. Adjust this value based on the vulnerability of
the intended occupancy and expected activity levels (e.g., usage of the space, occupant age, occupant sus-
ceptibility).
.a

5.4 Design Calculations and Processes

5.4.1 Removal Need Calculation. The design calculations related to smoke protection (required flow rate
w

and filtration efficiencies) are versions of the conservation of mass of contaminants into the building, which
can be presented with the following equation for a given zone:
w

V if C o + V oz  1 – E f C o
C z = ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
V oz + F r RV r E f
w

where
Cz = indoor contaminant concentration in the zone, µg/m3
Vif = infiltration flow rate to the building, m3/h (cfm)
Co = concentration of contaminants (PM2.5) in the outdoor air, µg/m3
Voz = zone outdoor airflow, m3/h (cfm)
Ef = filter removal efficiency
Fr = design flow reduction factor (=1 if the system is constant flow)
R = recirculation flow factor (=1 if system is 100% recirculating)
Vr = recirculating or return airflow, m3/h (cfm)
Informative Note: Air distribution effectiveness (Ez) is assumed to be 1.0. See Figure 2 for schematic.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 13

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Table 2 PM2.5 Mass Removal Efficiency (Ef) for Various MERV Rated Filters

MERV PM2.5 Mass Removal Efficiencya

5 1.4%
6 7.2%
7 (Filter #1) 7.6%
7 (Filter #2) 24.1%
8 27.1%
10 31.5%
11 48.9%b
12 (Filter #1) 27.2%

re
12 (Filter #2) 66.4%
13 68.9%c

to
14 71.4%
16 96.3%

ks
HEPA 99.7%
73
a. As stated in the reference, “Knowledge of MERV alone cannot always be used to predict UFP (Ultra Fine Particles) or PM2.5 removal efficiency, as

oo
different makes and models can have very different UFP and PM2.5 removal efficiencies depending on their actual size-resolved removal efficiencies.”
For this reason, removal efficiencies have been reported for multiple filter manufacturers having the same MERV. Users are encouraged to obtain removal
efficiency values from the manufacturer whose filters they intend to use.
b. Removal efficiency for MERV11 has been interpolated from MERV10 and MERV12 (high value).
c. Removal efficiency for MERV 13 has been interpolated from MERV12 (high value) and MERV14.

/b
Equation 1 can be programmed into a spreadsheet so that designers can determine the impact on indoor
rg
contaminant concentration with varying parameters, such as filter removal efficiency. Alternatively, design-
ers can use an established IAQ and ventilation analysis computer program that performs mass balance anal-
ysis (e.g., public domain software, CONTAM).
.o

For more details on mass balance equations, including applications in different system configurations,
see ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Informative Appendix F.56
e

5.4.1.1 Filter Removal Capabilities (Ef): Table 2 indicates the PM2.5 removal efficiency (Ef) for vari-
ra

ous MERV rated filters. This table represents a PM2.5 mass removal efficiency, which is not to be confused
with particle removal efficiencies. The removal efficiencies listed in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.272 can-
sh

not be directly used in this equation, as they are based on particle count and not mass. Note, some studies
have shown that the majority of wildfire smoke particles are in the PM1 size, even when the smoke has aged
and traveled long distances across oceans from the original wildfire location. Further research is encouraged
.a

to characterize fire composition, particle sizes, and corresponding filter removal efficiency.

Example. During a wildfire, the PM2.5 outdoor concentrations reach 300 µg/m3. A building has an HVAC
w

system with MERV16 and the characteristics shown below. What will be the indoor PM2.5 concentration?
w

HVAC System Characteristics

w

SI I-P
Voz 1000 m3/h 588 cfm
Co 300 µg/m3 300 µg/m3
R 0.8 (unitless) 0.8 (unitless)
Vr 5000 m3/h 2940 Cfm
Ef 96.3 % removal 96.3 % removal
Vif 500 m3/h 294 cfm
Fr 0.6 (unitless) 0.6 (unitless)
Cz 48.7 48.7

14 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Calculations and Result (SI)

Cz = (500 × 300 + 1000 × (1 – 0.963) × 300)/(1000 + 0.6 × 0.8 × 5000 × 0.963)
Cz = 48.7 µg/m3
At this point, the designer can discuss with the owner if this concentration can be considered ALARA or
can look at other measures such as increasing filtration, reducing infiltration, or increasing recirculation.
Informative Note: It is not necessary to convert µg/m3 to µg/ft3 while using imperial units.
5.4.2 Estimation of Infiltration (Leakage). Use ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals,74 Chapter 16 esti-
mates of leakage per unit wall area for commercial construction:
0.6 cfm/ft2 (3000 cm3/s·m2) at 0.3 in. of water (75 Pa) for leaky buildings
0.3 cfm/ft2 (1500 cm3/s·m2) at 0.3 in. of water (75 Pa) for average buildings
0.1 cfm/ft2 (500 cm3/s·m2) at 0.3 in. of water (75 Pa) for tight buildings

re
Adjust these factors based on conditions at the site. See Section 4.8 of this document and Section 7 of
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals,74 Chapter 16 for more details on infiltration values in commercial
buildings.

to
5.4.3 Filter Loading Calculation. In order to evaluate loading of a filter using the PM removal efficiency
values from ASHRAE Standard 52.2, knowledge is needed of the particle size, distribution, and mass in the

ks
incoming air.
Several points should be considered:
• PM concentrations are generally reported as mass (e.g., μg/m3) or particle number (e.g., particles/m3).

oo
• Particle number concentration is the total number of particles per unit volume of air (for example, parti-
cles/cm3); whereas particle mass concentration is the total mass of particles per unit volume (for example
μg/m3). Mass concentrations are typically dominated by larger particles.
•
/b
Any mass shown as PM1 is a subset of both PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations. Likewise, any mass
shown as PM2.5 is a subset of PM10. Note that PM1 is not an EPA defined value, but it is widely used to
rg
refer to particles less than or equal to 1 µm in aerodynamic diameter.
• Particles of different size ranges can have very different loading characteristics and methods.
• PM1 particle number concentrations will typically be very high in high concentrations of smoke (i.e.,
.o

large numbers, but very little mass). However, these particles can clog a filter very quickly if the media
used in that filter does not load in depth, allowing particles to penetrate deep into the media before cap-
e

ture. Most charged media products exemplify this expected result and can load very quickly with large
concentrations of PM1 particulate.
ra

The chemistry and makeup of the particulate affects filter loading. If the particulate is dry and not
“sticky” it will not readily agglomerate into larger particulate, which will allow the filter to last longer in ser-
sh

vice. However, a slightly damp or sticky particulate is easier to catch, resulting in filters that reach final
loading more quickly.
The protocol for loading a filter is defined in ASHRAE Standard 52.2, resulting in a measurement of
.a

dust holding capacity (DHC). The procedure involves loading the ASHRAE dust at a given rate into the fil-
ter while monitoring the resistance to airflow. When the final resistance is met, the test is stopped and DHC
w

is calculated. The dust used is a mix of ISO fine, carbon black, and cotton linters. The ISO fine has a mean
particle size of approximately 8 μm (PM10 particles), but when combined with the sticky carbon black, the
w

particles can agglomerate to much larger than 8 μm. This means ASHRAE Standard 52.2 DHC is a mass
loading from a particle size distribution that is very different from real-life applications and especially under
w

wildland fire smoke conditions. Thus, it is not unusual for a filter that holds 200 g of dust in the ASHRAE
Standard 52.2 test to hold several times more dust in practice to the same increase in resistance to airflow.
However, if that same filter is subjected to a different outdoor air concentration/makeup, it might only hold
100 g until reaching the final resistance.
It is very difficult to predict how a filter will perform under wildland fire smoke conditions because of a
number of variables involved, including:
• Accurate and complete testing information on the filters in the system
• Accurate PM mass concentrations for particle size (PM1, PM2.5, and PM10)
• Knowledge of the particulate composition
• Knowledge of the airflow rate
• Knowledge of how the filter might load with different types of aerosol
• The amount of airflow bypassing the filter

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 15

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

If this information is not readily available, some assumptions can be made. The following is an example
of how to calculate filter loading:
Assumptions:
• PM1v = 65% of total mass
• Efficiency performance is typical for a MERV 14 filter with no electrostatic charge.
• ePM1 = 64%, ePM2.5 = 77%, ePM10 = 93%
• Particulate is reasonably dry and not overly adhesive.
• Filter loads with depth loading and does not tend to mask off or face load.
• Filter will hold two times the DHC of an ASHRAE Standard 52.2 test.
• ASHRAE Standard 52.2 DHC = 375g
• Filter flow rate = 3400 m3/h (2000 cfm)
• No airflow is bypassed around the filter.
• Filter operation is 24 hours/day, 7 days/week.

re
• Although filters capture all particle sizes in their load, during a wildfire event, filters will load with
PM2.5 particles much faster than other particle sizes, as discussed in Section 4. Therefore, the calcula-
tions will focus only on PM2.5 for filter loading during a wildfire event.

to
• Mass capture rate (µg/min) = (ePM2.5 × 150 µg/m3) × (filter flow in m3/h)/(60 min/h)
• Mass capture rate = 6545 µg/min = 0.006545 g/min

ks
• Filter life = 375 × (2/0.006545) = 114,591 minutes = 79 days
Given the scarcity of information on actual filter mass removal efficiency, more research is encouraged.

oo
5.5 Design Measures
5.5.1 Monitoring
5.5.1.1 PM2.5 Sensors and Monitors. During a smoke event, PM2.5 should be directly monitored. If

/b
permanent PM2.5 sensors are not installed, use handheld monitors. Where possible, select PM2.5 monitors
with data logging capabilities. Not all monitors include on-board data logging, but data logging is widely
available. Nonevent PM2.5 concentrations will establish a baseline PM2.5, which will be used during smoke
rg
events (see Section 6.4.3). The life-cycle cost of monitors needs to be taken into consideration. If staff time
allows, a handheld monitor may be sufficient to evaluate the efficacy of steps taken to keep out/filter smoke,
.o

as long as repeat measurements with handheld sensors are possible over time and varying conditions (such
as changes in outdoor air quality, occupancy, and occupant behaviors).
e

For new designs and retrofits, consider permanent PM2.5 monitors. Where building automation systems
(BASs) are present, connect the PM2.5 meters to the BAS to continuously monitor PM2.5. Having PM2.5
ra

concentrations shown on the BAS user interface allows real-time management during an event.
This guideline does not recommend specific monitors or sensors for measuring PM2.5. This is rapidly
sh

developing technology, with many new products and versions regularly entering the market as noted in Sec-
tion 4.10. In selecting a PM2.5 sensor, the following resources may be useful:
• Testing and certification of sensors for PM2.5 and other pollutants in commercial buildings75
.a

• Research evaluations involving laboratory or field studies, primarily focusing on outdoor pollutant mea-
surements
• South Coast Air Quality Management District Air Quality Sensor Performance Evaluation Center76
w

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Air Sensor Toolbox77

w

• Evaluation of PM sensors used indoors by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory78

5.5.1.2 Considerations for Sensor Placement. Place sensors in the following locations:
w

• Occupied areas of the building: Place sensors in key locations in a building, such as those with the most
common or highest occupancy, or those occupied by at-risk populations (see Section 4.6).
• Entryways: Placing a sensor in a hallway and corridor near a building entrance will help assess the
smoke ingress in the buildings.
• Outside: Place sensors at secure outdoor locations to capture outdoor air concentrations in proximity to
the building.
• High physical activity level areas: school gyms or hotels
• Areas likely to be used as clean air rooms
In lieu of outdoor sensors, data can be obtained online from an adjacent regional monitor. While a single
system is more practical to operate, this may be a cost-saving measure. For example, AirNow is a central-
ized data system that includes current and forecast U.S. air quality maps and data for more than 500 cities.

16 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

AirNow’s Fire and Smoke Map79 includes current PM air quality information from regulatory-grade moni-
tors and low-cost sensors.
Place sensors at a height representative of the occupants in the building. Take into consideration standing
vs. seating positions or a mix. Sensors should be placed according to the manufacturer’s instructions, in eas-
ily accessible locations, protected from tampering, and away from indoor sources such as cooking areas,
printing, or other activities that produce PM2.5. Sensors can be sensitive to swings in temperature and
humidity; place them at some distance from supply registers.
Additionally, recommendations about how to site indoor sensors are provided by EPA’s Air Sensor Tool-
box; see indoor sampling considerations.80 The EPA Enhanced Air Sensor Guidebook also provides guid-
ance on the selection and use of air sensors.81
5.5.1.3 Building Pressure Sensors. Use differential pressure sensors to measure the pressure difference
between the building interior and the outdoor air. Install sensors in such a manner as to protect the equip-
ment from weather events and wind effects. In systems where no BAS exists, the pressure difference should
be monitored in the control room or mechanical room.

re
Due to the low differential pressure values sensed, differential pressure sensors can be significantly
impacted by wind and stack pressures. Depending on the complexity and size of the building, more than one
pressure measurement may be required both indoors and outdoors. Pressure sensors are subject to drift and

to
require regular calibration. Care must be taken when selecting a pressure sensor and transducer for the appli-
cation. To evaluate building pressurization performance, it is recommended to determine the actual building

ks
pressure and the actual airflow rates into and out of the building. Pressure sensors can be used in conjunction
with airflow measuring stations that track airflows to enhance the accuracy of data. See Section 5.5.2.2.
5.5.1.4 Building Smoke Detection Systems. Some smoke detection systems required by code are very

oo
sensitive to particle concentrations and can activate during a wildland fire smoke event from indoor particle
concentrations caused by infiltration.
For buildings located in areas prone to wildland fire smoke events, this factor should be taken into con-

/b
sideration. The selection of a smoke detection system for structural fires should be selected based on the
needs of the space.
rg
Duct smoke detectors are usually either photoelectric or ionization type, both of which need smoke to
trigger an alarm. Photoelectric detectors are generally considered less sensitive and need visible smoke to
obscure the light source and trigger an alarm. It is unlikely that the amount of smoke that makes it through
.o

the filters would be enough to trigger a photoelectric sensor. If it were, and the air-handling unit (AHU)
remained operational, then the building would not be habitable after a short period of time.
e

Typically, commercial projects use dual detection—ionization and photoelectric for enhanced safety.
Ionization detectors are more sensitive to air contaminants. Any air contaminant that attracts free electrons
ra

in the sensor will interrupt the flow of current and trigger an alarm.
When considering smoke detection, photoelectric sensors are recommended in areas where air handlers
sh

would need to be configured to handle outdoor air during wildland fires.

5.5.2 Building Controls
5.5.2.1 Building Control System. Manual control methods may be a cost-effective solution where
.a

smoke events are infrequent. For buildings in high-risk areas, with BAS systems, add specific smoke-limiting
logic for wildland fire events to automatically reduce ventilation (outdoor air) rates. Smoke-limiting controls
w

can be fully automated, manual, or a combination of both.

Include the following control actions:
w

• Reduction of outdoor airflow:

• Reduce airflow through outdoor air dampers for all systems equipped with automatic modulating con-
w

trol.
• Reduce airflow from outdoor air fans, heat recovery ventilators, dedicated outdoor air systems
(DOASs), and other systems that provide outdoor air ventilation.
• Shutdown or reduce airflow for all exhaust systems to maintain a positive building pressure. Hazardous
exhaust such as fume hood exhaust should be shut down only after discussion with the environmental
health and safety professional. Note, any changes to outdoor airflow should be made in coordination
with changes to exhaust airflows so as not to create unfiltered infiltration. Shutting down ventilation
airflow and exhaust completely may result in unintentional unfiltered infiltration due to wind and stack
pressures. It is best for the changes to be automated to ensure repeatable changeover.
• Economizer and demand-control ventilation (DCV) shutdown:
• Disable economizer function so that systems operate at minimum outdoor airflow.
• Disable the DCV function so that systems operate at minimum outdoor airflow.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 17

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

• Refer to Informative Appendix B, “Managing Air-Side Economizer and Demand-Control Ventilation

for Smoke”
• Increased indoor air filtration:
• Where applicable, increase supply fan run times to include both occupied and unoccupied periods.
Note, some controls are set up to open outdoor air dampers when a fan cycles or fan runs 100%. Verify
control logic to ensure outdoor air is not bought in during unoccupied periods.
• Manual control of wildfire smoke control logic:
• Provide a one-button initiation with a timer-based reset to automatically restore normal operation after
a user-adjustable period.
• Provide a screen or user interface with all relevant control points required to control and monitor
HVAC operation during smoke events.
• Automated control of wildfire smoke control logic:
• Provide outdoor air PM2.5 sensor(s) with adjustable set points for initiation and return to normal oper-
ation.

re
• If a public PM2.5 monitor is near the building, consider options for using these data to inform control
inputs for initiation and return to normal operation.

to
Smoke-limiting controls could result in poorer IAQ from contaminants other than wildland fire smoke
and increase energy use. Systems should not be operated in a wildland fire smoke mode unless it is required.

ks
Particularly, it is essential to ensure CO2 does not build up beyond acceptable levels. This can occur if
the outdoor airflow is reduced. CO2 build-up is more likely in areas where the occupancy includes physi-
cally active tasks, or in assembly areas. Some of those spaces may have CO2 sensors that should be used as

oo
part of the smoke-limiting control sequence.
5.5.2.2 Building Pressure. Design ventilation systems for a net exfiltration, including under all
dynamic reset conditions (see ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Section 5.17). It is recommended to operate a build-
/b
ing at 0.02 to 0.07 in. of water (5 to 17 Pa) nominally as compared to the exterior of the building. Alterna-
tively, balance the outdoor airflow to 10% greater than the exhaust airflow.
rg
It is recommended to implement airflow measurement in the outdoor and exhaust airstreams to provide
enhanced monitoring and control. Tracking of airflows in and out of the building may help to maintain
desired pressurization by controlling the pressurization flow.
.o

5.5.2.3 Zonal Pressure Monitoring and Control. Smoke migration inside the building can be miti-
gated by establishing interzonal pressure differences. Pressure is created by intentional movement of air and
e

unintentional movement through enclosures. Minimizing leaks, understanding the amount of leakage, and
ra

controlling airflows into and out of spaces will result in desired pressurization. Airflow measurement can be
used to monitor and control pressurization. If a zone is provided with pressure control capabilities (e.g., a
matching pair of supply and return air boxes), these can be used to monitor and control the pressure to miti-
sh

gate the infiltration of wildland fire smoke.

