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DATA SCIENCE

UNIT – IV

DATA VISUALIZATION

DATA VISUALIZATION & TYPES:

Data Visualization is defined as the pictorial representation of the data to provide the fact-
based analysis to decision-makers. Typically text data might not be able to reveal the pattern or
trends needed to recognize data. Data visualization is broadly classified into 6 different types.
They are:

I. Temporal: Data for these types of visualization should satisfy both conditions: data
represented should be linear and should be one dimensional. These types of
visualization are represented through lines that might overlap and also have a common
start and finish data point.
 Scatter Plots – uses dots to represent a data point.
 Pie chart - includes circular graphics where the arc length signifies the
magnitude.
 Line graphs - Like the scatter plot, the data is represented by points, except
joined by lines to maintain continuity
II. Hierarchical: These types of visualizations portray ordered groups within a larger group.
In simple language, the main intuition behind these visualizations is the clusters can be
displayed if the flow of the clusters starts from a single point.
 Tree diagram - In a tree diagram, the hierarchical flow is represented in the form
of a tree as the name suggests
 Tree Map - The tree is represented in the form of rectangles closely packed. The
area signifies the quantity contained.
III. Network: The visualization of these type connects datasets to datasets. These
visualizations portray how these datasets relate to one another within a network.

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 Matrix chart - This type of visualization is widely used to find the connection
between different variables within themselves. For example, correlation plot
 Word cloud - This is typically used for representing text data. The words are
closely packed, and the size of the text signifies the frequency of the word.
IV. Multidimensional: In contrast to the temporal type of visualization, these types can
have multiple dimensions. In this, we can use 2 or more features to create a 3-D
visualization through concurrent layers.
 Scatter plots - In multi-dimensional data, we select any 2 features and then plot
them in a 2-D scatter plot.
 Stacked bar graphs - The representation shows segmented bars on top of each
other.
V. Geospatial: These visualizations relates to present real-life physical location by crossing
it over with maps and it may be a geospatial or spatial map.
 Flow map - Movement of information or objects from one location to another is
presented where the size of the arrow signifies the amount.
 Choropleth Map - The geospatial map is colored on the basis of a particular data
variable
 Heat Map - These are very similar to Choropleth in the geospatial genre but can
be used in areas apart from geospatial as well.

TYPES OF DATA

i. CATEGORICAL DATA: Categorical data represents characteristics. Therefore it can

represent things like a person’s gender, language etc. Categorical data can also take on
numerical values (Example: 1 for female and 0 for male).
ii. NOMINAL DATA: Nominal values represent discrete units and are used to label
variables, that have no quantitative value. Nominal data that has no order. Therefore if
you would change the order of its values, the meaning would not change. Example:
Gender – Male/Female. To visualize nominal data you can use a pie chart or a bar chart.
iii. ORDINAL DATA: Ordinal values represent discrete and ordered units. It is therefore
nearly the same as nominal data, except that it’s ordering matters. This is the main

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limitation of ordinal data, the differences between the values is not really known. Because
of that, ordinal scales are usually used to measure non-numeric features like happiness,
customer satisfaction and so on. Example: Educational Background – 1. Elementary 2.
High School 3. Undergraduate 4. Postgraduate. Ordinal data can be visualized with pie
and bar charts.
iv. NUMERICAL DATA:
 DISCRETE DATA - Discrete data means its values are distinct and separate. In other
words, discrete data can only take on certain values. This type of data can’t be
measured but it can be counted. Example: Number of heads in 100 coin flips.
 CONTINUOUS DATA - Continuous Data represents measurements and therefore
their values can’t be counted but they can be measured. Example: Height of a
person, which can be described by using intervals on the real number line. To
visualize continuous data, you can use a histogram or a box-plot.
 INTERVAL DATA - Interval values represent ordered units that have the same
difference. Therefore Interval data is used when we have a variable that contains
numeric values that are ordered and where we know the exact differences
between the values. Example: Temperature of a given place.
 RATIO DATA - Ratio values are also ordered units that have the same difference.
Ratio values are the same as interval values, with the difference that they do
have an absolute zero. Examples: height, weight, length.

