AC (Alternating Current)

 Different waveforms
 Concept of the frequency
 Time period
 Cycle
 Sinusoidal waveform
 Peak value
 Peak-peak value
 Instantaneous value
 r.m.s (root mean square) value
 phase angle
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 AC WAVEFORMS
 The plot or graph of a current (or voltage) versus time is
called a waveform.
 The magnitude is the size of current or voltage (y-axis).
 Waveforms where the current changes magnitude, but
not direction (all the values remain positive or negative)
are referred to as pulsating DC.
 An AC voltage is one that periodically reverses polarity.
 An AC voltage source produces an EMF whose polarity
reverses at periodic intervals.
 The AC waveform used the most in circuit theory is the
sinusoidal waveform or sine wave.

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i(t) TYPICAL WAVEFORMS

Pulsating DC. Current does not

reverse direction, doesn’t go negative
t

Sawtooth waveform
t
Pulsating DC.
Not AC.

t
Max current in positive direction
Sinusoidal AC
t

Max current in
negative direction
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 Definitions
Frequency (Hertz-Hz): The number of cycles that occur in one
sec.
f=1/T.
Period (T): The time interval between successive repetitions of a
periodic waveform.
Or
The time required to complete one cycle is called period.
Period can be measured between any two corresponding points
on successive cycles.
Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of
time.
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 PROJECTION OF ROTATING RADIUS

90° 90°

As the radius of the circle rotates anticlockwise, the angle it generates between
itself and the positive x-axis varies from 0 to 360°.
At any instant, the radius is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, containing
the angle θ
Sin θ = 0 when θ = 0 and θ = 180°
Sin (θ+90°) = cos θ
Sin θ = cos (θ - 90°)
Cos(- θ) = cos θ
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 WAVEFORM PARAMETERS:
RADIANS & ANGULAR FREQUENCY
y

+1 y = sin = sin ωt

π 3π/2
0 π/2 2π  = ωt rad

-1
Radian is the SI unit of angle: π radians = 180°
Above is a sine function plot versus angle in radians.

Angular velocity (ω) is the amount of angle the plot sweeps through in a
given amount of time
ω = θ/t rad/s (rad s-1) angular frequency = 2πf
θ = ωt rad
Sine wave can be expressed as a function of time
Sin θ = sin ωt = sin (2πf)t= sin (2π/T)t
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 PEAK & INSTANTANEOUS VALUES

v(t)
+3V

Peak
value
=3V
Peak-to-peak t
value = 6V 0

-3V
T

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 WAVEFORM PARAMETERS:
PEAK & INSTANTANEOUS VALUES

Maximum value reached by AC waveform - peak value (pk).

Peak-to-peak (p-p) value is the difference between positive peak and negative peak
values (3 - -3 = 6).
The peak value is also called amplitude.
Any sin function can be expressed as

vt   V p sin t
Vp and Ip are the peak values
i t   I p sin t
Instantaneous value of AC waveform is the value at specific instant of time:.
Adding angle  to angle θ in the sine function: sin(θ ) causes the sine waveform to
shift left (+ ) or right (- )

vt   V p sin t   

it   I p sin t   

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 EFFECTIVE (RMS) VALUES

The effective or root mean square

(rms) value. 1
Veff  V p  0.707V p
The effective or root mean square 2
(rms) shows how effective the
1
waveform produces heat in a I eff  I p  0.707 I p
resistance. 2
RMS measure eliminates V p  2Veff  1.414Veff
consideration of waveform
polarity. I p  2 I eff  1.414 I eff

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 LAG AND LEAD

 When two waveforms have different phase angles, the one shifted
farthest to the left is said to lead the other.
 v1(t) = 6 sin(ωt + 50°) leads v2(t) = 0.1 sin(ωt + 20°) because v1 is shifted left
by 50°, while v2 is shifted left by 20°.
 v1 has a phase shift 30° greater than that of v2, i.e. v1 leads v2 by 30°, or v2
lags v1 by 30°
 Lead-lag terminology derived from observation of relative positions of the
waveforms when plotted versus time.
 The waveform with greater positive phase reaches its peak first (earliest in
time), i.e. it leads the other.

AC Fundamentals 10
 Three phase system
(concept of phase angle/phase shift)

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 CAPACITORS AND AC

AC current through a capacitor depends not only on the voltage across it, but also
on the frequency of that voltage.
The property of a capacitor that causes it to resist the flow of ac current through it
is called capacitive reactance, denoted by XC. Its unit is also Ohm.
XC = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC Ohms
XC is inversely proportional to frequency.
The greater the frequency, the smaller the reactance and thus the greater the
current through the capacitor.
The lower the frequency, the greater the reactance.
Graph of reactance XC v frequency f Capacitor is an open
circuit when dc voltage
XC is connected across it
i.e. f = 0
XC = 1/2πfC
Vp volts
Ip   amps
0 f XC ohms
I p  V pC  V p 2f C
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