Zone pressure control strategies include the following:
.a

• Make vestibules, lobbies, or entry spaces negative with respect to the rest of the building and positive to
the outside (cascading pressure).
• Make the inner zones positive with respect to the entryways and circulation spaces.
w

• Protect sensitive areas in a building with positively pressurized zones.

w

Controlling interzonal pressure requires additional construction detailing:

• Separation walls should be built from floor to structure.
w

• All penetrations in the separation wall should be sealed. For retrofits of existing buildings, a survey
should be completed to make sure penetrations through interzone separation walls and or the building
envelope are properly sealed.
• Pressurized zones should not share the same return air plenums or any common open spaces.
• Pressurized zones typically require a ducted return air system.
In buildings where interzonal pressure difference is used to control smoke migration, pressure sensors
should be used to monitor the pressure difference between zones.
5.5.3 Envelope Tightening
5.5.3.1 Building Egress and Entrance Points. Entrance and exit points in a building are the most vul-
nerable to infiltration of smoke. The ideal designs will include features to prevent smoke ingress in all
modes of operation (open and closed):

18 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

• Vestibules—Where possible, a vestibule should be used on all building entrances used on a frequent
basis. This structure allows for an extra barrier between the outside and inside of the building. The tim-
ing of automatic doors should be adjustable to allow for a staged entry program (only allowing one set of
doors to be open at a time). This may not be ideal for occupant entrance but will reduce the chances of
smoke entering the building during entry and egress. The vestibule space should allow for additional fil-
tration or a high rate of air exchange to ensure any smoke that enters can be diluted or filtered rapidly.
Alternatively, the vestibule could also allow for a portable air cleaner (PAC) to be used during peak
smoke events, including having available power and/or space designed to accommodate the installation
and use of a PAC.
• Dedicated entryway (lobby, reception area)—Where feasible, it is preferable to have a separate space
dedicated for those entering the building. This area would have a physical separation from the main
occupied areas of the building and should be designed to allow for a higher rate of air exchange and/or
built-in air circulation/filtration systems. Where a dedicated receiving or entry area is not possible, doors
should be designed and selected to operate under higher differential pressure. In these cases, the best way

re
to reduce infiltration of smoke during door use is for the interior pressure to be at least 5 Pa (0.02 in. of
water) above the outdoor pressure to reduce air infiltration during door use. See the cascading pressure
description in Section 5.5.2.3.

to
• Note that for entry spaces (whether vestibule or entryway), simply disabling the economizer control
function may not fully address pressure control, depending on the logic used to maintain stable pressure

ks
in these areas during normal switchover between economizer and noneconomizer operation. In cases
where special measures are taken to smooth or maintain relatively constant pressure relationships in ves-
tibules or entryways as a system goes in and out of economizer mode, the control logic used for these

oo
actions must be examined to ensure that the disabling of economizer operation will not render the pres-
sure control logic ineffective.
• Exterior features—Where possible, doors should be located in areas protected from the impact of wind

/b
pressure. Doors should not be placed facing the primary prevailing wind direction. Adding windbreaks,
such as landscaping/vegetation or engineered barriers, is ideal.
rg
• Air curtains—Air curtains are dedicated airstreams meant to create a wall of air that occupants must pass
through to enter the space. If vestibules are employed, an air curtain can be used as a means to increase
air exchange rate, prevent outdoor smoke from entering, and reduce contaminant transfer from occupant
.o

clothing.
Doors of all types and uses should allow for a complete seal when closed. Some doors, such as sliding
e

doors, are not designed to operate under these conditions and may not seal properly when closed.
ra

5.5.3.2 Other Tightness Measures. The building envelope contains numerous penetrations for various
purposes: plumbing, vents, exterior lighting, and exterior power outlets and security equipment are a few
typical examples.
sh

These penetrations are designed to be weatherproof; however, as noted above, smoke contaminants
behave like gases and can infiltrate seals designed for water resistance/weatherproofing. Extra air sealing
may be required to make those penetrations airtight.
.a

A typical building practice is to seal any penetrations to exterior finishes, which may not prevent smoke
infiltration. It is recommended, where possible, to seal any penetrations directly to the building envelope air
w

barrier.
Ducts located outside the building air barrier and under negative pressure where air is recirculated to the
w

building should meet ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1,82 Section 6.4.4.2 or an equivalent local duct leak-
age standard.
w

Dampers located outside the building air barrier should have a maximum leakage rate as indicated in
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 Section 6.4.3.4.3 when tested in accordance with AMCA Standard
500-D83 or an equivalent local damper leakage standard.
5.5.4 Filters. The purpose of this section is to ensure that an adequate filtration level exists to protect
building occupants from PM2.5 present in wildland fire smoke. Depending on the design of the HVAC sys-
tem, specific actions may involve outdoor air filters and/or recirculation filtration. It is advisable to request
independent lab data from the supplier to confirm filter performance expectations prior to purchasing or
installing filters.
5.5.4.1 Filters in New Construction. Designers are encouraged to use the removal need calculations
outlined in Section 5.4.1 to determine the appropriate filter MERV rating. If calculations cannot be per-
formed, the minimum filter efficiency for removing PM generated by a wildland fire event is MERV 13
where rated in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 52.2, or not less than ePM1-50% where rated in accor-

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 19

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

dance with ISO 16890.84 The AHU/HVAC equipment in new construction should be designed with a mini-
mum of MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filters to filter both outdoor air and recirculated air. The filter mounting
system should include a gasket mounting surface and clips to hold the filter firmly on the gasket.
For new systems designed for a filter efficiency less than MERV 13 or less than ePM1-50%, it is recom-
mended to design the system to accept a MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filter in the case of a wildland fire smoke
event. This procedure is accomplished by making sure all new HVAC equipment is equipped with a filter
rack sufficient to house a MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filter or better. The filter housing should be built in such
a fashion as to hold a MERV 13 filter for the design airflow of the system. A prefilter (MERV 8 or better)
can extend the MERV 13 filter life and is most likely to be cost-effective for MERV 14 and higher rated fil-
ters (see ASHRAE Indoor Air Quality Guide,85 Strategy 7.5). In this case, the system may be operated with a
lower MERV rating filter during normal outdoor air conditions but allow the use of a MERV 13 to be
installed prior to the wildfire season or as part of the Smoke Readiness Plan. Note that smaller HVAC equip-
ment, such as small rooftop packaged units and ductless units, may not have this feature. In this case, it is
recommended to have the outdoor air pass through a MERV 13 filter.

re
A low-pressure HEPA filter (greater than MERV 16) should be considered for buildings with at-risk pop-
ulations (see Section 4.6) or if the building experiences frequent wildland fire smoke episodes.

to
The filter system should include equipment capable of continuous monitoring of the pressure drop across
all filter housings.
Filtration capacity will vary depending on the concentration of smoke during any given event. During

ks
severe smoke events, filters will load rapidly, which will impact the system flow and possibly reduce overall
air supply to the building. Detailed operational instructions should be developed to specify the pressure drop

oo
range and when to change filters. See Section 5.4.3 for calculations procedures to estimate filter loading time.
5.5.4.2 Filters in Retrofits. Designers are encouraged to use the removal need calculations outlined in
Section 5.4.1 to determine the appropriate filter MERV rating. However, if calculations cannot be per-

/b
formed, the minimum filter efficiency for removing PM generated by a wildland fire event is MERV 13
where rated in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 52.2, or not less than ePM1-50% where rated in accor-
dance with ISO 16890. The AHU/HVAC system in retrofits of existing buildings should be modified as
rg
practicable to accept a minimum of MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filters. A low-pressure HEPA filter should be
considered if the building occupants have respiratory or heart disease conditions, or if the building experi-
.o

ences frequent wildland fire episodes.

Before upgrading the filter efficiency, the existing filter housing should be checked to verify it can accept
e

a MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filter, and the pressure drop rating for the new filter should not exceed the AHU
design pressure drop. If a suitable MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filter cannot be matched to the system, consider
ra

the use of the highest MERV rating that the system can accept. Lower airflow is expected in these situations,
but if the system has some reserve capacity, there may be minimal impact on the system’s total airflow. If
sh

total airflow is reduced below the designed specification, the occupancy of the impacted areas should be
reviewed.
Filters with a MERV rating lower than 8 are not effective to remove PM2.5. In these cases, increasing
.a

interior filtration and circulation systems is recommended. See Section 5.5.5.

5.5.4.3 Fan Sizing for Filter Loading. When designing a new fan system, the following measures are
w

recommended to account for MERV 13 or ePM1-50% filters:

• Supply fans should be sized to ensure they can provide the design airflow through a loaded MERV 13 fil-
w

ter.
• The fans’ operating point at the design airflow and the required total static pressure plus the pressure
w

drop from a dirty MERV 13 filter should not be in the fan surge or do-not-select zone.
• The fan motor power rating should be selected to handle the fan shaft power increase due to the added
pressure drop from a dirty MERV 13 filter.
• The fans’ motor starters or variable-frequency drives (VFDs) should be selected so their rated current
(amperage) is not below the required current draw to handle the added pressure drop from a dirty MERV
13 filter at design airflow.
• With oversized fans and motors to account for the pressure drop of dirty MERV 13 filters, the designers
should check if during normal operation the fans can still satisfactorily throttle down to the design mini-
mum airflow (or as required by the energy code).
5.5.4.4 All-Water and Variable-Refrigerant Flow (VRF) Systems. All-water and variable-refrigerant
flow (VRF) systems are generally characterized by zone-level units coupled with a DOAS. The zoned levels

20 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

could be purely non-air-based (such as radiant panels) or have some recirculating air movement (such as
chilled beams, VRF indoor units, or water-based fan-coil units).
These systems present a challenge in filtering the air from wildland fire smoke contaminants in two
aspects:
• Some systems (such as radiant panels) have no air movement at all except for the air for the DOAS,
which is minimal.
• Many VRF indoor units cannot accept a MERV 13 filter, and some systems are not designed to accept
any filter at all (such as chilled beams).
For these systems, the following is recommended:
• Ensure the DOAS system is designed to use minimum MERV 13 filter, and ideally has a pre-filter rack
or other means available to add lower efficiency pre-filters during smoke events to extend the operation
of the MERV 13 filters.
• Consider using indoor PACs during wildland fire events.

re
5.5.5 Portable Air Cleaners. PACs are most effective when airflow is unrestricted by furniture or archi-
tectural features. From a design perspective, spaces that may use PACs should be identified early in the

to
design discussions and include the following aspects:
• Power outlets—Ensure sufficient, ideally dedicated, power outlets for PACs. Consider emergency power

ks
outlets for special building occupancy types (see Section 5.7).
• No obstruction—Interior layout of the space should allow for PAC placement such that desks or other
furniture will not obstruct airflow from a PAC.

oo
• Supply chain or storage—A source of PACs should be identified. If PACs will be purchased and stored
on site, storage space should be planned.
• Replacement filters for the PACs should be kept on hand as well.
See Section 6.2.2.3 for additional information.
/b
5.5.6 Hybrid/Naturally Ventilated Buildings. In general, the design measures presented in this section
rg
apply to mechanically ventilated buildings. Buildings implementing a hybrid ventilation system (a system
having a natural ventilation component with a mechanical ventilation backup system) should disable the nat-
.o

ural ventilation component and solely rely on the mechanical ventilation backup system with appropriate fil-
tration, as described in this guideline, during smoke events.
It is not recommended to design a building to use a solely natural ventilation system in areas prone to fre-
e

quent wildland fires. Consider a hybrid system instead.

ra

5.6 Commissioning. Any control system with a wildland fire-response design should be commissioned in
the smoke-response or smoke-limiting state. This will include any system from Section 5.5 of this guideline,
which may include but is not limited to
sh

• Monitoring of PM2.5
• Fan operation with any additional filtration
.a

• Outdoor air damper diminishment or closure and return to normal operation

• Building and zone pressurization in all operational modes
• Economizer and DCV disable/enable control sequences
w

The commissioning steps noted in Sections 5.6.1 and 5.6.2 are specific to confirm intended building sys-
w

tem operations for new builds and retrofits as they pertain to smoke mitigation strategies. The overall goal of
these specific commissioning steps is to confirm the operational parameters needed to operate the building
w

in a smoke readiness mode and develop specific protocols needed to convert the building to the smoke read-
iness mode and return it to its standard operating mode. In addition, it is recommended to perform building
envelope commissioning as described in Section 5.6.2 to ensure its air tightness.
5.6.1 Filter Challenge Testing (system filters). At present, there are no established industry standards for
on-site testing of particle removal efficiency in permanently installed HVAC equipment. There are estab-
lished laboratory testing methods for air filters. There are also methods for testing clean room filter panels.
However, for the most common systems, there are no established methods for demonstrating filter/system
effectiveness. ASHRAE Standard 24186 Normative Appendix C provides an in-place test method for deter-
mining the impacts of physical removal mechanisms (ventilation, filtration, deposition) on particles in a
space up to 900 ft2 (83 m2). The authors of this guideline recognize this issue as a need for future develop-
ment. Particle removal effectiveness of installed filters as part of an HVAC system is a vital component of
wildland fire management design, which should be supported by a field validation protocol.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 21

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

5.6.2 Envelope Commissioning. Consider performing full envelope commissioning for new buildings to
ensure envelope tightness. The requirements for envelope commissioning should be included in the con-
struction documents with special attention given to the air barrier. As part of the envelope commissioning,
the whole building and building elements should be tested per the following:
• ASTM E779, Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan Pressurization87
• ASTM E3158, Standard Test Method for Measuring the Air Leakage Rate of a Large or Multizone Build-
ing88
• ASTM E283, Standard Test Method for Determining the Rate of Air Leakage Through Exterior Win-
dows, Curtain Walls, and Doors89
• ASTM E1186, Standard Practices for Air Leakage Site Detection in Building Envelopes and Air Barrier
Systems90
5.7 Special Building Occupancy Types
5.7.1 Health Care Facilities. The following special points should be considered when analyzing wildland

re
fire smoke mitigation measures for health care facilities:
• Hospitals may contain clean rooms (e.g., compounding pharmacies) or other spaces with enhanced filtra-

to
tion and airflows (e.g., operating and invasive procedure rooms, protective environments). Smoke could
rapidly load the filters in these areas.

ks
• Most hospitals are constructed with two-pass filtration, often containing a MERV 14 or MERV 16 filter
as the final filter. Additionally, minimum ventilation rates in hospitals are high. As such, the removal
capabilities of hospital HVAC systems are much higher than other building types. For smaller or less

oo
severe fire events, improvements will be unnecessary.
• Building and space level pressurization. Most, if not all, building codes require some spaces in health
care facilities to maintain a certain pressure (positive or negative) with respect to adjoining spaces in

/b
order to help with infection control. Any modification to the buildings’ outdoor air or even the supply air
to certain areas inside such health care facilities should be carefully reviewed with the facility infection
rg
control team. It is also recommended to include the impact of such changes in the Infection Control Risk
Assessment (ICRA) report. Particular attention should be paid to the following areas:
• Operating room suites, a location with persons undergoing invasive procedures, are much more sus-
.o

ceptible to infectious agents.

• Nurseries and pediatric care, an area occupied by the most at-risk patients, have newborns and infants
e

who have not had the opportunity to develop the body’s natural protection systems with regard to air-
borne contaminants. Many newborns spend their first days in an incubator that includes the highest
ra

level of contaminant protection, a HEPA filter.

• Patient waiting and outpatient care areas, the typical first stop of those suffering from a variety of ill-
sh

nesses. These areas generally have the largest number of doors to the outside and hence are the most
prone to smoke intrusion.
• Patients in hematology/oncology units who may have compromised immune systems.
.a

• Continuous operation under even severe wildland fire smoke. Hospital emergency departments near the
fire must remain operational to treat firefighters and affected community residents. To deal with smoke
w

risks, hospitals in fire-prone areas may be able to isolate emergency department ventilation systems and
enable recirculated air during emergency conditions. In addition, portable air scrubbers or HEPA filters
w

can be placed in various units to capture smoke, fumes, and airborne particles if outdoor ventilation sys-
tems must be shut down.
w

• Non-HVAC filters. In addition to HVAC equipment, health care facilities are encouraged to have ade-
quate filtration on all outdoor air intakes to any equipment during wildland fires. A typical example is to
ensure there is a HEPA filter on the medical air compressor intake and ensure it is changed frequently
during a wildland fire event. Also, filters installed on medical equipment (e.g., the filter on a NICU incu-
bator) may load up faster during a wildland fire event even if the equipment is indoors. The health care
facility is encouraged to have a full inventory of filters in the facility (for HVAC and non-HVAC equip-
ment) with a spare stock before the wildfire season starts. Continuous checking of the cleanliness of all
filters on all equipment should be added to any smoke mitigation plan.
• 100% outdoor air systems. Some hospitals are designed with 100% outdoor air systems with which it
will be challenging to mitigate the intake of large quantities of wildland fire smoke. The design team
should consider adding bypass dampers on the HVAC system to allow the system to temporarily recircu-
late some air as long as infection control is not compromised.