ENCODING:

Encoding in data visualization means translating the data into a visual element on a chart or map
through position, shape, size, symbols and color. Encoding must be done correctly because only
then users can understand what is shown in the map or chart. Most visual relationships can be
visually expressed with points, lines and bars.

Example: Consider the standard column chart shown In Fig.4.1.

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Fig.4.1. Column Chart

The chart in Fig.4.1 is encoded in the following ways:

 Colour: colour of bears, dolphins, whales

 Size: every time animal count increases, the column height increases.
 Grouping: Every time month changes, new cluster of columns must be created.

In general, the different ways to encode data are: Size, shape, colour, grouping, area, position,
saturation, line pattern, line weight, angle, connections.

VISUAL ENCODING:

The various dimensions of data can be encoded with appropriate visual properties. Many visual
properties may be used to encode multiple data types. The data types are: quantitative (relates
to quantities and possible to do arithmetic on the data), ordinal (can be ordered), categorical,
relational data. There are two factors that will indicate whether a visual property is best suited
to a data type. They are:

i. Natural Ordering – is well suited to representing quantitative differences (27, 33, 41), or
ordinal differences (small, medium, large, enormous).
Examples:
a. Naturally ordered - position. Length, line thickness, weight, brightness
(luminance), intensity (saturation)

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b. Not naturally ordered – shape, texture, line style (dotted, dashed, solid), color
(hue)
ii. Number of distinct values – The number of distinct values the user will be able to
perceive, differentiate, or remember.
Examples: shape, position, numbers

The common visual properties to select an appropriate encoding for a data type are given in Fig.4.2
and the grouping of Visual properties by the types of data they can be used to encode is shown
in Fig.4.3.

PLANAR ENCODING

Planar encoding is as simple as the laying of axis, like the x & y axis in a simple line chart.

RETINAL ENCODING

To represent data in 3 or more variables, retinal encoding comes into the picture. Size, texture,
shape, orientation, color gradient and color hue are some examples.

VISUAL STRUCTURES:

Mapping Data to Visual form includes the following steps:

raw data -> data tables ->visual structures ->views.

The basic building blocks of visual structures are:

i. Position - The 4 possible axes are: unstructured, nominal, ordinal, quantitative.

ii. Marks - The 4 types of marks are: points, lines, areas, volumes.
iii. Connections – show a relationship between objects.
iv. Enclosure – indicates related objects.
v. Retinal properties - include colour, size, texture, shape, orientation.
vi. Temporal encoding – changes in mark position and their retinal properties.

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Fig. 4.2. Common visual properties to select an appropriate encoding for a data type

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Fig.4.3 Grouping of Visual properties by the types of data they can be used to encode.

The encodings of common chart elements are:

Points
 Position: since points generally have no meaningful height and width, they convey position
with more precision than lines and bars
 Size: points can use size as an encoding (see bubble charts), however, since it gives
substance to the points’ height and width, the precision of their positions is reduced
 Orientation: if the shapes of your points are not symmetrical, then orientation could be an
encoding, but it’s not often used, and for good reason
 Color Saturation/Hue: scatter plots often use these two encodings, but there are wrong
ways to do so (which we will see in an upcoming post exclusively about color)
 Shape: while it’s possible to encode a categorical variable with a point’s shape, it quickly
leads to a cluttered graph and should be avoided
 Texture: since the small size of points make their position so precise, textures are too hard
to distinguish and should be avoided
Lines
 Position: lines are most effectively used to connect two categorical data points, so the
positions of the endpoints encode some quantitative property of the data points