22 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Table 3 Application of Measures to Mitigate Wildfire Smoke

System
Large
Chilled-
Water AHUs
Large with Supply Large Small
Chilled- VAVs and Rooftop Rooftop
Water AHUs Return Package Package Radiant Chilled Ductless
with Supply Airflow Units (more Units (5 tons Systems Beams with Ducted VRF VRF with
Measure VAVs Control than 5 tons) and smaller) with DOAS DOAS with DOAS DOAS
Add PM2.5 sensors 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Add building pressure sensors 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Reduce/shutdown outdoor air 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2

re
Disable economizers and/or 1 1 2 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A
DCV
Maintain positive pressure 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

to
between building and outside
Maintain positive pressure 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3

ks
across zones inside building
Include vestibules/entryways 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Add air curtains 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

oo
Tighten duct and dampers after 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
leak test
MERV 13 filters on
recirculating and outdoor air
MERV 13 filters on
1

1
1

1
/b 1

1
2

2
3

2
3

2
2

2
3

2
rg
outdoor air only
Fan sizing for filter loading 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 2
.o

Add PACs 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
e

• The deployment of PACs in health care facilities should be reviewed with the facility infection control
ra

team. Given the large areas in hospitals, the airflow from PACs may become large enough to compro-
mise infection control. Placement of the unit(s) is critical.
• Hospitals should also pay special attention to the entryways, ambulance bays, and loading docks (see
sh

Section 6.2.7) because these areas may be large sources for smoke infiltration.60
5.7.2 Prison/Detention Centers. The following special points should be considered when analyzing
.a

wildland fire smoke mitigation measures for prisons/detention centers:

• Inability of residents to leave or evacuate at will. Prisons and detention centers are generally very diffi-
cult to evacuate and so the smoke mitigation plan should consider a shelter-in-place strategy by using
w

higher efficiency filters, PACs, and pressure cascading to mitigate smoke infiltration as much as possible.
w

5.7.3 Applications. Table 3 includes a matrix representing a high-level assessment of the ease of incorpo-
rating the specific measures included in this section for various types of HVAC systems using a score from 1
w

to 3: 1—easy to implement, 2—moderately difficult to implement, and 3—hard to implement.

5.8 Communication of the Smoke Readiness Plan to the Design and Operation Team. Communicate
the building design elements of the Smoke Readiness Plan to both the building design team and the opera-
tions and maintenance staff. In order to achieve the communication of the Smoke Readiness Plan, the fol-
lowing are recommended:
• For new designs, include the goals of the Smoke Readiness Plan (Section 6.1) in the owner project
requirements (OPR).
• In the OPR, clearly identify whether the building can or cannot be evacuated during a wildland fire
event.
• Ensure the smoke mitigation goals of the OPR are included in the project BoD.
• Ensure the smoke mitigation measures in the BoD are implemented in the design. In particular, make
sure the HVAC sequence of operations includes a wildland fire smoke mode. In the event that unitary

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 23

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

equipment is used, detail the procedure by which economizer operation will be circumvented to produce
the smoke mode of operation.
• Ensure the wildland fire smoke mode is included in the commissioning scope and tested accordingly.
• Ensure the wildland fire smoke mode is included on the HVAC control interface for easy reference by
building operators.
• Ensure a hard copy of the sequence of operations is posted in each mechanical room or on each unit/sys-
tem.
• Ensure there is safe and convenient filter maintenance access. This includes a nearby filter storage area,
hinged filter access doors, and adequate equipment clearance for filter replacement.
6. OPERATION DURING A WILDLAND FIRE EVENT
Facility managers should prepare for wildland fire smoke events in advance. It is important to realize that
this planning and testing process will take considerable time and effort.
Any HVAC maintenance problems should be identified well in advance of wildfire season. Timely
inspections will ensure that repairs can be made, and the system can be tested in the operating mode that will

re
be implemented under smoke conditions.
ANSI/ASHRAE/ACCA Standard 180, Standard Practice for Inspection and Maintenance of Commer-

to
cial Building HVAC Systems91 has recommended procedures. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation
and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,56 Section 8 has ventilation-specific checklists and procedures.

ks
Section 6 of this guideline provides guidance on
• Elements to include in a Smoke Readiness Plan
• Preparation and testing for smoke-ready operations

oo
• Operations and monitoring during a smoke event
• Returning to normal operations
6.1 Developing a Smoke Readiness Plan. A Smoke Readiness Plan documents the preparatory steps and
/b
mitigation strategies that the facility will use before, during, and after a wildland fire smoke event to main-
tain indoor air quality (IAQ). Sections 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5 provide guidance on elements to consider in a
rg
Smoke Readiness Plan. Each building and plan are specific to the type of building, the HVAC system, and
the expected environmental condition.
The design and commissioning documentation discussed in Section 5 should include specific design ele-
.o

ments for a wildland fire smoke event. This information should inform the Smoke Readiness Plan. The
Smoke Readiness Plan will describe which control measures will be used and how they will be initiated.
e

In addition to the substantive actions, the development of the plan should also include the following:
ra

• Specific building design elements for controlling smoke, when available

• Roles and responsibilities of staff responsible for implementing the plan
• Expected costs associated with implementing the plan so that any necessary approvals can be obtained
sh

beforehand
• Updates as lessons are learned with each smoke event
Table 4 illustrates major elements that should be considered for inclusion in a Smoke Readiness Plan and
.a

indicates the sections and checklists or tables that can assist in the planning process.
Advanced planning for smoke events is critical for building operators, and some measures can be chal-
w

lenging or impossible to implement once smoke has already arrived. Many aspects of planning and imple-
mentation are complex. Professionals who can assist developing and implementing the plan include the
w

following:
• HVAC service contractor
w

• Testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) contractor

• Commissioning provider
• Controls contractor
• HVAC design professional
The building operator needs a complete understanding of the existing equipment and operating condi-
tions. Resources include the following:
• Observations
• Controls diagram
• Record drawings
• TAB report
• Commissioning report

24 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Table 4 Elements to Consider in the Smoke Readiness Plan

Preparing for Wildland Fire Smoke

Example Questions to Address in Planning Phase Guidance in this Document
What are any specific building design elements for controlling smoke? • Section 5.5, “Design Measures”
• Section 5.8, “Communication of the
Smoke Readiness Plan to the Design and
Operation Team”
Is the HVAC system in need of maintenance and repair? • Section 6.2.1, “Mechanical Ventilation”
• Checklist 1
Are the needed supplies on hand (including HVAC filters, personal protective equipment, • Section 6.2.2, “Air Cleaning”
portable air cleaners, etc.)? Where are they stored? • Section 6.2.7, “Administrative Controls”
Do building automation systems display the controls and settings that will need to be • Section 5.5.1, “Monitoring”
adjusted for smoke? • Section 5.5.2, “Building Controls”
• Section 6.2.3, “Building Automation

re
Systems”
Is an indicator such as a magnehelic gage or other sensor/procedure in place to identify • Section 5.5.1.3, “Building Pressure

to
when filter changes are needed? Sensors”
Have the gaps in the building envelope been sealed? • Section 5.5.3, “Envelope Tightening”

ks
• Section 6.2.4, “Building Envelope”
Do dedicated cleaner air spaces with portable air cleaners need to be set up? • Section 6.2.2, “Air Cleaning”
• Section 6.2.5, “Dedicated Cleaner Air

oo
Spaces”
Are there concerns about maintaining space conditioning or reducing odors? • Section 6.2.6, “Maintaining Space
Conditioning and Reducing Odors”

/b
Can indoor sources of air pollutants be identified and either reduced or eliminated?
Can smoke entry into the building be reduced by limiting use of certain entrances/exits?
• Section 6.2.7, “Administrative Controls”
• Section 6.2.7, “Administrative Controls”
rg
Are indoor PM2.5 monitors available? What are the baseline PM2.5 concentrations? • Section 5.5.1, “Monitoring”
• Section 6.2.8, “Indoor and Outdoor
PM2.5 Monitoring”
.o

Are there special circumstances to address? • Section 6.2.9, “Special Considerations for
Health Care Facilities, Schools, and Other
e

Institutions”
What are the criteria for implementing the plan and returning to normal operation? • Section 6.4.2, “When to Implement the
ra

Smoke Readiness Plan”

• Section 6.5, “Returning to Normal
Operations”
sh

Operational Testing Implementing the Plan Returning to Normal Operations

• Test any specific building smoke control • Take the steps in the plan. • Return HVAC to normal settings.
.a

measures. • Section 6.4.2 • Section 6.5

• Checklist 2 • Checklist 3
w

• Test outdoor air damper settings that may • Take the steps in the plan. • Return HVAC to normal settings.
be used to limit smoke entry. Ensure that • Section 6.4.2 • Section 6.5
positive building pressure is maintained. • Checklist 2 • Checklist 3
w

• Section 6.2.1
• Check that indoor PM2.5 monitors are • Check indoor PM2.5 monitors to ensure • Clean indoor surfaces.
w

working. mitigation measures are working; make • Section 6.5

• Section 6.2.8 any adjustments.
• Section 6.4.3

Use Checklist 1 to determine if the HVAC system is ready for smoke. For all components of the Smoke
Readiness Plan, maintaining good documentation is recommended, as the personnel who carry out the
actions to manage a smoke event may not be the same people who recommission the system afterwards.
Detailed notes, checklists, and photos documenting any changes to the HVAC system(s) are essential. The
Smoke Readiness Plan should also include documentation of original control settings (e.g., switches,
damper positions, and control relays). Use notations, permanent markers on equipment, and photos to create
a comprehensive record of normal operating conditions. Table 5 shows an example of how these settings can
be captured.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 25

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Checklist 1 Determine if the HVAC System is Ready for Smoke

 Review and check the building’s smoke control design features.

 Do the outdoor air dampers function correctly? (Figure 3 shows a picture of a warped damper blade unable to
close.)
 Are the damper blades, linkage, and edge seals in good condition?
 Does the building have a commercial thermostat or control system that allows the outdoor air dampers to remain
closed when the system is set for an unoccupied state?
 Are there record drawings, blower door tests, commissioning reports, equipment installation, and service
manuals or other information available?
 Does the outdoor air economizer work correctly?
 Can the minimum damper set point be changed and the economizer function be temporarily shut off? How is
this accomplished for each air handler?

re
 Is it possible to disable or reduce the relief fan airflow?
 Does the demand control ventilation system work correctly?

to
 Can the unit use MERV 13 filters or higher? If the system cannot use MERV 13, use the highest MERV-rated
filter possible. There are alternative filtration technologies that allow filtration at a range of pressure drops. See

ks
the “Upgrading and Improving Filtration” section of the ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force Building Readiness
guide for more information.
 Has an HVAC or TAB technician evaluated whether installing MERV 13 filters will reduce airflow to an unsafe

oo
level? System characteristics, such as the duct configuration and dirt on air coils, can also affect airflow.
 Are all filters properly seated and edges sealed? Air leakage around the filters will greatly reduce their ability to
clean the air. (Figure 4 shows a filter that is not seated correctly.)
 /b
Have the filter and fan access doors been checked to confirm that they are fastened and sealed?
rg
 Where are the exhaust fans and how are they controlled?
 Which exhaust fans are critical for safety? Examples may include exhaust fans serving isolation rooms,
commercial kitchen hoods (if cooking is occurring), and locations where hazardous materials are handled (e.g.,
.o

laboratories).
 Where are the locations of exhaust grilles? Can they be partially blocked to reduce the amount of filtered
e

outdoor airflow?
ra

 If the building has more than one air handler or rooftop air-conditioning unit, can some of them be set to
recirculation and a small number used to provide filtered outdoor air?

sh

Does the building have an air-conditioning system or portable cooling units to prevent heat-related illness?

Table 5 Example of How to Capture Operational Settings in Normal Operations and Smoke-Ready Mode
.a

Value under Value During Notes

Setting Normal Operations Smoke-Ready Mode (such as date changed)
w

Outdoor air damper setting

Operating time schedule of HVAC system
w

Filter size
w

Quantity needed per filter replacement

MERV rating of main HVAC unit filters
Critical breaker and switch positions and
locations

6.2 Preparing for Smoke Events

6.2.1 Mechanical Ventilation. During wildland fire smoke events, the operational challenge will be to
limit the amount of outdoor air brought into the building, consistent with maintaining positive building
pressure relative to the outdoors, while maintaining adequate airflows that are protective of human health
and equipment operation. Reduced ventilation may be acceptable for short periods to protect at-risk popula-
tions. Prior to wildfire season, determine an outdoor air intake level that controls odors and temperature and

26 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
ks
Figure 3 Warped damper blade unable to close. Figure 4 Filter that is not seated correctly.

oo
maintains a positive building pressure consistent with building and HVAC system design during smoke-
ready periods. Airflow measurements are a method that may be used to validate proper ventilation and can
be used in smoke control mode to adjust outdoor airflow and exhaust while maintaining building pressuriza-

/b
tion. The ability to disable and reenable economizer and demand-control ventilation (DCV) operation
should be given high priority when developing a Smoke Readiness Plan (see Informative Appendix B). It is
rg
critical to repair broken dampers, actuators, and HVAC controls prior to wildfire season.
Finding effective workarounds to temporarily limit the amount of outdoor air and wildland fire smoke
brought into the building may be difficult. Plan and investigate what actions are needed to limit economizer
.o

and DCV operation. This may include adding switches or control relays or implementing manual control for
the outdoor air damper to set the position for the minimum air required for positive building pressure. This
e

will require testing, as outlined in Section 6.3.

Installing filters on the outdoor air intake is recommended (see Section 6.2.2.2).
ra

Inspect energy recovery ventilators and evaluate how the projected changes to outdoor and ventilation
airflows will impact building pressure.
sh

6.2.2 Air Cleaning. Air cleaning to reduce PM2.5 concentrations from wildland fire smoke in indoor air
can be achieved through filtering recirculating air and incoming outdoor air and using a portable air cleaner
(PAC) in the room(s). Plan ahead; high-efficiency filters frequently sell out during smoke events. The
.a

Smoke Readiness Plan should identify the size and number of replacement filers to have on hand and specify
the storage location for these supplies. Section 5.4.3 details a loading estimation calculation that could be
w

used to determine the lifespan of a particular filter to assist in supply and stock-on-hand decisions.
6.2.2.1 Cleaning Recirculating Air. HVAC system recirculation filter(s) can be upgraded. The particle
w

removal calculation outlined in Section 5.4.1 is a method to select the appropriate filter MERV rating. If cal-
culations cannot be performed, MERV 13 (or equivalent performance for PM2.5 in other rating systems) fil-
w

ters are recommended. Before using filters with a higher MERV rating, ensure the system can accommodate
them (see Table 6 for more information). Wildland fire smoke can quickly load filters (see Figure 5), and
they may need to be changed as frequently as daily during smoke events. Note that if the wildland fire
smoke event lasts multiple days, the recirculation system should be operated continuously for air cleaning.
When upgrading to higher-efficiency filters, there is concern the additional pressure drop will stress or
harm the fan motor or other HVAC components. The airflow must be adequate to transfer heat in and out of
the conditioned space within the design parameters of the equipment. Clean heat-transfer coils and fan
blades may provide additional capacity for air filtration. As filters load, airflow will be reduced. Most sys-
tems are not able to operate safely and effectively below 70% to 80% of nominal airflow.
Monitoring the fan motor operation and checking temperatures at a few key locations will provide infor-
mation to determine safe operation or the inability to use higher MERV rated filters. To gain an understand-
ing of important benchmark temperatures and pressures, reference the manufacturer’s literature. See the

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 27

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Table 6 Brief Guidance for Upgrading to Higher-Efficiency Filters

Centrifugal Fan Surge

Surge is a natural phenomenon that occurs when the maximum head pressure and minimum flow is reached by a
centrifugal fan. When the head pressure is greater than the outlet pressure, the air will reverse and try to flow back into
the fan inlet. This unstable pressure cycling creates pulsing noises and vibrations known as “surge.” If surge is created
by the addition of MERV 13 filters, the fan design has been exceeded. Another method should be used to clean the
indoor air. Consult an HVAC expert for options.
ECM Fans
Electronically commutated motors (ECM) can optionally be controlled for constant torque. If these motors are used for
fans with forward-curved impellers, they can increase speed and then power usage to maintain a constant airflow. Up
to a point, this is a good thing. These motors should be monitored for amperage to verify they do not overload when
upgraded filters are installed and whenever the filter loading is checked. Monitor the amperage until there is adequate
history that demonstrates the motors do not exceed their rated electrical capacity (full-load amperage) during a
wildland fire smoke event. As the static pressure increases, constant-torque ECM fans may become noisy.

re
AC Induction Motors with Variable-Frequency Drive (VFD) Controlled Fans
Fan motors on a VFD (also known as a “variable-speed drive”) typically are controlled to maintain a duct static
pressure set point. These motors need to be monitored as well for overloading. Check the drive parameters to verify

to
they match the motor nameplate information. Most VFDs will provide adequate motor protection if these parameters
are correct. If the drive display shows the motor operating continuously at 100% speed, the unit or filters may need
additional corrective actions. When increasing the fan speed, do not exceed the maximum tip speed or the maximum

ks
motor power.
Other AC Induction Motors

oo
Uncontrolled induction motors used with forward-curved fans will decrease the power usage as the filters load with
dirt/smoke and the airflow decreases. These fan-motor combinations will not overload with a greater pressure drop, but
lower airflow may harm other parts of the system.
Direct-Expansion Cooling
/b
Low airflow can lead to loss of cooling and compressor failure. Air temperature measurements are a simple way to
verify safe operation. The manufacturer’s literature or the startup records will have a recommended air temperature
rg
difference (ΔT) across the evaporator coil. The rule of thumb is 20°F (11°C) ΔT with a minimum discharge
temperature of 55°F (13°C) measured after 20 minutes of continuous running. If the discharge temperature is below
55°F (<13°C), visually check for frost or ice on the evaporator coil. Frost is an indication that there is inadequate
.o

airflow and the filters, or the level of dust loading, may have become too restrictive. Some fan motors may have the
ability to increase speed by changing electrical connections or VFD settings. After adjusting the fan speed, recheck the
e

temperatures.
As the filters load with dust/smoke, the airflow may fall below the acceptable rate. Piston (reciprocating) compressors
ra

are most likely to be damaged by low airflow; scroll compressors are slightly more resilient. Units with compressor
staging may require additional observation and testing. It is up to the operator to determine that conditions for safe
sh

operation are in place.

Heat Pumps
While cooling, follow the guidelines above. While heating, low airflow may cause the unit to shut down when the
.a

high-pressure safety trips. Review the manufacturer’s instructions to determine the appropriate limits for the maximum
discharge temperature and ΔT.
w

Electric Resistance Heating

Electric heating elements must have sufficient airflow to operate. Review the manufacturer’s instructions to determine
the appropriate discharge temperature limit.
w

Combustion Appliances
w

Rooftop units and air handlers with natural gas or propane heat need adequate supply airflow for heat transfer and to
prevent damage to the heat exchanger. The unit label or manufacturer’s literature will list a maximum discharge air
temperature and a range of temperature differences that indicate acceptable operation. Rule of thumb is 160°F (71°C)
maximum discharge temperature and 40°F to 60°F ΔT (22°C to 33°C) across the heat exchanger. Direct-fired units and
oil-fired units have similar parameters. Always use the manufacturer’s recommended settings to determine that safe
operations are being met.
In addition to filters, there are other technologies that remove particulate matter (PM), such as electrostatic
precipitators. If these are a part of the current HVAC system, they should be regularly cleaned and maintained, as they
load very quickly even under typical ambient PM concentrations.

28 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
(b)

ks
(a)

oo
Figure 5 Comparison of (a) a clean filter to (b) a filter heavily loaded with wildfire smoke.

guide for additional information.92 /b

“Upgrading and Improving Filtration” section of the ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force’s Building Readiness

6.2.2.2 Cleaning Outdoor Air. Providing supplemental filtration of outdoor air entering the HVAC sys-
rg
tem is recommended. A MERV 13 or higher filter temporarily installed on the outdoor air intakes will cap-
ture a large fraction of the PM2.5. Prior to wildfire season, inspect the air intake and make a list of filters
.o

(including the specific quantity and size of the filters), tape, temporary ducting materials, and other items
needed to mount filters tightly to the air intake. Consider having a contractor install permanent filter racks
e

on the outdoor air intake.

To help assess the useful life of these supplemental filters, add a port or pressure gauge to measure the
ra

filter pressure drop on at least one air-handling unit (AHU). A rule of thumb is to replace the filter when
pressure drop becomes twice the initial pressure drop. When outdoor PM2.5 concentrations are high, supple-
sh

mental filters may need to be changed daily.

6.2.2.3 Use Portable Air Cleaners to Filter the Air in the Room(s). Portable air cleaners (PACs), also
known as “air purifiers,” can be used in appropriate spaces where cleaning the recirculating and incoming
.a

air is insufficient. PACs and replacement filters should be purchased in advance of the fire season. They may
quickly become unavailable during wildfire events.
PACs, including DIY air cleaners, are only part of a comprehensive IAQ strategy. They do not replace
w

the need for ventilation and should be used in conjunction with other appropriate health measures.93
w

6.2.2.3.1 Selection of Portable Air Cleaners. PACs utilize different technologies to clean the air by
filtering particles, reducing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), or reducing microbiological contaminants.
Select a PAC that is matched to the target contaminant(s). For smoke from wildland fires, PACs should be
w

selected primarily to reduce particles. Units with activated carbon filtration can reduce some VOCs. Import-
ant tips for selecting a PAC include the following, adapted from NIEHS Selection and Use of Portable Air
Cleaners:94
• Size—Choose the correct size of air cleaner for the room where it will be used.
• Noise—Consider the noise rating. Air cleaners are usually most effective when run at high speed. Will
the noise be disruptive in the room?
• Filter—Select a unit with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) or equivalent filter that will remove
submicron particles.
• Location—Place the air cleaner where it will be able to filter as much of the air in the room as possible
(not, for example, next to the wall or blocked by furniture).
• Ozone generators or other disinfection features that may pose a health hazard are not recommended.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 29

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Some air-cleaning devices include features that can produce ozone intentionally or as an unintentional
by-product and hence are not recommended and may be prohibited in some jurisdictions. Air-cleaning
devices and systems that incorporate ultraviolet (UV) light or the creation of charged particles, ions, or free
radicals should comply with Section 5.9 of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1.56
It is important to have a correctly sized air cleaner or air cleaners for the space. PACs should be used in
closed rooms to maximize effectiveness. PACs tested to the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers
(AHAM) standard are designed for room use in residential settings.
The AHAM smoke clean-air delivery rate (CADR) is the rating for 0.09 to 1.0 µm particles and rep-
resents the amount of clean air delivered on the high-speed setting. AHAM tests and certifies CADRs of
PACs following the ANSI/AHAM AC-1 standard.95 For wildland fire smoke, AHAM advises selecting an
air cleaner with a smoke CADR equal to the size of the room in square feet, e.g., for a room of 120 ft2, the
CADR should be 120.96 EPA and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) also provide
additional information on the selection, use, (including room configuration), and maintenance of PACs.82–84
Another way to evaluate air cleaning is to calculate the equivalent amount of PAC air changes per hour

re
(eACH) that are necessary to achieve the same reduction of pollutants as would be achieved with a MERV 13
filtration. This calculation can be done with a combination of air-cleaning options. ASHRAE has developed a

to
calculator to help with this method;100 also, AHAM has published a white paper on eACH for PACs.101 Care-
fully read all information, examples, and instructions provided with the calculator prior to evaluation.

ks
PACs tested to the AHAM standard have a maximum smoke CADR of 600. Multiple devices may be
needed for larger rooms and those that have a ceiling height greater than 2.44 m (8 ft). Alternatively, com-
mercial air scrubbers, which are similar to PACs, are specifically designed for use in larger spaces. They can

oo
be quite large and have high airflows and may be noisy. As with other equipment and supplies, larger air
cleaners and replacement filters should be acquired by purchase or rental well in advance of the fire season.
There appears to be no standard method of testing the performance of commercial air scrubbers, and

/b
manufacturer performance data may not be readily available. Device specifications such as airflow, filtration
efficiency, or a CADR are useful for selecting an appropriate device. Use caution when comparing the
rg
CADR to commercial air cleaners tested to the AHAM standard, as the test methods may not be directly
comparable. Many commercial air scrubbers can also be used as negative air machines by connecting a hose
to the device that exhausts to the outdoors. Do not use this configuration during a wildland fire smoke event,
.o

as it could draw in smoke via infiltration.

6.2.2.3.2 Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Air Cleaners. Do-it-yourself (DIY) air cleaners using box fan(s) and
e

MERV 13 filter(s) can provide air cleaning similar to commercial air cleaners and may offer some protection
ra

from smoke indoors. Advice on putting these together can be found online.102 Studies have demonstrated
that DIY cleaners are an effective approach to achieve cleaner indoor air in a laboratory.103,104 More infor-
mation on the limitations and proper use of DIY air cleaners, including information on multiple DIY air
sh

cleaner configurations using one to five filters, is available online.93 More filters will increase the filter area
and lessen the pressure drop, reducing burden on the fan motor. In addition, DIY air cleaner designs with
multiple filters increase the cost effectiveness of DIY air cleaners. The EPA provides guidance for the
.a

CADR of various DIY filter configuration assemblies.93

DIY air cleaners are almost completely ineffective with dirty filters, and filters will need to be replaced
w

frequently during smoke events; the duration of filter lifespan will vary with use and conditions.
To help understand the risks around the possible fire and/or electrical hazards, testing was conducted by
w

UL Solutions, in collaboration with the EPA. The testing demonstrated that the box fans that were evaluated
for the report with MERV 13 filters did not reach unsafe temperatures under the conditions measured in the
w

testing (which included filters loaded with smoke and a simulation of an extreme scenario where the front
and back of the fan were both blocked for an extended period of seven hours).105
To reduce the risk of fire and/or electrical hazards, it is recommended that only newer box fans manufac-
tured since 2012, which have added safety features of fused plugs and thermal cutoffs, be used. Users who
construct a DIY air cleaner should ensure that fan manufacturers have stated in their use and care literature,
labeling, or packaging that they support the application and have designed their products for this application.
Fans that have been verified to meet the UL 507 safety standard for electric fans or equivalent can be
identified by the UL or ETL safety marking.106,107 Use of extension cords is not recommended as the motor
is working harder than designed. DIY air cleaners tend to be noisier and produce more heat than commer-
cially available air cleaners, which may hinder use. DIY air cleaners should not be placed near water. Users
should read the fan’s safety information and follow the fan’s operating instructions.

30 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Additional guidance on the use, limitations, and assembly of DIY air cleaners is available online. Exam-
ples are as follows:
• EPA: “Research on DIY Air Cleaners to Reduce Wildfire Smoke Indoors”93
• Chemical Insights Research Institute of Underwriters Laboratories Research Institute: UL200A, Use of
Do-It-Yourself Filtration Devices During Wildfires130
• The Corsi-Rosenthal Foundation: DIY instructions for a four filter Corsi-Rosenthal box configuration131
6.2.2.3.3 Portable Air-Cleaner Operation and Maintenance. For any room air cleaner, plan to per-
form routine maintenance on the device as recommended by the manufacturer. An air cleaner that is used
frequently in an area affected by wildland fire smoke may require more frequent filter changes. If the filter
changes color, or if the level of airflow coming out of the air cleaner drops, it could mean the filter should be
changed. DIY air cleaners can be almost completely ineffective with dirty filters, highlighting the need for
frequent filter replacement during smoke events.103 It is recommended to keep extra filters on hand, espe-
cially during wildfire season. Some air cleaners do not require filters, relying instead on an electrostatic pre-

re
cipitator, which charges particles and attracts them to a plate. The plate requires periodic cleaning according
to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Position PACs in the room such that airflow is unobstructed. Placement near any indoor sources of

to
PM2.5 or near where occupants spend time may be most effective. If the device causes uncomfortable drafts,
redirect the airflow.

ks
PACs can be operated at various fan speeds (airflows). The higher the flow, the more air will be moved
through the filtration system. However, higher fan speeds often generate more noise, which may be disrup-
tive to the intended use of the space. It is important that the air cleaner be operated in a manner to encourage

oo
its use. It may be helpful to inform occupants of the purpose and intended operation of the PAC to discour-
age tampering with it. Reducing the airflow setting will reduce the CADR.
Some PACs come with indicators that change color as the air quality changes. Check the manufacturer’s

/b
instructions to understand whether the indicator is related to PM2.5 measurements and if there is information
on the sensor accuracy. If the air cleaner does not come with an indicator function, it may be helpful to pur-
rg
chase a low-cost air monitor equipped with a PM2.5 sensor to determine whether the air is being cleaned. If
the monitor indicates that air quality is not improving, the PAC may not be large enough for the space.
Doors, windows, or other openings may need to be closed, or the filter may need replacement. See Sections
.o

4.10 and 6.2.8 for more information on indoor PM2.5 monitoring.

After wildfire season, the PACs should be checked and cleaned, and filters should be replaced if needed.
e

If the units are stored seasonally, dedicated storage space will be needed.
6.2.3 Building Automation Systems (BASs). The Smoke Readiness Plan defines what is needed for
ra

facility operations during wildland fire events. Initial steps for the building control systems will include
evaluating current controls and settings and determining capabilities for smoke-limiting operation. Check
sh

for any BAS design features intended to control and monitor smoke as described in Sections 5.5.1 and 5.5.2.
HVAC controls range from simple single-zone thermostats controlling a single HVAC unit’s heating and
cooling modes of operation to complex BASs that integrate the controls from multiple units in large build-
.a

ings. In addition, some older HVAC systems and BASs use electric and pneumatic controls. In the U.S., it is
estimated that about 85% of small-to-medium-sized commercial buildings use thermostats exclusively. For
w

these buildings, changes to HVAC system operation under smoke conditions need to be performed manually
(see Section 6.2.1).
w

An access, update, and testing policy should be developed in buildings with a BAS. A BAS policy not
only facilitates operating the building HVAC system during wildland fire events, it is also useful for other
incidents impacting IAQ (e.g., SARS CoV-2). A complete list of essential elements that should be incorpo-
w

rated into this policy, including recording current settings and accessing new settings can be found in the
ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force’s Building Readiness guidance.92 Key points to consider are as follows:
• Perform a full backup of all BAS software, databases, programs, graphics, trends, schedules, etc., and
store off-site, either physically or in the cloud.
• Inspect or replace any batteries in building controllers so that databases are not lost during extended
power interruptions.
• If your building is not on a scheduled BAS inspection (either by a third party or self-performed) cycle,
consider performing a preventative maintenance inspection of all systems to ensure proper operation
prior to any changes being made. Consider retaining the services of an independent third-party commis-
sioning service provider to help review the scope of work for any control system modifications and ver-
ify that systems are functioning as intended.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 31

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

• Determine the level of access and permissions each person with access should have, such as full access
to make changes in set points, schedules and system programming, schedule overrides only, alerts and
notification access only, and view-only access.
• Review all alerts, notifications, event logs, and system and control point trend reports prior to making
any modifications, and download those reports to create a baseline for comparing the effects of any
changes that may be made in the future. If possible, walk the facility or facilities being controlled and
managed by the BAS to become familiar with the location, size, and scale of the control network.
• At a minimum, review system graphics for all system types and buildings to become familiar with the
system(s).
• Make note of any communication issues with components, sensors, controllers, buildings, etc., and
develop a list of repairs that may need to be made before the system is placed in extended shut down,
unoccupied, or partial occupancy modes of operation.
• Verify critical sensors—such as (but not limited to) CO2 sensors, flow sensors, and differential pressure
sensors—to ensure they provide accurate data to the BAS. When needed, follow the manufacturer’s

re
instructions to complete in-situ (field) calibrations or replace with new sensors.
• Collaborate with the building owner, building users, and building operators and create a plan for modifi-
cations to sequences, set points, and system operations.

to
• Obtain buy-in and approval from key stakeholders before making any changes.
HVAC and BASs may not be configured to easily access the controls needed for limiting indoor smoke.

ks
The graphical user interface may need to be modified to show system components and settings needed
during a smoke event. The facility operator should review the system’s graphics and discuss with the con-
trols contractor how to implement these BAS modifications if they are not readily apparent. Review should

oo
include the following:
• Temporary override of the outdoor air dampers or fans to reduce amount of outdoor air entering the

•
•
building
/b
Temporary override of economizer operation to reduce reliance on outdoor air for cooling
Temporary override of DCV to maintain reduced intake of outdoor air;
rg
• Temporary override of the exhaust airflows to reduce exhaust if less outdoor air is entering the building
• Adjustment of systems to maintain a positive building pressure during the override period
.o

In the future, more BASs may include PM2.5 monitors and the capacity to generate alerts in response to
changes in PM2.5 concentrations as described in Section 5.5.1.2. These sensors could be placed near the
e

outdoor air intake to detect an increase in particle concentrations due to a wildland fire, and the building
operator could adjust the dampers in response. A PM2.5 monitor in the return air could provide an indication
ra

of whether particle concentrations in the indoor air are stable or changing, which can give an indication
about whether interventions to reduce smoke concentrations are working. Consider placing PM2.5 monitors
sh

in key indoor locations to provide representation of occupied areas of the building, in hallways and corridors
leading to and from a building entrance to assess the smoke ingress in the building(s), and in an outdoor
location to assess outdoor air concentrations near the building. See Section 6.2.8 for additional guidance.
.a

Heavy episodes of wildland fire smoke may trigger the smoke detectors in the HVAC systems or occu-
pied areas. When smoke is detected in the HVAC ductwork or occupied space, the smoke detector (duct-
mounted or area detector) sends a supervisory signal to the alarm control panel, which, in many cases, will
w

turn off the related AC units. This is most likely to occur when no smoke mitigation effort has been made as
lower MERV rated filters may not remove sufficient smoke from the indoor air. Management plans should
w

include the possibility of a fire alarm from wildland fire smoke from outside the building and maintaining
detection and notification of an internal fire. To minimize false alarm disruptions, consider these measures:
w

• Schedule smoke detector cleaning and testing just before wildfire season.
• Implement the recommendations in the Smoke Readiness Plan to protect building occupants.
• Some larger fire alarm systems may be temporarily placed in test mode and a fire watch program imple-
mented in the building. Discuss this option with the local fire department before wildfire season, as it
may create an unacceptable safety hazard if implemented improperly.
6.2.4 Building Envelope. Prior to wildfire season, weatherize the building envelope, doors, and windows
to reduce smoke infiltration by sealing and caulking cracks. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 100 describes at
a high level the requirements for operations and maintenance related to the building envelope and energy
efficiency, and elements of this standard have application to wildland fires.54 Specifically, making a building
energy efficient by, for example, replacing obviously broken or missing windows and repairing or replacing
door closers on exterior doors also keeps out wildland fire smoke. Elements that can allow infiltration at the

32 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

top of the building include skylights, hanging fixtures, roof vents, rooftop mounted HVAC equipment, secu-
rity cameras, and roof access doors. Lower in the building, soffits, service penetrations, and doors may allow
smoke infiltration. Check vertical shafts, plumbing stacks, conduits, hallway pressurization shafts, ventila-
tion shafts, service shafts, and fire exit doors for outdoor air paths. Check the building envelope, including
outside walls and openings, windowsills, baseboards, and electrical receptacles for air infiltration. Elements
and renovations added postconstruction that penetrate the building envelope are often poorly sealed.
To determine if these elements are well sealed, use the following methods:
• Visual inspection—Look for visible openings in the envelope. A thermal camera is useful to quickly find
envelope problems.
• Physical inspection—Feel for drafts, cold spots, inconsistent temperatures, and window condensation
(indicative of cold air leaking around windows). Also look for areas where outside noise is more preva-
lent. Lastly, use odor to identify areas to investigate for infiltration.
• Professional energy audits—Bring in a professional to conduct an air leakage site detection test follow-
ing a standard such as ASTM E 1186.90 Thermographic scans and infrared photography can also be used.

re
These images can determine leaks by examining where energy is being lost. It may be beneficial to con-
duct an initial audit, make repairs, and then conduct a second audit to ensure that problems have been

to
adequately addressed.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1, provides minimum ventilation rates and other measures for acceptable
IAQ for commercial buildings.56 The standard specifies ventilation rates needed for different zones in the

ks
building depending on use, and the rates are calculated based on the expected number of persons and the size
of the space.

oo
Once leaks have been identified and ventilation is determined to be sufficient, seal the building in this
order: top of building, bottom of building (ground floor and any floors below grade), vertical shafts, and
finally, outside walls. The following specific approaches can be used for sealing stationary elements:108
•
• /b
Caulking around window and door frames and casings with silicone caulk
Caulking around glass panes in windows and doors with clear silicone caulk
rg
• Sealing areas around wall and ceiling penetrations.
• For smaller areas, this can be done with caulk. Larger areas might require that insulation or other mate-
rial be fitted into the openings. Spray-foam insulation is effective for sealing medium-sized holes and
.o

gaps.
• Sealing or caulking around electrical outlets and switches
e

• Making sure HVAC ductwork sections fit together tightly and connections are sealed with mastic or
metal tape to stop leaks
ra

Movable building components should be sealed via weatherstripping. Important considerations when
choosing a weatherstripping method include whether it can withstand weather changes, friction, and wear
sh

and tear when deployed in its intended location. Weatherstripping should provide a good seal when the door
or window is closed but allow it to open freely. For further guidance, including best types of weatherstrip-
ping for each application, see the U.S. Department of Energy Guide to Air Sealing Your Home.109
.a

In addition to sealing the building envelope, it is important to keep the building at positive pressure
during a wildland fire smoke incident. See Section 6.2.1 for how to configure the HVAC system to have the
w

building operate at positive pressure.