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 Size: lines have no width, so size here means length, which represents the amount of time
between sampling (which is commonly constant throughout the graph, but not necessarily
so)
 Orientation: the main reason to use lines is to compare changes from data point to data
point, and the orientation of the line (slope) depicts this change, so orientation is a very
salient encoding for line charts
 Color Saturation/Hue: it’s possible to have multiple lines representing different categories of
data, in which case color hue can encode these different categories, but color saturation is
not appropriate for categorical variables and so should be avoided
 Shape: if a line were a different shape, then it wouldn’t be a line, therefore shape is not
applicable
 Texture: since lines have no width, texture would translate to dotted lines, which are too
hard to distinguish, so texture as an encoding should be avoided
Bars
 Position: often bars are fixed to a meaningful zero value on one axis, so the position of its
free endpoint can represent a quantitative value
 Size: since bars often have one endpoint fixed at zero, the size is a double encoding coupled
with position, which is why bars are a great tool for emphasizing individual values; the main
exception to this idea is a stacked bar chart since only the bottom bar is fixed to zero in that
case, and size is the only encoding of the magnitude of the quantitative value in that case
 Orientation: Bars should be perpendicular to the axis of the categorical variable they’re
representing, so orientation is fixed and therefore not applicable
 Color Saturation/Hue: color hue is useful to distinguish bars from each other when multiple
bars are used per category to represent different values, but saturation would be a much
less effective encoding for bars
 Shape: just like with lines, a bar is defined by its shape, so shape is not an applicable
encoding
 Texture: bars are weighty enough to support texturing, but often it’s more effective to use
color to this end

REDUNDANT ENCODING:

Redundant encoding means, after encoding the main dimensions of data, the unused visual
properties can be used to redundantly encode some existing, already-encoded data
dimensions. The advantage of redundant encoding is that using more channels to get the same

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information into the human brain can make acquisition of that information faster, easier, and
more accurate.

Examples:

 If lines are differentiated by ending (arrows, dots, etc.), consider also changing the line
style (dotted, dashed, etc.) or color.
 If values are encoded by placement, consider redundantly encoding the value with
brightness, or grouping regions with color.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TYPE OF CHARTS TO BE USED FOR VISULIZATION

Figure 4.4 shows the suggestions for the type of chart to use in data visualization.

Fig. 4.4. Suggestions for Choice of Charts

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Bar and Column Charts: Applying the perceptual hierarchy of visual cues, bar and column
charts are usually the best options for simple comparisons. Vertical columns often work well
when few items are being compared, while horizontal bars may be a better option when there
are many items to compare. Also, Bar or column charts can also be used to illustrate change
over time.

Pie Chart: To depict composition: parts of the whole, pie chart can be used.

Square chart: Square chart can be used where an encoding of area seems to beat length for
accuracy.

Tree map - uses area to encode the size of parts of the whole, and can be effective to display
“nested” variables — where each part of the whole is broken down into further parts.

Stacked column charts - to simultaneously show change in composition over time and change
in the size of the whole.

COLOR ENCODING:

Color falls low on the perceptual hierarchy of visual cues, but it is often deployed to highlight
particular elements of a chart, and sometimes to encode data values. Color is often used to
encode the values of categorical data. There are three colour schemes often used in encoding.

i. Qualitative color schemes: used where the aim is to pick colors that will be maximally
distinctive, as widely spread around the color wheel as possible.
ii. Sequential color schemes: When using color to encode continuous data, it usually
makes sense to use increasing intensity, or saturation of color to indicate larger values.
These are called “sequential” color schemes.
iii. Diverging color schemes: In some circumstances, you may have data that has positive
and negative values, or which highlights deviation from a central value. Here, you should
use a “diverging” color scheme, which will usually have two colors reasonably well

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separated on the color wheel as its end points, and cycle through a neutral color in the middle.

RETINAL VARIABLES:

The retina in the human eye is sensitive to graphical properties independent of their position.
These properties were called “retinal variables”. A designer can relate to component of a
visualization with one of these variables:
• Size
• Value
• Texture
• Colour hue
• Orientation
• Shape
Any of these variables can be used in the representation of any component - or, the other way
around – data attributes can be mapped to these properties in a visualization. But not each
variable is suited to every component. At the level of information visualization, the two planar
dimensions are able to represent two components of the information, in (geographic) maps
they these components are the space. To introduce a third component of information, the
usage of the retinal variables is necessary.

A perceptual classification known as the levels of organization of retinal variables, is based on the
following four attributes:
• Associative perception - Associative perception is useful when one is seeking to equalize a
variation, and to group correspondences with all categories of this variation combined.
Examples: Shape, orientation, colour and texture as associative, whereas value and size are
dissociative
• Selective perception - Selective perception is used to give an answer to the question: “Where
is a given category”. The eye must be able to isolate all the elements of this category
immediately.
Example: Shape is not selective at all, nor orientation when represented by area.