6.2.5 Dedicated Cleaner Air Spaces. In some situations, such as in older buildings or when HVAC sys-
w

tems cannot accommodate MERV 13 filters, it may not be possible to adequately reduce smoke throughout
the building. Also, some at-risk individuals may require the air be as clean as possible. In those situations,
w

determine how to create temporary cleaner air spaces within the building prior to the wildfire season using
one or more PACs with a HEPA filter (or other high-efficiency filter) in a closed room (see Section 6.2.2.3).
As described in Sections 4.10 and 6.2.8, a low-cost sensor may also help to verify that PM2.5 concentrations
are lower in the cleaner air space relative to other spaces in the building.
Consider how increased occupancy may affect air quality and comfort in the dedicated cleaner air space,
and plan to provide adequate cooling, dehumidification, and air cleaning for the size of the space and the
expected number of occupants. Limit sources of indoor air pollutants in the space (see Section 6.2.7). Occu-
pancy may need to be limited depending on how the space is intended to be used. For example, some public
cleaner air spaces are intended to be used for a few hours at a time and may require less area, while others
may be occupied for several days or weeks by people displaced by smoke or fire. Those spaces may require
more area per person or family and more amenities. Advanced planning for cleaner-air shelters should
address existing HVAC capabilities, the number and size of PACs that will be needed, and other factors to

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 33

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

ensure the safety and comfort of those displaced (see Wildfire Smoke: A Guide for Public Health Officials,
Appendix B).110
6.2.6 Maintaining Space Conditioning and Reducing Odors. Using a mitigation strategy of temporar-
ily limiting outdoor air ventilation and exhaust airflows could affect indoor space conditions. Depending on
the outdoor environment, reduced ventilation rates could cause building systems to struggle to maintain
acceptable temperature and relative humidity. A qualified professional should evaluate the building systems
to ensure that any modifications do not create concerns. As discussed in Section 6.2.7, attention should be
paid to reducing indoor sources of air pollutants during wildland fire smoke events.
Odors are subjective, but steps can be taken to try to reduce VOCs that have infiltrated the building
during a smoke event and may be a source of odor. Adding a filter with activated carbon to the air intake
vent (see Section 6.2.2.2) or deploying portable air cleaners with activated carbon filters may help control
odors. However, the carbon impregnated within the filter may saturate quickly and multiple filters may be
needed. In addition, furnace filters and other duct-mounted air cleaning devices are designed to either
remove gases or transform them into other substances. Sorbent media air filters, photocatalytic oxidation,

re
ionization, and intentional ozone generators sold as air cleaners (the latter should not be used in occupied
spaces) are developed for this purpose. It is recommended to only use devices that meet Section 5.7 of
ASHRAE Standard 62.1.56 Some evidence suggests that certain gas-phase air-cleaning technologies pro-

to
duce byproducts for which the potential health impacts have not been well characterized.132,133 Caution is
advised when selecting gas-phase air-cleaning devices.

ks
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 145.2 can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of gas-phase filtration for
some devices that can be installed in the ductwork of HVAC systems.111 However, because gas-phase filtra-
tion is not widely used, little data exist on device effectiveness, and potential toxic byproducts are a concern.

oo
EPA’s Residential Air Cleaners: A Technical Summary provides additional information about these devices
in the context of residential buildings.99
6.2.7 Administrative Controls. In addition to HVAC-related actions that are discussed in the following
/b
text, the Smoke Readiness Plan should include administrative steps to reduce smoke exposures within the
facility. Concerns to be addressed will depend on the activities taking place in the building.
rg
6.2.7.1 Reduce Indoor Sources of Particulate Matter. During wildland fire smoke events, it is critical
to limit behaviors that result in the indoor generation of additional PM. One important focus is reducing
indoor air pollution sources, e.g., by avoiding activities that generate indoor pollutants. Cooking; burning
.o

candles, incense, or wood; using sprays, diffused essential oils, or air fresheners; vacuum cleaning (unless
using appropriate equipment as described in Section 6.2.7.2), use of printers or copiers, and smoking are
e

examples of activities that can increase indoor PM2.5 concentrations.99 Understanding potential sources of
ra

air pollution in the building can assist in the reduction of these sources during wildland fire events. In addi-
tion, when the percentage of outdoor air relative to recirculating air is lower, as would occur in smoke-ready
mode, it is critical to reduce the generation of indoor air pollutants.
sh

6.2.7.2 Indoor Cleaning. Vacuuming can be helpful to keep indoor surfaces and carpets clean and may
be especially helpful for reducing particle resuspension if surfaces are thoroughly cleaned before a smoke
event. If vacuuming during a smoke event, appropriate equipment should be used to avoid resuspending dust
.a

and other contaminants in the indoor air. A central vacuum cleaner system can be used, provided it is vented
to the outdoors and the exhaust vents are at least 3.05 m (10 ft) from ventilation system air inlets. HEPA-fil-
w

ter vacuum cleaners or HEPA-equivalent vacuum cleaners can also be used, preferably those which have
been tested to ASTM F3150.112
w

6.2.7.3 Limit Door Use Where Possible. During smoke events, plan to limit the use of allowable build-
ing entrances and exits to ones with a vestibule or airlock. If this is not possible, prepare to limit door use to
w

only the doors on the least impacted side of the building during the smoke event (consider prevailing winds
when selecting entrances that will be open). Use of doors connected to outside patios and other break areas
that are not necessary for safe egress should be restricted during periods of smoke impact. In advance, pre-
pare signage to use on doors that will remain closed.
6.2.7.4 Loading Docks and Other Frequently Used Entryways. Loading docks can be major sources
of smoke during a wildland fire.55 Consider adding an air curtain, which produces a high-velocity airstream
that will help to prevent aerosols such as smoke from entering the loading dock space. Air curtains can also
be added to other frequently used doors and entryways. Consider retrofitting the most frequently used tradi-
tional doors with revolving doors, where possible, to reduce the amount of outdoor air, including smoke,
coming into the building.
6.2.7.5 Personal Protective Equipment May Be Needed. If building personnel will conduct activities
outdoors when there is a high level of smoke (for example, checking the rooftop HVAC units), they should

34 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
ks
Figure 6 Indoor and outdoor PM2.5 concentrations in a home measured with and without use of an air
cleaner with a HEPA filter.115

oo
be provided adequate personal protective equipment (PPE), specifically N95 or other NIOSH-approved par-
ticulate filtering facepiece respirators. Similarly, personnel in large, unconditioned spaces (such as ware-
/b
houses) may need to use PPE such as respirators. CDC NIOSH guidance provides recommendations for
reducing smoke exposures for wildland firefighters and other outdoor workers, including the use of N95 or
rg
similar respirators.113 Some local or regional authorities may have additional recommendations.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has requirements employers must follow
.o

when respirators are required and recommendations for when respirators are used on a voluntary basis in
occupational settings.114 During wildfire season, N95 respirators may be in short supply. Consider purchas-
ing anticipated supplies and implementing respiratory protection requirements prior to the start of the season.
e

6.2.7.6 Reducing Physical Activity. Consider reducing the level of physical activity to help reduce CO2
ra

buildup.
6.2.8 Indoor and Outdoor PM2.5 Monitoring. Indoor monitoring of PM2.5 can help determine if out-
door smoke is penetrating the building. Section 5.5.1 provides information about PM2.5 sensors and
sh

describes considerations related to permanently installed PM2.5 monitors. If the building does not have
installed monitors, consider purchasing one or more low-cost air monitors equipped with a PM2.5 sensor
prior to the wildfire season. Install the monitors in the facility away from potential indoor sources of PM2.5.
.a

Preferably, one or more monitors would be located in areas representative of general building use, and one
monitor would be located in a planned temporary cleaner air space. If permanently installed monitors are not
w

feasible, facilities operations personnel should be equipped with handheld PM2.5 monitors. When using
handheld sensors or monitors, conditions can change dramatically. It is important to repeat measurements,
w

including comparisons between spaces and between indoors and outdoors. It can be helpful when making
indoor to outdoor comparisons to use the same sensor or monitor model. It may be more difficult to interpret
w

indoor to outdoor differences when different types of sensors/monitors are used, especially when measure-
ment approaches and averaging times vary.
Figure 6 illustrates outdoor concentrations of PM2.5 during a wildfire smoke episode and how indoor
PM2.5 declined after installation of HEPA filter air cleaners. As discussed in Sections 4.10 and 5.5.1.2,
PM2.5 sensors will not be as accurate as high-quality regulatory monitors, but they can show whether inter-
ventions are reducing indoor PM2.5 concentrations. For example, upward trends in PM2.5 concentrations
might indicate that doors or windows are open, HVAC air filters are degrading, PACs should be turned on, or
that there is an indoor source of PM2.5 that should be addressed (especially when outdoor PM2.5 concentra-
tions are not showing the same upward trend). Because indoor activities can generate PM2.5, it is critical to
place the sensor at its projected location prior to a smoke event to understand how the background concen-
trations change as a function of occupancy and activities in the building. For example, it may be typical that
indoor PM2.5 concentrations increase somewhat during the day when the building is occupied. In the Smoke

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 35

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Readiness Plan, document typical PM2.5 concentrations and include procedures for how data from both
temporary and permanent monitors will be accessed and evaluated.
For outdoor PM2.5 concentrations, check local air quality conditions on websites such as AirNow.gov
(NowCast), including the Fire and Smoke Map79 for more detailed information on air quality in areas
impacted by wildland fire smoke, and state websites.116
Note that AirNow and the Fire and Smoke Map use an algorithm called NowCast to show air quality con-
ditions for the current hour based on the previous three to 12 hours of PM2.5 data, using the shorter averaging
period when air quality is changing rapidly. However, when making decisions during rapidly changing wild-
fire smoke conditions, it can be helpful to view air quality trends on a shorter timescale than the NowCast. On
the Fire and Smoke Map, trends and historical data are available for individual sensors or monitors.
If adequate public information on air quality is available in the area, it is not necessary to install a dedi-
cated outdoor PM2.5 monitor for the building. If there is not adequate information for the area, consider
installing an outdoor monitor as well (see EPA’s Air Sensor Toolbox77).
6.2.9 Special Considerations for Health Care Facilities, Schools, and Other Institutions. Protecting

re
public health and wellbeing is important for all buildings, including special facilities highlighted in this sub-
section.

to
6.2.9.1 Hospitals. See Section 5.7.1.
6.2.9.2 Schools. Schools should follow the guidelines in this document and any applicable guidance

ks
from federal, state, local, or other relevant jurisdictions to prepare for smoke, keeping in mind they house at-
risk populations. As described in Section 4.6, children are potentially at risk of experiencing health effects
related to exposure to wildland fire smoke, and advance planning is needed to minimize smoke exposure. A

oo
school’s Smoke Readiness Plan should carefully address the issues in the following subsections.
6.2.9.2.1 School Activity Modifications and Cancellation. Schools may need to modify student
activities as the outdoor air quality changes, such as by bringing children indoors or reducing their physical

/b
activity. Before closing a school or canceling school activities, schools should consider impacts on health
and safety, equity, and instructional time. See guidance from California school and air pollution agencies and
Washington State Department of Ecology and Department of Health for a discussion of these consider-
rg
ations.117,118
6.2.9.2.2 HVAC Preparation. In the planning phase, school facility managers should consult with
.o

HVAC professionals to understand the usual settings for their system (e.g., often, ventilation rates are high)
and how those settings can be controlled during a smoke event. The steps to make changes in the settings
e

should be clearly identified. Additionally, smoke entering the building can be reduced by limiting the intake
of outdoor air during unoccupied hours and in unoccupied parts of the building. If smoke arrives and the
ra

intake of outdoor air is reduced to limit smoke coming into the building, the air intake should be returned to
normal as soon as possible after smoke clears (see Section 6.5).
sh

6.2.9.2.3 Indoor PM2.5 Monitoring. An indoor or handheld PM2.5 monitor can provide immediate
information on IAQ, which is critical for protecting at-risk populations (see Sections 4.10 and 6.2.8). Con-
sider purchasing one or more PM2.5 monitors so that changes in indoor PM2.5 concentrations can be
.a

detected when a smoke event occurs. The Smoke Readiness Plan should define what steps should be taken if
PM2.5 concentrations begin to rise.
w

6.2.9.2.4 Schools that Rely on Natural Ventilation. Schools in northern climates may not have cen-
tral air systems. To the extent feasible, these schools could prepare for smoke by purchasing PACs and one
w

or more PM2.5 monitors. If a smoke event occurs, windows and doors should be closed and PACs deployed
and turned on. Indoor temperatures should be monitored in buildings with no air conditioners; closing doors
w

and windows may increase indoor temperatures, potentially increasing the risk of heat-related health effects.
When outdoor smoke clears, window and doors should be opened promptly to help in clearing the indoor air
and providing cooling.
6.2.9.3 Buildings with Commercial Kitchens and Other Dedicated Exhaust Systems. Restaurants,
hospitals, schools, and other buildings with commercial kitchens, laundries, laboratories, and other contain-
ment areas will have vent hoods and large exhaust systems. These exhaust systems are designed to ensure
proper removal of harmful gases, odors, moisture, and other airborne contaminants. The ventilation system
is typically designed to provide adequate outdoor air to maintain the design space pressure. Careful consid-
eration of the exhaust type and purpose is needed prior to modifying airflows to reduce the quantity of out-
door air and accompanying smoke.
In many commercial kitchens, the outdoor air coming in will have an inadequate filter or no filter. To
avoid bringing in smoky air, the cooking appliances and vent hood exhaust should remain off; plan ahead for

36 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

cold food choices or alternative cooking methods that will not produce combustion products, such as micro-
wave ovens or induction hotplates. Other options to consider include adding supplemental filtration to the
make-up air and providing N95 masks to protect kitchen workers. Note that adding filtration may impact air-
flow. It is essential to confirm proper function of exhaust systems prior to implementation.
6.2.9.4 Prisons/Detention Centers. Prisons and detention centers should consider how implementation
of the Smoke Readiness Plan impacts their security practices. See Section 5.7.2.
6.2.9.5 Multiunit Residential Buildings. It is important to investigate and understand the HVAC equip-
ment serving common areas and dwelling areas of multiunit residential buildings. Most of the considerations
in Section 6 also apply to common areas in multiunit residential buildings.
If dwelling units have independent heating and cooling systems, occupants may need to take action to
reduce smoke exposure within their unit. In appropriate settings, the building manager may need to provide
a large number of filters and supplemental PACs to protect occupants. In many cases, residents may be asked
to provide their own equipment and supplies for air filtration and/or adjust ventilation controls and behaviors
to reduce smoke entry into individual units.

re
As noted in Section 6.2.4, prior to wildfire season, managers for multiunit residential buildings should
weatherize the building envelope, doors, and windows to reduce smoke infiltration by sealing and caulking

to
cracks.
Building managers should consider distributing outreach and educational materials to assist residents
with these actions. Existing materials and information may be available from federal, state, or local health or

ks
environmental authorities. Some examples include
• AirNow Wildfire Guide Factsheets119

oo
• BC Centre for Disease Control Wildfire Smoke webpage and factsheets120
• California Air Resources Board Protecting Yourself from Wildfire Smoke121
• EPA Wildfires and Indoor Air Quality website122

/b
6.3 Operational Testing. When the Smoke Readiness Plan is prepared, and before the start of wildfire sea-
son, test the HVAC system with the additional filtration and adjusted flow settings. There may be several
rg
nonfunctioning items that will take more time to fix than emergency conditions allow. It is important to test
the Smoke Readiness Plan every year. Syncing this test with the required testing of the building’s fire and
.o

life safety systems every year (e.g., sprinklers) will help make this testing a regular part of building opera-
tion and maintenance.
6.3.1 Indoor Air Quality Monitor Failures. Sections 4.10 and 6.2.8 provide recommendations for using
e

monitors to observe changes in PM2.5 concentrations. Sometimes it is difficult to tell when a sensor has
ra

stopped working. Most sensors do not have a status indicator and may fail in ways that are not immediately
obvious, so routine data review is critical to identify problems. Some ways to identify invalid sensor data
include
sh

• Sensors reporting a constant value (e.g., zero)

• Sudden, frequent jumps in the data or sudden, very erratic data
.a

• Divergent data from redundant or repeated sensor measurements in sensors equipped with more than one
sensor
w

In addition to these more obvious malfunctions, sensor data may also drift over time; that is, the sensor’s
response may gradually change the longer it has been in use. Drift may manifest as overall declines in mea-
w

sured values that may not reflect what is known about activities near the sensor. It is important not to con-
fuse very low concentrations, which may occur during low-occupancy periods, with a sensor malfunction.
w

Likewise, a malfunctioning sensor may report consistently low concentrations when air quality is poor. A
simple check that the sensor is responding to PM2.5 can be accomplished by, for example, safely lighting a
match or candle or agitating dust near the sensor. Periodic collocation of the sensor with a portable reference
monitor, if available, can help determine if the sensor is still working correctly.
6.4 Maintenance and Monitoring During a Smoke Event
6.4.1 Roles and Responsibilities. Responsibilities for plan implementation should be clearly defined:
• Who checks with reliable sources on current and forecast outdoor air quality?
• Who decides when and what HVAC changes need to be made in response?
• Who implements the changes and returns the system to normal operations?
• Careful judgment is needed to determine when it is necessary to close dampers or otherwise restrict the
outdoor air intakes, with consideration of the minimum level needed for ventilation.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 37

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Table 7 Decision Matrix for Implementation of Smoke Readiness Plan

Smoke Conditions Action

No current smoke, and no smoke forecast Carry on with normal operations. Have Smoke Readiness
Plan prepared and ready.
Current smoke OR smoke forecast in coming days Consider implementing Smoke Readiness Plan, for
example, if at-risk populations are likely to be impacted.
Current smoke AND smoke forecast in coming days Implement Smoke Readiness Plan.

Checklist 2 Placing Building in Smoke-Ready Mode

 Note the PM2.5 concentrations from the indoor or handheld sensor(s) and the outdoor PM2.5 concentrations
from an appropriate source (e.g., AQI or a nearby outdoor PM2.5 monitor).
 Install the higher-rated HVAC recirculation filter.

re
 Set BAS controls to unoccupied state to close outdoor air dampers or manually set.

to
 Make additional changes to BAS controls (if applicable).
 Disable or reduce relief fan airflow.

ks
 Adjust exhaust fans and block exhaust grills, evaluating to maintain occupant safety.
 Upgrade filtration level on the outdoor air intake as needed.

oo
 Set some of the air handlers or rooftop AC unit to recirculation mode.
 Ensure that spaces are conditioned adequately (e.g., turn on air-conditioning system if hot).

/b
Set up cleaner air spaces, making sure to properly place the PACs inside the spaces and turn to the correct
setting; the highest setting is typically the most effective for air cleaning.
rg
 Implement administrative controls (e.g., reduce indoor sources of air pollution and restrict number of building
entrances).
.o

 Implement odor controls if part of the plan.

 Monitor data from indoor PM2.5 monitor(s), outdoor PM2.5 monitors, and other instruments to determine if
e

mitigation measures are working (see Section 6.4.4).

ra

6.4.2 When to Implement the Smoke Readiness Plan. The Smoke Readiness Plan should include the
information sources to consult in determining when to implement smoke mitigation measures. When wild-
sh

land fires occur, state and local health departments may issue air quality notifications and guidelines when
actions are needed to protect the public from smoke. Local air quality conditions can be found on
AirNow.gov and state websites. The U.S. Air Quality Index (AQI), available on AirNow.gov for locations
.a

across the U.S., has six color-coded categories indicating levels of health concern as a function of PM2.5
concentrations and other criteria air pollutants. The AirNow Fire and Smoke Map79 provides information on
PM2.5 concentrations from both regulatory-grade monitors (operated by air quality agencies and temporary
w

monitors deployed by agencies for smoke events) and low-cost sensors (owned and operated by individuals,
organizations, or agencies); fires; and smoke plumes. Building managers should use these sources of infor-
w

mation to understand when to initiate the Smoke Readiness Plan. See Table 7 for guidance on when to
implement the plan.
w

6.4.3 Placing the Building in Smoke-Ready Mode. Implement the Smoke Readiness Plan. Checklist 2
provides an example for placing a building in smoke-ready mode. A building-specific plan should include a
similar checklist with modifications appropriate for that building. Use the information in Table 5 (Section
6.1) to provide building-specific parameters.
6.4.4 Determining if Mitigation Measures Are Working. Once the plan is implemented, use the data
from the indoor and outdoor PM2.5 monitors to determine whether the actions taken have reduced the
PM2.5 concentrations. Specifically, examine current sensor data versus baseline sensor data for times when
occupancy in the space is similar. In addition, consider how trends in outdoor PM2.5 concentrations may be
affecting indoor PM2.5 concentrations. If a plateau and/or upward trend in indoor PM2.5 concentrations is
observed, check filters and replace as needed; look for cracks in the building envelope and seal them; ensure
that the building remains at a positive pressure; and reduce indoor PM sources. If needed, set up PACs in

38 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

Checklist 3 Returning the Building to Normal Operations

 Refer to documentation and photos of the original settings and follow in reverse order.

 Re-connect and/or re-enable outdoor air dampers.

 Return thermostat and control setting to pre-smoke settings.
 Remove outdoor intake temporary filters.
 Inspect and change return air filters to the type used for normal operation.
 Re-enable economizer and DCV systems.
 Verify operation of system after returning to normal.
 Clean indoor and HVAC interior surfaces to remove ash deposited from the smoke as needed.

re
designated cleaner air spaces. Consider the outdoor PM2.5 concentrations when examining the data. If the
outdoor concentrations are trending up, the indoor concentrations may still trend up even if the mitigation
measures are effective.

to
Temporarily reducing the amount of ventilation air may create unexpected conditions. Track important
information with handheld devices or a BAS. Knowing the PM2.5 concentrations, temperature, relative

ks
humidity, CO2 concentrations, and number of occupants will allow problems to be addressed as they arise.
6.4.5 What to Do if the Plan Does not Work. If the plan and the adjustments do not work, consider relo-

oo
cating occupants to another building. Prior to wildfire season, determine building conditions that are no lon-
ger acceptable and who will make the decision regarding relocation. If forced to relocate, close air intakes,
and shut off the HVAC system to minimize smoke particles entering the system.

/b
6.5 Returning to Normal Operations. Criteria for returning to normal operation, similar to Table 7, should
be defined for each building. Normal HVAC operation will help to remove any smoke lingering indoors and
rg
will improve IAQ. The Smoke Readiness Plan should include a checklist for resuming normal operations;
Checklist 3 provides an example of topics to address. This list will largely involve reversing the changes
made during the smoke event, relying on the documentation developed for normal operations and any addi-
.o

tional notations made during the event. Dirty filters should be changed to avoid circulation of odors that may
remain from the smoke.
e

In addition to reversing building HVAC system settings and removing filters, ash may need to be
ra

removed from building surfaces. Wear appropriate PPE when cleaning up ash. Avoid actions that agitate ash
particles, such as dry sweeping or leaf blowing. Before sweeping indoor and outdoor hard surfaces, mist
them with water to suppress dust, and follow with wet mopping. For areas lightly dusted with ash, use a
sh

damp cloth or wet mop to wet ash. Whenever using water, use as little as possible and do not rinse ash into
drains. Commercial cleaning may be needed for carpet, upholstery, and window treatments. Clean and sani-
tize food contact areas and any items that may facilitate ash ingestion. Collected ash may be disposed of in
.a

the regular trash and should be stored in plastic bags or other containers to prevent it from being agitated.110
Note, building surfaces include the interior surfaces of HVAC components, including ducting that delivers
w

air to occupied areas.

Review and update the Smoke Readiness Plan and/or the normal operating procedures as appropriate
w

based on lessons learned during the wildland fire smoke event.

w

7. REFERENCES
1. Nimmo, D.G., A.J.R. Carthey, C.J. Jolly, and D.T. Blumstein. 2021. Welcome to the Pyrocene: Animal
survival in the age of megafire. Glob Change Biol. 27(22):5684–93.
2. Doerr, S.H., and C. Santín. 2016. Global trends in wildfire and its impacts: perceptions versus realities
in a changing world. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
371(1696):20150345.
3. Lake, F.K., and A.C. Christianson. 2019. Indigenous fire stewardship. In: S.L. Manzello, editor. Ency-
clopedia of Wildfires and Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) Fires. Cham, Switzerland: Springer
International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51727-8_225-1.
4. Steel, Z.L., H.D. Safford, and J.H. Viers. 2015. The fire frequency-severity relationship and the legacy
of fire suppression in California forests. Ecosphere 6(1):art8.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 39

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

5. Jolly, W.M., M.A. Cochrane, P.H. Freeborn, Z.A. Holden, T.J. Brown, G.J. Williamson, and D. Bow-
man. 2015. Climate-induced variations in global wildfire danger from 1979 to 2013. Nature Com-
munications 6(1):7537.
6. Cattau, M.E., C. Wessman, A. Mahood, and J.K. Balch. 2020. Anthropogenic and lightning-started
fires are becoming larger and more frequent over a longer season length in the U.S.A. Global Ecol-
ogy and Biogeography 29(4):668–81.
7. Reisen, F., S.M. Duran, M. Flannigan, C. Elliott, and K. Rideout. 2015. Wildfire smoke and public
health risk. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24(8):1029.
8. Noyes, K.J., R. Kahn, A. Sedlacek, L. Kleinman, J. Limbacher, and Z. Li. 2020. Wildfire smoke parti-
cle properties and evolution, from space-based multi-angle imaging II: The Williams Flats fire
during the FIREX-AQ campaign. Remote Sensing 12(22):3823.
9. Suh, H.H., T. Bahadori, J. Vallarino, and J.D. Spengler. 2000. Criteria air pollutants and toxic air pol-
lutants. Environmental Health Perspectives 108(suppl 4):625–33.
10. Boaggio, K., S.D. LeDuc, R.B. Rice, P.F. Duffney, K.M. Foley, A.L. Holder, S. McDow, and C.P.

re
Weaver. 2022. Beyond particulate matter mass: heightened levels of lead and other pollutants asso-
ciated with destructive fire events in California. Environmental Science & Technology

to
56(20):14272–83.
11. Evtyugina, M., A.I. Calvo, T. Nunes, C. Alves, A.P. Fernandes, L. Tarelho, A. Vicente, and C. Pio.

ks
2013. VOC emissions of smouldering combustion from Mediterranean wildfires in central Portu-
gal. Atmospheric Environment 64:339–48.
12. Miller, D.D., A. Bajracharya, G.N. Dickinson, T.A. Durbin, J.K.P. McGarry, E.P. Moser, L.A. Nuñez,

oo
E.J. Pukkila, P.S. Scott, P.J. Sutton, and N.A.C. Johnston. 2022. Diffusive uptake rates for passive
air sampling: Application to volatile organic compound exposure during FIREX-AQ campaign.
Chemosphere 287:131808.
13.
/b
Dickinson, G.N., D.D. Miller, A. Bajracharya, W. Bruchard, T.A. Durbin, J.K.P. McGarry, E.P. Moser,
L.A. Nuñez, E.J. Pukkila, P.S. Scott, P.J Sutton, and N.A.C Johnston. 2022. Health risk implica-
tions of volatile organic compounds in wildfire smoke during the 2019 FIREX-AQ campaign and
rg
beyond. GeoHealth 6(8):e2021GH000546.
14. Robinson, M.A., Z.C.J. Decker, K.C. Barsanti, M.M. Coggon, R.M. Flocke, A. Franchin, C.D. Fred-
.o

rickson, J.B. Gilman, G.I. Gkatzelis, C.D. Holmes, A. Lamplugh, A. Lavi, A.M. Middlebrook D.M.
Montzka, B.B. Palm, J. Peischl, B. Pierce, R.H. Schwantes, K. Sekimoto, V. Selimovic, G.S. Tyn-
e

dall, J.A. Thornton, P. Van Rooy, C. Warneke, A.J. Weinheimer, and S.S.Brown. 2021. Variability
and time of day dependence of ozone photochemistry in western wildfire plumes. Environmental
ra

Science & Technology 55(15):10280–90.

15. Rice, B.R., K. Boaggio, N.E. Olson, K.M. Foley, C.P. Weaver, J.D. Sacks, S.R. McDow, A.L. Holder,
sh

and S.D. LeDuc. 2023. Wildfires increase concentrations of hazardous air pollutants in downwind
communities. Environmental Science & Technology 57(5).
16. Ghetu, C.C., D. Rohlman, B.W. Smith, R.P. Scott, K.A. Adams, P.D. Hoffman, and K.A. Anderson.
.a

2022. Wildfire impact on indoor and outdoor PAH air quality. Environmental Science & Technol-
ogy 56(14):10042–52.
w

17. Laguerre, A., and E.T. Gall. 2023. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in wildfire smoke accu-
mulate on indoor materials and create postsmoke event exposure pathways. Environmental Science
& Technology 58(1):639–48.
w

18. Kohl, L., M. Meng, J. de Vera, B. Bergquist, C.A. Cooke, S. Hustins, B. Jackson, C.-W. Chow, and
w

A.W.H. Chan. 2019. Limited retention of wildfire‐derived PAHs and trace elements in indoor envi-
ronments. Geophysical Research Letters 46(1):383–91.
19. Hossain, M.S., W. Che, H.C. Frey, and A.K. Lau. 2021. Factors affecting variability in infiltration of
ambient particle and gaseous pollutants into home at urban environment. Building and Environ-
ment 206:108351.
20. Mazzoli-Rocha, F., S. Fernandes, M. Einicker-Lamas, and W.A. Zin. 2010. Roles of oxidative stress in
signaling and inflammation induced by particulate matter. Cell Biology and Toxicology 26(5):481–
98.
21. Kim, K.H., E. Kabir, and S. Kabir. 2015. A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate
matter. Environment International 74:136–43.
22. Anderson, J.O., J.G. Thundiyil, and A. Stolbach. 2012. Clearing the air: A review of the effects of par-
ticulate matter air pollution on human health. Journal of Medical Toxicology 8(2):166–75.

40 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

23. Reid, C.E., M. Brauer, F.H. Johnston, M. Jerrett, J.R. Balmes, and C.T. Elliott. 2016. Critical review of
health impacts of wildfire smoke exposure. Environmental Health Perspectives 124(9):1334–43.
24. Liu, J.C., G. Pereira, S.A. Uhl, M.A. Bravo, and M.L. Bell. 2015. A systematic review of the physical
health impacts from non-occupational exposure to wildfire smoke. Environmental Research
136:120–32.
25. Chen, H., J.M. Samet, P.A. Bromberg, and H. Tong. 2021. Cardiovascular health impacts of wildfire
smoke exposure. Particle and Fibre Toxicology 18(1):2.
26. Larkin, N.K., S.M. O’Neill, R. Solomon, S. Raffuse, T. Strand, and D.C. Sullivan. 2009. The BlueSky
smoke modeling framework. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18(8):906–20.
27. Chen, J., K. Anderson, R. Pavlovic, M.D. Moran, P. Englefield, D.K. Thompson, R. Munoz-Alpizar,
and H. Landry. 2019. The FireWork v2.0 air quality forecast system with biomass burning emis-
sions from the Canadian Forest Fire Emissions Prediction System v2.03. Geoscientific Model
Development 12(7):3283–310.
28. Yao, J., M. Brauer, and S.B. Henderson. 2013. Evaluation of a wildfire smoke forecasting system as a

re
tool for public health protection. Environmental Health Perspectives 121(10):1142–7.
29. Magzamen, S., R.W. Gan, J. Liu, K. O’Dell, B. Ford, K. Berg, K. Bol, A. Wilson, E.V. Fischer, and J.R.

to
Pierce. 2021. Differential Cardiopulmonary health impacts of local and long-range transport of
wildfire smoke. GeoHealth 5(3):e2020GH000330.
30. Kim, Y.H., C. King, T. Krantz, M.M. Hargrove, I.J. George, J. McGee, L. Copeland, M.D. Hays, M.S.

ks
Landis, M. Higuchi, S.H. Gavett, and M.I. Gilmour. 2019. The role of fuel type and combustion
phase on the toxicity of biomass smoke following inhalation exposure in mice. Archives of Toxicol-
ogy 93(6):1501–13.

oo
31. Atwi, K.; S.N. Wilson; A. Mondal; R.C. Edenfield; K.M. Symosko Crow; O. El Hajj; C. Perrie; C.K.
Glenn; C.A. Easley, IV; H. Handa, and R. Saleh. 2022. Differential response of human lung epithe-
lial cells to particulate matter in fresh and photochemically aged biomass-burning smoke. Atmo-
spheric Environment 271:118929.
/b
32. Aguilera, R., T. Corringham, A. Gershunov, and T. Benmarhnia. 2021. Wildfire smoke impacts respira-
rg
tory health more than fine particles from other sources: Observational evidence from Southern Cal-
ifornia. Nature Communications 12(1):1493.
33. Borchers, A.N., J.A. Horsley, A.J. Palmer, G.G. Morgan, T.R. Tham, and F.H. Johnston. 2019. Associa-
.o

tion between fire smoke fine particulate matter and asthma-related outcomes: Systematic review
and meta-analysis. Environmental Research 179:108777.
e

34. Cleland, S.E., L.H. Wyatt, L. Wei, N. Paul, M.L. Serre, J.J. West, S.B. Henderson, and A.G. Rappold.
ra

2022. Short-term exposure to wildfire smoke and PM2.5 and cognitive performance in a brain-
training game: A longitudinal study of U.S. adults. Environmental Health Perspectives
130(6):67005.
sh

35. Black, C., J.E. Gerriets, J.H. Fontaine, R.W. Harper, N.J. Kenyon, F. Tablin, E.S. Schelegle, and L.A.
Miller. 2017. Early life wildfire smoke exposure is associated with immune dysregulation and lung
function decrements in adolescence. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology
.a

56(5):657–66.
36. Xi, Y., A.V. Kshirsagar, T.J. Wade, D.B. Richardson, M.A. Brookhart, L. Wyatt, and A.G. Rappold.
w

2020. Mortality in U.S. hemodialysis patients following exposure to wildfire smoke. Journal of the
American Society of Nephrology 2020 Aug;31(8):1824.
w

37. Yao, J., M. Brauer, J. Wei, K.M. McGrail, F.H. Johnston, and S.B. Henderson. 2020. Sub-daily expo-
sure to fine particulate matter and ambulance dispatches during wildfire seasons: A case-crossover
w

study in British Columbia, Canada. Environmental Health Perspectives 128(6):067006.