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• Ordered perception - When comparing two or several orders, ordered perception must be
used. Example: Shapes, orientations and colors are not ordered, whereas value, size and
texture should be ordered.
• Quantitative perception - quantitative perception is given when it is required to define
numerically the ration between two signs and group homogenous signs.

In data visualization, addition to the data, encoded through the visual cues, various items of
charts that must be kept in mind are:
 Title and subtitle - These provide context for the chart.
 Coordinate system - For most charts, this is provided by the horizontal and vertical axes,
giving a cartesian system defined by X and Y coordinates; for a pie chart it is provided by
angles around a circle, called a polar coordinate system.
 Scale - Labeled tick marks and grid lines can help the audience read data values.
 Labels - Each axis must be labelled. Also other labels that may be necessary to explain
the message may be included.
 Legend – To explain the color or shape used to encode data.
 Source information - Usually given as a footnote.

DATA VISULAIZATION PRINCIPLES

 Éncoding data using visual cues - When displaying quantities, position and length are
preferred over angles and/or area. Brightness and colour are harder to quantify than
angles.
 Know when to include 0 - When using bar plots, it is misinformative not to start the bars
at 0. This is because, barplot typically implies the length is proportional to the quantities
being displayed. By avoiding 0, relatively small differences can be made to look much
bigger than they actually are.
 Do not distort quantities - Instead of using area, position and length can be used to
avoid distorting quantities.

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 Order categories by a meaningful value -When one of the axes is used to show
categories, order the categories alphabetically when they are defined by character
strings. If they are defined by factors, they are ordered by the factor levels.
 Show the data
 Ease comparisons
 Use common axes - Since there are so many points, it is more effective to show
distributions rather than individual points. An important principle is to keep the axes
the same when comparing data across two plots.
 Align plots vertically to see horizontal changes and horizontally to see vertical
changes - In histograms, the visual cue related to decreases or increases in height
are shifts to the left or right, respectively: horizontal changes. Aligning the plots
vertically helps to see this change when the axes are fixed.
 Consider transformations - the use of the log transformation in cases where the
changes are multiplicative. Population size was an example in which we found a log
transformation to yield a more informative transformation.
 Visual cues to be compared should be adjacent –
 Use color - The comparison becomes even easier to make if we use color to denote
the two things we want to compare.
 Plots for two variables - n general, you should use scatterplots to visualize the
relationship between two variables.
 Encoding a third variable - Categorical variables can be encoded with color and
shape. For continuous variables, color, intensity, or size can be used. When selecting
colors to quantify a numeric variable, choose between two options: sequential and
diverging. Sequential colors are suited for data that goes from high to low. High
values are clearly distinguished from low values. Diverging colors are used to
represent values that diverge from a center.
 Avoid pseudo-three-dimensional plots.
 Avoid too many significant digits

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DATA SCIENCE

Unit V

APPLICATIONS OF DATA SCIENCE

Some of the applications of data science include:

Fraud and Risk Detection - Over the years, banking companies learned to divide and conquer data
via customer profiling, past expenditures and other essential variables to analyze the
probabilities of risk and default. Moreover, it also helped them to push their banking products
based on customer’s purchasing power.

Healthcare – The health care sector includes several applications such as medical image analysis,
genetics and genomics, drug development, virtual assistance for patients and customer support.

Internet Search - All search engines make use of data science algorithms to deliver the best result
for our searched query in fraction of seconds.

Targeted Advertising - Starting from the display banners on various websites to the digital bill
boards at the airports – almost all of them are decided by using data science algorithms. This is
the reason why digital ads have been able to get a lot higher CTR than traditional
advertisements. They can be targeted based on user’s past behaviour.

Website Recommendations –

Price comparison websites - At a basic level, these websites are being driven by lots and lots of
data which is fetched using APIs and RSS Feeds. If you have ever used these websites, you
would know, the convenience of comparing the price of a product from multiple vendors at one
place. PriceGrabber, PriceRunner, Junglee, Shopzilla, DealTime are some examples of price
comparison websites. Now a days, price comparison website can be found in almost every
domain such as technology, hospitality, automobiles, durables, apparels etc.