38. Yu, P., Y. Guo, C.X. Gao, C. Dimitriadis, J.F. Ikin, A. Del Monaco, D. Brown, M.R. Sim, and M.J.
Abramson. 2021. Impacts of high concentration, medium duration coal mine fire related PM2.5 on
cancer incidence: 5-Year follow-up of the Hazelwood health study. Environmental Health Insights
15:11786302211059722.
39. Korsiak, J., L. Pinault, T. Christidis, R.T. Burnett, M. Abrahamowicz, and S. Weichenthal. 2022. Long-
term exposure to wildfires and cancer incidence in Canada: A population-based observational
cohort study. Lancet Planet Health 6(5):e400–9.
40. Grant, E., and J.D. Runkle. 2022. Long-term health effects of wildfire exposure: A scoping review. The
Journal of Climate Change and Health 6:100110.
41. Vieira, S.E. 2015. The health burden of pollution: The impact of prenatal exposure to air pollutants.
International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 10(1):1111–21.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 41

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

42. Amjad, S., D. Chojecki, A. Osornio-Vargas, and M.B. Ospina. 2021. Wildfire exposure during preg-
nancy and the risk of adverse birth outcomes: A systematic review. Environment International
156:106644.
43. Haikerwal, A., L.W. Doyle, J.D. Wark, L. Irving, and J.L.Y. Cheong. 2021. Wildfire smoke exposure
and respiratory health outcomes in young adults born extremely preterm or extremely low birth-
weight. Environmental Research 197:111159.
44. Willson, B.E., N.A. Gee, N.H. Willits, L. Li, Q. Zhang, K.E. Pinkerton, and B.L. Lasley. 2021. Effects
of the 2018 Camp Fire on birth outcomes in non-human primates: Case-control study. Reproductive
Toxicology 105:128–35.
45. Capitanio, J.P., L.A. Del Rosso, N. Gee, and B.L. Lasley. 2022. Adverse biobehavioral effects in
infants resulting from pregnant rhesus macaques’ exposure to wildfire smoke. Nature Communica-
tions 13(1):1774.
46. Bassein, J., M.G. dela Pena-Ponce, S. Ganesh, M. Lanclus, D. Belmens, C. Van Holsbeke, J.W. de Bac-
ker, and L.A. Miller. 2019. Wildfire smoke exposure during infancy results in increased proinflam-

re
matory cytokine responses, impaired lung function, and transgenerational immune effects. In: A104
Wildfire, Biomass, And World Trade Center Exposures, American Thoracic Society, pp. A2480.

to
www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2019.199.1_MeetingAbstracts.A2480.
47. Leech, J.A., W.C. Nelson, R.T. Burnett, S. Aaron, and M.E. Raizenne. 2002. It’s about time: A compar-

ks
ison of Canadian and American time-activity patterns. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmen-
tal Epidemiology 12(6):427–32.
48. Rice, M.B., S.B. Henderson, A.A. Lambert, K.R. Cromar, J.A. Hall, W.E. Cascio, P.G. Smith, B.J.

oo
Marsh, S. Coefield, J.R. Balmes, A. Kamal, M.I. Gilmour, C. Carlsten, K.M. Navarro, G.W. Coll-
man, A. Rappold, Rappold, M.D. Miller, S.L. Stone, and D.L. Costa. 2021. Respiratory impacts of
wildland fire smoke: Future challenges and policy opportunities. Annals of the American Thoracic
Society 18(6):921–30.
/b
49. Holm, S.M., M.D. Miller, and J.R. Balmes. 2021. Health effects of wildfire smoke in children and pub-
rg
lic health tools: A narrative review. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology
31(1):1–20.
50. Hauptman, M., J.R. Balmes, and M.D. Miller. 2020. The hazards of wildfire smoke exposure for chil-
.o

dren. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care 50(2):100756.

51. Cascio, W.E. 2018. Wildland fire smoke and human health. Science of the Total Environment 624:586–
e

95.
ra

52. Puglisi, L.B., and E.A. Wang. 2021. Health care for people who are incarcerated. Nature Reviews Dis-
ease Primers 7(1):1–2.
53. Davison, G., K.K. Barkjohn, G.S.W. Hagler, A.L Holder, S. Coefield, C. Noonan, and B. Hassett-Sip-
sh

ple. 2021. Creating Clean Air Spaces During Wildland Fire Smoke Episodes: Web Summit Sum-
mary. Front Public Health 9. www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2021.508971.
54. ASHRAE. 2018. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 100, Energy Efficiency in Existing Buildings.
.a

Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE.

55. EPA. n.d. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
w

Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/indoor-particulate-matter.

56. ASHRAE. 2022. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
w

Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE.

57. Weschler, C.J., H.C. Shields, and D.V. Naik. 1994 Indoor chemistry involving O3, NO, and NO2 as
w

evidenced by 14 months of measurements at a site in Southern California. Environmental Science

& Technology 28(12):2120–32.
58. Lee, S.C., L.Y. Chan, and M.Y. Chiu. Indoor and outdoor air quality investigation at 14 public places in
Hong Kong. Environment International 25(4):443–50.
59. Liang, Y., D. Sengupta, M.J. Campmier, D.M. Lunderberg, J.S. Apte, and A.H. Goldstein. 2021. Wild-
fire smoke impacts on indoor air quality assessed using crowdsourced data in California. Proceed-
ings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 118(36):e2106478118.
60. Nguyen, P.D.M., N. Martinussen, G. Mallach, G. Ebrahimi, K. Jones, N. Zimmerman, and S.B. Hender-
son. 2021. Using low-cost sensors to assess fine particulate matter infiltration (PM2.5) during a
wildfire smoke episode at a large inpatient healthcare facility. International Journal of Environ-
mental Research and Public Health 18(18):9811.

42 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

61. May, N.W., C. Dixon, and D.A. Jaffe. 2021. Impact of wildfire smoke events on indoor air quality and
evaluation of a low-cost filtration method. Aerosol and Air Quality Research [Web]. Available:
https://aaqr.org/articles/aaqr-21-03-tn-0046.
62. Xiang, J., C.H. Huang, J. Shirai, Y. Liu, N. Carmona, C. Zuidema, E. Austin, T. Gould, T. Larson, and
E. Seto. 2021. Field measurements of PM2.5 infiltration factor and portable air cleaner effective-
ness during wildfire episodes in US residences. Science of The Total Environment 773:145642.
63. Montrose, L., E.S. Walker, S. Toevs, C.W. Noonan. 2022. Outdoor and indoor fine particulate matter at
skilled nursing facilities in the western United States during wildfire and non-wildfire seasons.
Indoor Air 32(6):e13060.
64. O’Dell, K., B. Ford, J. Burkhardt, S. Magzamen, S.C. Anenberg, J. Bayham, E.V. Fischer, and J.R.
Pierce. 2022. Outside in: The relationship between indoor and outdoor particulate air quality during
wildfire smoke events in western U.S. cities. Environmental Research: Health 1(1):015003.
65. Kirk, W.M., M. Fuchs, Y. Huangfu, N. Lima, P. O’Keeffe, B. Lin, S. Pressley, V. Walden, D. Cook, and
B.K. Lamb. 2018. Indoor air quality and wildfire smoke impacts in the Pacific Northwest. Science

re
and Technology for the Built Environment 24(2):149–59.
66. Wheeler, A.J., R.W. Allen, K. Lawrence, C.T. Roulston, J. Powell, G.J. Williamson, P.J. Jones, F. Rei-
sen, G.G. Morgan, and F.H. Johnston. 2021. Can public spaces effectively be used as cleaner indoor

to
air shelters during extreme smoke events? International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health 18(8):4085.

ks
67. Pantelic, J., M. Dawe, and D. Licina. 2019. Use of IoT sensing and occupant surveys for determining
the resilience of buildings to forest fire generated PM2.5. PLOS One 14(10):e0223136.
68. WHO. n.d. Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Avail-

oo
able: www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health.
69. EPA. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/timeline-particulate-matter-pm-national-ambient-
air-quality-standards-naaqs.
/b
70. Morawska, L., et al. 2021. A paradigm shift to combat indoor respiratory infection. Science [Web].
rg
Available: www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg2025.
71. Clements, A., R. Duvall, D. Greene, and T. Dye. 2022. The Enhanced Air Sensor Guidebook. Washing-
ton, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
.o

72. ASHRAE. 2017. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2, Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning
Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size. Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE.
e

73. Azimi, P., D. Zhao, and B. Stephens. 2014. Estimates of HVAC filtration efficiency for fine and ultraf-
ra

ine particles of outdoor origin. Atmospheric Environment 98:337–46.

74. ASHRAE. 2021. ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Chapter 16, “Ventilation and Infiltration.”
Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE.
sh

75. GIGA. n.d. RESET | Monitors. [cited 2023 May 16]. Shanghai, China: GIGA. Available:
www.reset.build/directory/monitors.
76. AQ-SPEC Home Page [Internet]. [cited 2023 May 17]. Available from: http://www.aqmd.gov/aq-spec
.a

77. EPA. 2016. Air Sensor Toolbox. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available:
www.epa.gov/air-sensor-toolbox.
w

78. Demanega, I., I. Mujan, B.C. Singer, A.S. Anđelković, F. Babich, and D. Licina. 2021. Performance
assessment of low-cost environmental monitors and single sensors under variable indoor air quality
w

and thermal conditions. Building and Environment 187:107415.

79. AirNow. Fire and Smoke Map. Available from http://www.airnow.gov.
w

80. EPA. 2021. A Guide to Siting and Installing Air Sensors. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/air-sensor-toolbox/guide-siting-and-installing-air-sensors.
81. EPA. 2016. How to Use Air Sensors: Air Sensor Guidebook. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/air-sensor-toolbox/how-use-air-sensors-air-sensor-guide-
book.
82. ASHRAE. 2022. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, Energy Standard for Sites and Buildings Except
Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE.
83. AMCA. 2018. ANSI/AMCA Standard 500-D, Laboratory Methods of Testing Dampers for Rating. Air
Movement and Control Association International: Arlington Heights, IL.
84. ISO. 2016. ISO 16890-1, Air filters for general ventilation—Part 1: Technical specifications, require-
ments and classification system based upon particulate matter efficiency (ePM). Geneva, Switzer-
land: International Organization for Standardization.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 43

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

85. ASHRAE. 2009. Indoor Air Quality Guide. Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE. Available:
www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/bookstore/indoor-air-quality-guide.
86. ASHRAE. 2023. ASHRAE Standard 241, Control of Infectious Aerosols. Peachtree Corners, GA:
ASHRAE.
87. ASTM. 2019. ASTM E779, Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan Pressur-
ization. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
88. ASTM. 2018. ASTM E3158, Standard Test Method for Measuring the Air Leakage Rate of a Large or
Multizone Building. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
89. ASTM. 2019. ASTM E283/E283M, Standard Test Method for Determining Rate of Air Leakage
Through Exterior Windows, Skylights, Curtain Walls, and Doors Under Specified Pressure Differ-
ences Across the Specimen. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
90. ASTM. 2022. ASTM E1186, Standard Practices for Air Leakage Site Detection in Building Envelopes
and Air Barrier Systems. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
91. ASHRAE. 2018. ANSI/ASHRAE/ACCA Standard 180, Standard Practice for Inspection and Mainte-

re
nance of Commercial Building HVAC Systems. Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE.
92. ASHRAE. 2022. ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force Building Readiness. Peachtree Corners, GA:

to
ASHRAE. Available:
www.ashrae.org/file%20library/technical%20resources/covid-19/ashrae-building-readiness.pdf.
93. EPA. n.d. Research on DIY Air Cleaners to Reduce Wildfire Smoke Indoors. Washington, DC: U.S.

ks
Environmental Protection Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/air-research/research-diy-air-cleaners-
reduce-wildfire-smoke-indoors.
94. NIEHS. n.d. Selection and Use of Portable Air Cleaners to Protect Workers from Exposure to SARS-

oo
CoV-2. Durham, NC: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Available: https://
tools.niehs.nih.gov/wetp/public/hasl_get_blob.cfm?ID=13021.
95. AHAM. 2020. ANSI/AHAM AC-1, Method For Measuring Performance Of Portable Household
/b
Electric Room Air Cleaners. Washington, DC: Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers.
96. AHAM. 2024. Using an Air Cleaner to Manage Wildfire Smoke. AHAM Consumer Blog. Available:
rg
https://blog.aham.org/using-an-air-cleaner-to-manage-wildfire-smoke. Washington, DC: Associa-
tion of Home Appliance Manufacturers.
97. Azimi. P., and B. Stephens. HVAC filtration for controlling infectious airborne disease transmission in
.o

indoor environments: Predicting risk reductions and operational costs. Building and Environment
70:150–60.
e

98. EPA. 2018. Guide to Air Cleaners in the Home, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
ra

Protection Agency.
99. EPA. 2018. Residential Air Cleaners—A Technical Summary, 3rd Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency.
sh

100. ASHRAE. 2022. Equivalent Outdoor Air Calculator. Peachtree Corners, GA: ASHRAE. Available:
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1GUCcjAyhzrTATHD8SQvNcF7JnuWKpadSVT6LA_8-
SUII/edit#gid=0.
.a

101. AHAM. 2021. Portable Air Cleaners and Air Changes per Hour. Available from: Washington, DC:
Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers. Available: https://ahamverifide.org/wp-content/
w

uploads/2021/11/White-Paper-Portable-Air-Cleaners-and-AIr-Changes-per-Hour-FINAL-
00106301.pdf.
w

102. EPA. 2021. DIY Air Cleaner to Reduce Wildfire Smoke Indoors. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-09/diy-air-purifier-info-
w

graphic_final.pdf
103. Holder, A.L., H.S. Halliday, and L. Virtaranta. 2022. Impact of do-it-yourself air cleaner design on the
reduction of simulated wildfire smoke in a controlled chamber environment. Indoor Air
32(11):e13163.
104. Eykelbosh, A. 2023. Do-it-yourself (DIY) air cleaners: Evidence on effectiveness and considerations
for safe operation. Vancouver, BC: National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health. Avail-
able:
105. UL. Davis, A., and M. Black M. 2021. Wildfire Safety Research—An Evaluation of DIY Air Filtration.
Northbrook, IL: UL Solutions, Inc. Available: https://chemicalinsights.org/wp-content/uploads/
2021/07/DIY-Box-Fan-Report-2021.pdf.
106. UL. 2024. UL 507, Electric Fans. Northbrook, IL: UL Solutions, Inc.
107. Intertek. n.d. ETL Listed Mark. Available from intertek.com.

44 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

108. Building Green. n.d. Air Barrier Continuity: A Quick Guide to Sealing Air Leakage Pathways in
Buildings. Available: www.buildinggreen.com/sites/default/files/usace_airbarriercontinuity.pdf.
109. DOE. n.d. Air Sealing Your Home. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy. Available:
www.energy.gov/energysaver/air-sealing-your-home.
110. EPA. 2021. Wildfire Smoke: A Guide for Public Health Officials. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency. Available: www.airnow.gov/publications/wildfire-smoke-guide/wildfire-
smoke-a-guide-for-public-health-officials.
111. ASHRAE. 2016. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 145.2, Laboratory Test Method for Assessing the Perfor-
mance of Gas-Phase Air-Cleaning Systems: Air-Cleaning Devices. Peachtree Corners, GA:
ASHRAE.
112. ASTM. 2018. ASTM F3150, Standard Specification for HEPA Filtration System Performance of Resi-
dential and Commercial Vacuum Cleaners. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
113. NIOSH. 2022. Fighting Wildfires. Washington, DC: National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. Available: www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/firefighting/default.html.

re
114. OSHA. 2006. Major Requirements of OSHA’s Respiratory Protection Standard 29 CFR 1910.134.
Washington, DC: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Available: www.osha.gov/sites/

to
default/files/training-library_major_requirements.pdf.
115. Barn, P., T. Larson, M. Noullett, S. Kennedy, R. Copes, and M. Brauer. 2008. Infiltration of forest fire
and residential wood smoke: an evaluation of air cleaner effectiveness. Journal of Exposure Sci-

ks
ence & Environmental Epidemiology 18(5):503–11.
116. EPA. n.d. Smoke Advisories. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available:

oo
www.airnow.gov/air-quality-and-health/fires/smoke-advisories.
117. CSBA. n.d. Memo: Get Smart about Wildfire Smoke—Clear Guidelines for Schools and Wildfire
Smoke. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education. Available: http://blog.csba.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/06/Guidelines.pdf.
/b
118. Washington State. 2024. Wildfire Smoke: Guidance for Canceling Events or Activities and Closing
Schools. Washington State Department of Ecology, Olympia, WA. Available: https://doh.wa.gov/
rg
sites/default/files/legacy/Documents/4300/334-428-WildfireSmokeClosureGuidance_final3.pdf.
119. EPA. n.d. Wildfire Guide Factsheets Publications. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
.o

Agency. Available: www.airnow.gov/wildfire-guide-factsheets.

120. BCCDC. n.d. Wildfire Smoke. Vancouver, BC: BC Centre for Disease Control. Available:
e

www.bccdc.ca/health-info/prevention-public-health/wildfire-smoke.
121. CARB. n.d. Protecting Yourself from Wildfire Smoke. Sacramento, CA: California Air Resources
ra

Board. Available: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/protecting-yourself-wildfire-smoke.