Recommender systems - They not only help you find relevant products from billions of products
available with them, but also adds a lot to the user experience. A lot of companies have fervidly
used this engine / system to promote their products / suggestions in accordance with user’s

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interest and relevance of information. Internet giants like Amazon, Twitter, Google Play, Netflix,
Linkedin, imdb and many more uses this system to improve user experience. The
recommendations are made based on previous search results for a user.

Image, Speech Recognition – Image and speech recognition have immense applications in data
science. Speech Recognition - Some of the best example of speech recognition products are
Google Voice, Siri, Cortana.

Airline Route Planning - Now using data science, the airline companies can: Predict flight delay,
Decide which class of airplanes to buy, whether to directly land at the destination, or take a halt
in between (For example: A flight can have a direct route from New Delhi to New York.
Alternatively, it can also choose to halt in any country.), Effectively drive customer loyalty
programs.
Gaming - Games are now designed using machine learning algorithms which improve / upgrade
themselves as the player moves up to a higher level. In motion gaming also, your opponent
(computer) analyzes your previous moves and accordingly shapes up its game.

Augmented Reality - Data Science and Virtual Reality do have a relationship, considering a VR
headset contains computing knowledge, algorithms and data to provide you with the best
viewing experience. A very small step towards this is the high trending game of Pokemon GO.
The ability to walk around things and look at Pokemon on walls, streets, things that aren’t really
there. The creators of this game used the data from Ingress, the last app from the same
company, to choose the locations of the Pokemon and gyms.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR VISUALIZATION

Data visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. By using visual
elements like charts, graphs, and maps, data visualization tools provide an accessible way to see
and understand trends, outliers, and patterns in data. In the early days of visualization, the
most common visualization technique was using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to transform the
information into a table, bar graph or pie chart. While these visualization methods are still
commonly used, more intricate techniques are now available, including, scatter plots (2D and
3D), Tree maps, Heat maps, time series charts, word cloud, Cartogram, Network etc.

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Generally speaking, Excel, R language, ggplot2 and Python are the most popular tools used for
data visualization. However there are numerous other software tools that are used for data
visualization. Some of them are:

 Tableau is a business intelligence tool for visually analyzing data. Users can create and
distribute interactive and shareable dashboards, depicting trends, changes and densities
of data in graphs and charts. Tableau can connect to files, relational data sources and
big data sources to get and process data.
 FineReport is an enterprise-level web reporting tool written in pure Java, combining
data visualization and data entry. It is designed based on “no-code development”
concept. With FineReport, users can make complex reports and cool dashboards and
build a decision-making platform with simple drag-and-drop operations.
 Power BI is a set of business analysis tools that provide insights in the organization. It
can connect hundreds of data sources, simplify data preparation and provide instant
analysis. Organizations can view reports generated by Power BI on web and mobile
devices.
 D3.js is a JavaScript library based on data manipulation documentation. D3 combines
powerful visualization components with data-driven DOM manipulation methods.
 HighCharts is a chart library written in pure JavaScript that makes it easy and convenient
for users to add interactive charts to web applications. This is the most widely used
chart tool on the Web, and business use requires the purchase of a commercial license.
 Echarts is an enterprise-level chart tool from the data visualization team of Baidu. It is a
pure Javascript chart library that runs smoothly on PCs and mobile devices, and it is
compatible with most current browsers.
 Leaflet is a JavaScript library of interactive maps for mobile devices. It has all the
mapping features that most developers need.
 Vega is a set of interactive graphical grammars that define the mapping rules from data
to graphic, common interaction grammars, and common graphical elements. Users can
freely combine Vega grammars to build a variety of charts.
 eck.gl is a visual class library based on WebGL for big data analytics. It is developed by
the visualization team of Uber.

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BOKEH (PYTHON)

Bokeh is a Python library for interactive visualization that targets web browsers for representation.
Bokeh has multiple language bindings (Python, R, lua and Julia). These bindings produce a JSON
file, which works as an input for BokehJS (a Javascript library), which in turn presents data to
the modern web browsers. Some of the benefits of Bokeh are:

 Bokeh allows you to build complex statistical plots quickly and through simple commands.
 Bokeh provides you output in various medium like html, notebook and server.
 Bokeh visualization can be embedded to Flask and Django app.
 Bokeh can transform visualization written in other libraries like matplotlib, seaborn,
ggplot.
 Bokeh has flexibility for applying interaction, layouts and different styling option to
visualization.
 Bokeh can produce elegant and interactive visualization like D3.js with high-
performance interactivity over very large or streaming datasets.
 Bokeh can help anyone who would like to quickly and easily create interactive plots,
dashboards, and data applications.

Bokeh provides multiple visualization interfaces to the user. Bokeh interface has three
components:

i. Charts: a high-level interface that is used to build complex statistical plots as quickly and
in a simplistic manner. Charts are used to present information in standard visualization
form. These forms include box plot, bar chart, area plot, heat map, donut chart and
many others. These plots can be generated just by passing data frames, numpy arrays
and dictionaries.
ii. Plotting: an intermediate-level interface that is centered around composing visual glyphs.
iii. Models: a low-level interface that provides the maximum flexibility to application
developers.

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Building a visualization with Bokeh involves the following steps:

i. Prepare the data

ii. Determine where the visualization will be rendered
iii. Set up the figure(s)
iv. Connect to and draw your data
v. Organize the layout
vi. Preview and save your beautiful data creation
vii. Prepare the data

Prepare the data: This step commonly involves data handling libraries like Pandas and Numpy and
is all about taking the required steps to transform it into a form that is best suited for the
intended visualization.

Determine where the Visualization Will Be Rendered: Determine how you want to generate and
ultimately view the visualization (such as generating a static HTML file and rendering your
visualization inline in a Jupyter Notebook).

Set up the Figure(s): Assemble the figure, preparing the canvas for visualization. In this step,
everything from the titles to the tick marks can be customized. A suite of tools that can enable
various user interactions with the visualization can also be set up.

Connect to and Draw Data: Use Bokeh’s multitude of renderers to give shape to the data. There is
enough flexibility to draw the data from scratch using the many available marker and shape
options, all of which are easily customizable. Additionally, Bokeh has some built-in functionality
for building things like stacked bar charts and plenty of examples for creating more advanced
visualizations like network graphs and maps

Organize the Layout: Not only does Bokeh offer the standard grid-like layout options, but it also
allows to easily organize visualizations into a tabbed layout in just a few lines of code. In
addition, the plots can be quickly linked together, so a selection on one will be reflected on any
combination of the others.

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Preview and Save the Visualization: Visualization can be saved to an image file or viewed in a
browser or notebook.

The following examples illustrate the use of Bokeh:

Example 1: Create a bar chart and visualize it on web browser using Bokeh.

Methodology: The common methodology followed to create a chart:

i. Import the library and functions/ methods

ii. Prepare the data
iii. Set the output mode (Notebook, Web Browser or Server)
iv. Create chart with styling option (if required)
v. Visualize the chart

#Import library
from bokeh.charts import Bar, output_file, show #use output_notebook to visualize it in
notebook
# prepare data (dummy data)
data = {"y": [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]}
# Output to Line.HTML
output_file("lines.html", title="line plot example") #put output_notebook() for notebook
# create a new line chat with a title and axis labels
p = Bar(data, title="Line Chart Example", xlabel='x', ylabel='values', width=400, height=400)
# show the results
show(p)

Example-2: Create a line plot to Bokeh server

Methodology: To start plotting on Bokeh server, the command bokeh-server must be executed
to initialize it followed by the commands used for visualization.

from bokeh.plotting import figure, output_server, show

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output_server("line")

p = figure(plot_width=400, plot_height=400)

# add a line renderer

p.line([5, 2, 3, 4, 5], [5, 7, 2, 4, 5], line_width=2)

show(p)