122. EPA. n.d. Wildfires and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
sh

Agency. Available: www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/wildfires-and-indoor-air-quality-iaq.

123. EPA. n.d. Air Quality System. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available:
www.epa.gov/aqs.
.a

124. EPA. n.d. Air Quality Index. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available:
https://www.airnow.gov/aqi.
w

125. EPA. 2018. Technical Assistance Document for the Reporting of Daily Air Quality—The Air Quality
Index (AQI). EPA 454/B-18-007. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
w

126. Boaggio, K. 2021. Smoke from Western Wildfires and Particulate Matter Concentrations. Committee
Meeting for ASHRAE GPC 44P, Protecting Building Occupants from Smoke During Wildfire and
w

Prescribed Burn Events, NA (virtual meeting), NC, December 15, 2021. Available: https://assess-
ments.epa.gov/risk/document/&deid%3D353950.
127. BCCDC. n.d. Air Quality Health Index and Wildfire Smoke. Vancouver, BC: BC Centre for Disease
Control.
128. EPA Victoria. PM2.5 particles in the air. Victoria, BC: Environmental Protection Authority Victoria.
Available: www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/air-quality/pm25-parti-
cles-in-the-air.
129. Yao, J., D.M. Stieb, E. Taylor, and S.B. Henderson. 2020. Assessment of the Air Quality Health Index
(AQHI) and four alternate AQHI-Plus amendments for wildfire seasons in British Columbia. Cana-
dian Journal of Public Health 111:96–106. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-019-00237-w.
130. UL. 2022. UL200A, Use of Do-It-Yourself Filtration Devices During Wildfires. Northbrook, Illinois:
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 45

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

131. Corsi-Rosenthal Foundation. n.d. How to Build Your Own Corsi-Rosenthal Box. Fort Worth, TX:
Corsi-Rosenthal Foundation. Available: https://corsirosenthalfoundation.org/instructions.
132. Collins, D.B., and D.K. Farmer. 2021. Unintended consequences of air cleaning chemistry. Environ-
mental Science & Technology 55(18). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c02582.
133. NASEM. 2022. Why Indoor Chemistry Matters. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

re
to
ks
oo
/b
rg
e .o
ra
sh
.a
w
w
w

46 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

(This appendix is not part of this guideline. It is merely informative and does not contain require-
ments necessary for conformance to the guideline.)
INFORMATIVE APPENDIX A
ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATE MATTER CONCENTRATIONS DURING 
RECENT U.S. WESTERN WILDFIRES
A1. BACKGROUND
To better understand the possible particulate matter (PM) concentrations that may occur during wildland
fires (i.e., wildfires and prescribed burns), ambient air quality data during three recent wildfire events in the
western U.S. were evaluated. Concentrations of fine particles (PM2.5) reported to the Air Quality System
(AQS)123 were analyzed. The range of 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations observed, and the relative timeframes
concentrations that can persist at unhealthy levels based on the U.S. Air Quality Index (AQI)124 were sum-
marized. These data are included in this appendix to inform building designers as they consider the filtration
performance of air-handling systems. In addition, this information can be useful for those developing wild-

re
land fire response plans to provide an idea on timeframes for actions.
It is important to understand that PM2.5 concentrations related to wildland fire smoke can be highly vari-

to
able and are greatly dependent on meteorological, topographical, and fire conditions. The data provided here
are meant to be informative and illustrative of PM2.5 concentrations observed during actual smoke events.

ks
A2. APPROACH
For the analysis, the EPA AQS 24-hour PM2.5 data for three wildfire events was explored using both 24-

oo
hour average Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) and Federal Reference Method (FRM) measurements.
Monitoring data were evaluated for six states: California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Montana, and Idaho
and three events: Labor Day fires (9/7/2020-9/24/2020, 243 monitoring sites); Summer 2018 fires (7/24/
2018-8/29/2018, 235 monitoring sites); and Camp Fire (11/8/2018-11/25/2018, 233 monitoring sites). Tools
/b
for communicating air quality information to the public vary from country to country. For example, the U.S.
AQI uses color-coded categories with health-based descriptors for six pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, ozone,
rg
NO2, SO2, and CO). The highest AQI value is reported, and the responsible pollutant is identified. The
reader is encouraged to review resources in their country or jurisdiction. For this analysis, a simplified ver-
sion of the PM2.5 AQI breakpoints was used as summarized in Table A-1. More detailed information on the
.o

AQI breakpoints and guidance for reporting the daily air quality in the U.S. are available.125 For each event,
data analyzed from all monitoring stations in the six states are summarized in Section A3. More detailed
e

information is available.126
ra

A3. RESULTS
For each of the three events, the PM2.5 concentrations across multiple stations in a subset of the six states
sh

are shown in Figures A-1 and A-2. Elevated 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations were observed across wide spa-
tial extents during all three events. The highest 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations were observed during the
Labor Day fires, with peaks around 600 to 800 μg/m3 (Figure A-1a, c). Elevated 24-hour PM2.5 concentra-
.a

tions during the Labor Day fires and the Camp Fire were observed at many monitoring stations for multiple
consecutive days (Figure A-1a, c; Figure A-2c). The Labor Day fires consisted of multiple fires burning at
w

the same time, leading to smoke from these multiple events impacting the same sites. Spatially, during the
Summer 2018 fires, 24-hour PM2.5 peak concentrations were observed in California before Oregon and
w

Washington, indicating smoke transport across long distances and additional fires burning in Oregon. How-
ever, the PM2.5 concentrations across all three states were similar in magnitude and duration (Figure A-2a).
w

Table A-1 Simplified Version of the U.S. AQI Breakpoints Used in Analysis

Air Quality Index (AQI) Category AQI Range PM2.5 Range

Good/moderate 0 to 100 0 to 35 µg/m3
Unhealthy for sensitive groups 100 to 150 35 to 55 µg/m3
Unhealthy 151 to 200 55 to 150 µg/m3
Very unhealthy 201 to 300 150 to 250 µg/m3
Hazardous 301 and higher 250 to 500 µg/m3
Above the AQI 500+ µg/m3

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 47

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
(b)

ks
(a)

oo
/b
rg
e .o
ra
sh
.a

(d)
w

(c)
w

Figure A-1 Twenty-four-hour PM2.5 concentrations reported at multiple stations in (a) California and (c) Oregon and Wash-
ington during the 2020 Labor Day fires. Station locations for (b) California and (d) Oregon and Washington are also shown.
w

Overall, these three events resulted in elevated PM2.5 concentrations for extended time periods. A sum-
mary of the air quality during these events is provided in Figure A-3. Concentrations above 35 μg/m3, the
lower end of the range of PM2.5 concentrations for EPA’s AQI category characterized as air quality that is
unhealthy for sensitive groups, were observed during all three events lasting at least one consecutive week
across ten or more monitoring stations. Additionally, concentrations above 55 μg/m3, the lower end of the
range of PM2.5 concentrations for the AQI category characterized as unhealthy air quality, were observed
across dozens of monitoring stations for up to 15 consecutive days. Concentrations above 150 μg/m3, the
lower end of the range of PM2.5 concentrations for the AQI category characterized as very unhealthy air
quality, were observed at a limited number of monitoring stations for up to 12 consecutive days.

48 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
ks
(b)
(a)

oo
/b
rg
e .o
ra
sh

(d)
.a

(c)
w

Figure A-2 Twenty-four-hour PM2.5 concentrations reported at monitoring stations in California, Oregon, and Washington
during (a) the Summer 2018 fires and (c) the 2018 Camp Fire. Station locations for (b) the Summer 2018 fires and (d) the 2018
Camp Fire are also shown.
w
w

The peak 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations for the three events varied as well. The highest concentrations
were observed during the Labor Day fires, with 36 monitoring stations reporting 24-hour PM2.5 concentra-
tions above 250 μg/m3, the lower end of the range of PM2.5 concentrations for the AQI category character-
ized as hazardous air quality, and a maximum observed 24-hour PM2.5 concentration of 824.1 μg/m3, which
is beyond the AQI scale. During the Camp Fire, 28 monitoring stations observed peak 24-hour PM2.5 con-
centrations above 150 μg/m3 (AQI category—very unhealthy) and two stations reported concentrations
above 250 μg/m3 (AQI category—hazardous). Lower peak 24-hour concentrations were observed during
the Summer 2018 fires at fewer monitoring stations, with seven monitoring stations reporting concentrations
above 150 μg/m3 (AQI category—very unhealthy).
Additional resources for PM2.5 breakpoints include the British Columbia Centre for Disease Control Air
Quality Health Index and Wildfire Smoke Fact Sheet127 and the Environment Protection Authority Victoria
PM2.5 Particles in the Air128.

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 49

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

re
to
ks
oo
Figure A-3 Summary of ambient 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations during three wildfire events in the western U.S.

/b
rg
e .o
ra
sh
.a
w
w
w

50 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

(This appendix is not part of this guideline. It is merely informative and does not contain require-
ments necessary for conformance to the guideline.)
INFORMATIVE APPENDIX B
MANAGING AIR-SIDE ECONOMIZER AND DEMAND-CONTROL VENTILATION FOR SMOKE
Economizer and demand-control ventilation (DCV) are control techniques to provide energy savings and
maintain indoor air quality (IAQ) by changing the amount of outdoor airflow in occupied buildings. While
they are separate systems, they are often combined to control outdoor and return air dampers, relief air
dampers, and fans. During wildfire smoke events, normal functioning of these systems can cause unhealthy
indoor conditions. Up to 100% of the system airflow can be outdoor air used for cooling or ventilation.
Air-side economizers save energy by keeping the mechanical cooling system off when outdoor air is cool
and dry enough to meet the HVAC’s cooling requirements. Most rooftop HVAC units above 60,000 Btu/h
(17.6 kW) capacity are equipped with air-side economizers. (ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.182 requires
economizers on systems above 54,000 Btu/h [15.8 kW] except in hot, humid climates where using outdoor

re
air for cooling is not advisable.) The economizer control also maintains a minimum outdoor air damper posi-
tion for adequate ventilation, controls relief fans, and may close the outside damper when the building is
unoccupied.

to
Many equipment and control variations are used to provide the air-side economization. Figure B-1 shows
a typical air-handler layout.

ks
Determining what’s happening and how it is happening in a particular HVAC unit may be challenging.
Research and testing are needed to understand how these systems function at a specific building or within
specific units. Gathering the manufacturer’s installation and testing instructions will most likely be neces-

oo
sary. Some economizer controls can be a stand-alone controller typically mounted on the air handler or
included as part of the control logic in an HVAC controller.
There are at least four common types of economizer controls in use:

/b
a. Dry-Bulb High Limit—Sensors detect outdoor air temperature and adjust dampers to allow up to 100%
outdoor air to be used for cooling. The high-limit setting acts to enable or disable the economizer func-
rg
tion.
b. Enthalpy High Limit—Sensors detect outdoor air temperature and humidity to calculate the total heat of
.o

the air, also known as enthalpy, then determine if outdoor air can be used to cool a building. The high-
limit setting acts to enable or disable the economizer function.
e
ra
sh
.a
w
w
w

Figure B-1 Schematic of an air-side economizer in a unitary HVAC system. The economizer controller may
be a stand-alone hardware module or be integrated into the HVAC control. (Source: www.pnnl.gov/projects/
best-practices/air-side-economizers)

ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024 51

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

c. Differential Enthalpy Economizer—Two sensors measure return air and outdoor air enthalpy and adjust
dampers to select the airstream providing the lowest enthalpy for cooling.
d. Integrated Differential Enthalpy Economizer—Sensors track return and outdoor air enthalpy and are
integrated as the first-stage cooling with a multistage indoor thermostat or controller. If the outdoor air’s
temperature and enthalpy are low enough, multistage cooling will start with the economizer, and
mechanical cooling will be activated as additional stages of cooling to meet the cooling demand.
In cooler, drier climates, dry-bulb temperature control economizers are generally used. In warmer, humid
climates, enthalpy control is commonly used. Unfortunately, it is common for economizers to be set up
incorrectly or fail as sensors lose calibration, system components age, and maintenance is deferred. As a
response to the high failure rate, fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) for economizers have been required
since 2018. The FDD reporting systems monitor and report problems with temperature sensors, dampers,
operations at inappropriate times, and excess outdoor air. These faults may be displayed on zone thermostats
or via a building automation system (BAS).
Air-side economizers can also be configured to provide night cooling or night purge functions depending

re
on building usage and location. These functions should also be temporarily suspended to protect building
occupants for the duration of wildfire smoke events.

to
DCV is a system that provides an automatic increase or reduction of outdoor air intake based on the
actual occupancy of spaces. DCV controls use CO2 sensors as a proxy to monitor building occupancy. (A
common example is movie theaters, where outdoor air needs are normally low, except for crowded evening

ks
showings. The DCV sequence increases outdoor air in response to a rise in CO2 indicating high occupancy.)
Temporary disabling of these systems requires research and making a plan for every air handler provid-

oo
ing outdoor air. Solutions may be simple or complex. Listed below are a few considerations.
a. The specific technique to limit or increase the outdoor airflow to the minimum setting is dependent on
the unique systems and conditions encountered. Professional assistance may be required.

/b
b. The odds are good that the system’s economizer is not working properly. The outdoor air damper may be
failed closed or open. Sensors or damper actuators may have failed, lost calibration, or been discon-
rg
nected. See the sample maintenance checklist for air-side economizers at www.pnnl.gov/projects/best-
practices/air-side-economizers for guidance. If the damper has failed closed, leave it closed or block the
damper partially open. Check the building pressure and adjust exhaust fans or outdoor air damper until
.o

the internal pressure is positive to the outdoor pressure.

c. If the location has a BAS, it may be possible to set and override for the outdoor air damper position. Ver-
e

ify the override holds when the economizer is active.

d. If the location has a BAS, it may be possible to simply raise the DCV set point so that less outdoor air is
ra

demanded by the sequence.

e. Some BASs allow an override of outdoor air temperature sensor. Temporarily setting the temperature to
sh

above the economizer high limit may prevent economizer operation.

f. If the building has a commercial thermostat with separate occupied and unoccupied times and set points,
use the unoccupied function.
.a

1. Verify the outdoor air damper is closed when the system is operating during the unoccupied setting.
2. Temporarily set the unoccupied time and temperature set points to include times the building is occu-
w

pied.
g. Most economizer systems have a method to override damper position in economizer and DCV operation;
w

if not, it may be possible to temporarily change the set point. This should be done by a qualified HVAC
technician to verify no other systems are disabled and safety is maintained. Modifying the economizer
w

and DCV operation should always be temporary. It will reduce the energy savings provided by these sys-
tems and may impact the required building ventilation and pressurization and may cause FDD reporting
system alarms.

52 ASHRAE Guideline 44-2024

 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.
POLICY STATEMENT DEFINING ASHRAE’S CONCERN
FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ITS ACTIVITIES

ASHRAE is concerned with the impact of its members’ activities on both the indoor and outdoor environment.
ASHRAE’s members will strive to minimize any possible deleterious effect on the indoor and outdoor environment of
the systems and components in their responsibility while maximizing the beneficial effects these systems provide,
consistent with accepted Standards and the practical state of the art.
ASHRAE’s short-range goal is to ensure that the systems and components within its scope do not impact the
indoor and outdoor environment to a greater extent than specified by the Standards and Guidelines as established by
itself and other responsible bodies.
As an ongoing goal, ASHRAE will, through its Standards Committee and extensive Technical Committee structure,
continue to generate up-to-date Standards and Guidelines where appropriate and adopt, recommend, and promote
those new and revised Standards developed by other responsible organizations.
Through its Handbook, appropriate chapters will contain up-to-date Standards and design considerations as the

re
material is systematically revised.
ASHRAE will take the lead with respect to dissemination of environmental information of its primary interest and
will seek out and disseminate information from other responsible organizations that is pertinent, as guides to updating

to
Standards and Guidelines.
The effects of the design and selection of equipment and systems will be considered within the scope of the

ks
system’s intended use and expected misuse. The disposal of hazardous materials, if any, will also be considered.
ASHRAE’s primary concern for environmental impact will be at the site where equipment within ASHRAE’s scope
operates. However, energy source selection and the possible environmental impact due to the energy source and

oo
energy transportation will be considered where possible. Recommendations concerning energy source selection
should be made by its members.

/b
rg
e .o
ra
sh
.a
w
w
w
 © ASHRAE. Per international copyright law, additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either
print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE's prior written permission.

ASHRAE · 180 Technology Parkway · Peachtree Corners, GA 30092 · www.ashrae.org

re
About ASHRAE

Founded in 1894, ASHRAE is a global professional society committed to serve humanity by advancing the arts and

to
sciences of heating, ventilation, air conditioning, refrigeration, and their allied fields.

ks
As an industry leader in research, standards writing, publishing, certification, and continuing education, ASHRAE
and its members are dedicated to promoting a healthy and sustainable built environment for all, through strategic
partnerships with organizations in the HVAC&R community and across related industries.

oo
To stay current with this and other ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines, visit www.ashrae.org/standards, and
connect on LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.

Visit the ASHRAE Bookstore

/b
rg
ASHRAE offers its Standards and Guidelines in print, as immediately downloadable PDFs, and via ASHRAE Digital
Collections, which provides online access with automatic updates as well as historical versions of publications.
.o

Selected Standards and Guidelines are also offered in redline versions that indicate the changes made between the
active Standard or Guideline and its previous edition. For more information, visit the Standards and Guidelines
e

section of the ASHRAE Bookstore at www.ashrae.org/bookstore.

ra
sh
.a

IMPORTANT NOTICES ABOUT THIS GUIDELINE

w

To ensure that you have all of the approved addenda, errata, and interpretations for this
Guideline, visit www.ashrae.org/standards to download them free of charge.
w

Addenda, errata, and interpretations for ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines are no longer
w

distributed with copies of the Standards and Guidelines. ASHRAE provides these addenda,
errata, and interpretations only in electronic form to promote more sustainable use of
resources.

Product code: 86947 11/24