Example-3: Create a scatter square mark on XY frame of notebook

Methodology: Bokeh plots created using the bokeh.plotting interface comes with a default set
of tools and visual styles. For plotting, follow the below steps:

i. Import library, methods or functions

ii. Select the output mode (notebook, web browser, server)
iii. Activate a figure (similar like matplotlib)
iv. Perform subsequent plotting operations, it will affect the generated figure.
v. Visualize it

The major concept of Bokeh is that graphs are built up one layer at a time. Create a figure, and
then add elements, called glyphs, to the figure by calling the appropriate method and passing in
data. Glyphs can take on many shapes depending on the desired use: circles, lines, patches,
bars, arcs, and so on. A few tools come with any Bokeh plot which are on the right side and
include panning, zooming, selection, and plot saving abilities. These tools are configurable and
will come in handy when we want to investigate our data.

from bokeh.plotting import figure, output_notebook, show

# output to notebook
output_notebook()
p = figure(plot_width=400, plot_height=400)
# add square with a size, color, and alpha
p.square([2, 5, 6, 4], [2, 3, 2, 1, 2], size=20, color="navy")
# show the results

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show(p)

Example-4: Add a hover tool and axis labels to above plot.

Passive interactions are actions the viewer can take which do not alter the data displayed.
These are referred to as inspectors because they allow viewers to “investigate” the data in
more detail. A useful inspector is the tooltip which appears when a user mouses over data
points and is called the HoverTool in Bokeh.

The HoverToolinstance is passed a list of tooltips as Python tuples where the first element is the
label for the data and the second references the specific data to highlight. We can reference
either attributes of the graph, such as x or y position using ‘$’ or specific fields in our source
using ‘@’. An example of a HoverTool usage to do both:

# Hover tool referring to our own data field using @ and a position on the graph using $

h = HoverTool(tooltips = [('Delay Interval Left ', '@left'), ('(x,y)', '($x, $y)')])

The left data field is referenced in the ColumnDataSource (which corresponds to the ‘left’ column
of the original dataframe) using ‘@’ and the (x,y) position of the cursor is referenced using ‘$’.

from bokeh.plotting import figure, output_notebook, show

from bokeh.models import HoverTool, BoxSelectTool #For enabling tools
# output to notebook
output_notebook()
#Add tools
TOOLS = [BoxSelectTool(), HoverTool()]
p = figure(plot_width=400, plot_height=400, tools=TOOLS)
# add a square with a size, color, and alpha
p.square([2, 5, 6, 4], [2, 3, 2, 1, 2], size=20, color="navy", alpha=0.5)
#Visual Elements
p.xaxis.axis_label = "X-axis"
p.yaxis.axis_label = "Y-axis"

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# show the results

show(p)

TRENDS IN VARIOUS DATA COLELCTION AND ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Data collection is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring and analyzing accurate
insights for research using standard validated techniques. The approach of data collection is
different for different fields of study, depending on the required information. The most critical
objective of data collection is ensuring that information-rich and reliable data is collected for
statistical analysis so that data-driven decisions can be made for research. Essentially there are
four choices for data collection – in-person interviews, mail, phone and online.

Analyzing information involves examining it in ways that reveal the relationships, patterns,
trends, etc. that can be found within it. Quantitative data refer to the information that is
collected as, or can be translated into, numbers, which can then be displayed and analyzed
mathematically. Qualitative data are collected as descriptions, anecdotes, opinions, quotes,
interpretations, etc., and are generally either not able to be reduced to numbers, or are
considered more valuable or informative if left as narratives. Quantitative and qualitative
information needs to be analyzed differently.

Quantitative data are typically collected directly as numbers. Some examples include:

 The frequency (rate, duration) of specific behaviors or conditions

 Test scores (e.g., scores/levels of knowledge, skill, etc.)
 Survey results (e.g., reported behavior, or outcomes to environmental conditions;
ratings of satisfaction, stress, etc.)
 Numbers or percentages of people with certain characteristics in a population
(diagnosed with diabetes, unemployed, Spanish-speaking, under age 14, grade of school
completed, etc.).

Data can also be collected in forms other than numbers, and turned into quantitative data for
analysis. Quantitative data is usually subjected to statistical procedures such as calculating the

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mean or average number of times an event or behavior occurs (per day, month, year).
Qualitative data can sometimes be changed into numbers, usually by counting the number of
times specific things occur in the course of observations or interviews, or by assigning numbers
or ratings to dimensions (e.g., importance, satisfaction, ease of use). It may reveal why certain
methods are working or not working, whether part of what you’re doing conflicts with
participants’ culture, what participants see as important, etc. It may also show patterns – in
behavior, physical or social environment, or other factors – that the numbers in your
quantitative data don’t, and occasionally even identify variables that researchers weren’t aware
of.

METHODOLOGY TO COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA:

 Implement the measurement system

 Organize the data collected
 Conduct data graphing, visual inspection, statistical analysis, or other operations on the
data as appropriate
 Take note of any significant or interesting results
 Interpret the results

Some of the most common types of data collection used today are: Interviews, Surveys and
Questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions, Case Studies, Online Tracking, Transactional data
tracking, Online marketing analytics, Social media monitoring, Collecting subscription and
registration data, In-store traffic monitoring.

VARIOUS VISULAIZATION TECHNIQUES

There are many different techniques to visualize data, such as Bar Chart, Line Chart which are
already discussed in previous Units. The other techniques are explained below:

2 DIMENSIONAL AREA TECHNIQUES

 Area or distance cartograms are the copies of some parts of maps, depicting some
additional parameters like demography, population size, traveltimes and any other
variables.

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 Choropleth is a map colored with different colors depending on the level of the
examined variable, like the sales level per state or the biggest inventory stocks per state.
 Dot distribution map is the data visualization method relying on using the dots to
highlight the level of presence of the examined variable within the area.
MULTI DIEMNSIONAL DATA VISUALIZATIONS
 The pie chart is among the most popular tools for data representation. It is split into
sectors illustrating some numerical values, with the angle and the arc length in each
sector being proportional to the value represented.
 The histogram is a series of rectangles, representing both the time periods (width) and
the parameter values (height), which helps clearly grasp the dynamics of the parameter
adjustments.
 The scatter plot is the model of data visualization depicting 2 sets of unconnected dots
as parameter values.
HEIRARCHICAL DATA VISUALIZATION
 A dendrogram is an illustration of a hierarchical clustering of various data sets, helping
to understand their relations in an instant.
 A sunburst chart (or a ring chart) is a pie chart with concentric circles, describing the
hierarchy of data values.
 The tree diagram allows to describe the tree-like relations within the data structure,
usually from the upside down or from the left to the right.
NETWORK MODELS
 An alluvial diagram is the example of a flow diagram that represents changes in the data
structure over time or under certain conditions.
 A node-link diagram is usually a circular image with dots representing the data nodes
and lines representing the links between said nodes. This helps visualize the relations
between the data sources and understand what results are based on what data.
 Matrix diagram or chart is used when we have multiple data sets connected to each
other via some relations. Matrix helps show both the data set positions against each
other and the relations between these sets.

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TEMPORAL VISUALIZATION
 Connected Scatter Plot is the plot of values for two variables taken from a data set.
These values are scattered throughout the picture and connected with a line.
 Polar area diagram might look like a standard pie chart, yet the size of the sector is
evaluated by the distance from the center in addition to the arc length and angle. Thus
said, a sharp sector stretched far away from the center might be more important than a
blunt sector that does not reach far.
 Time series is the most often used example of continuous data evaluations over a
period of time. The graph of CPU usage, the number of website visits over a month and
a plethora of other historical data are best described using this data visualization
technique.

APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT METHODS IN DATA SCIENCE

Applications of data science include Internet search, recommendation systems, Image/Speech

recognition, Gaming, customer services, network operation in telecommunications industry,
Enterprise management, precision marketing, health care, public security and surveillance,
environmental protection, smart cities and Stock market analysis. The data science application
development pipeline has the following elements: Obtain the data, wrangle the data, explore
the data, model the data and generate the report. Each element requires lot of skills and
expertise in several domains such as statistics, machine learning, and programming.

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1.

M.E. II Sem. Dr. AN. Sigappi, Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engg. Data Science