Notes:

show databases;
drop database -Database Name- //Delete a database

1. Create A Database
create database -Name-;

2. Table Creation
use -database -Name-; // To state the database which will be used
create table -Table Name-(attributes of the table) //e.g. create table
user(id int(11) primary key, name varchar(30) not null, email varchar(30) not
null);
show tables; //show existing tables in the current database
desc -Table Name-; //show how the table is created

3. Table Manipulation
insert into -Table Name- values(attribute values); //e.g. insert into
user values("1","Mark","[email protected]");
select * from -Table Name-; //show the table and the attributes e.g.
select * from user;
update set -Table Name- set -What to change- where -Number-; //e.g.
update user set name="Jake" where id="1";
alter table -Table Name- add column -Attribute-; //e.g. alter table
user add column password varchar(30) not null;
delete -Table Name- where -What to delete-; //e.g. delete from user
where id="1";

4. AND, OR, NOT

Basis Structure: Select -Condition- From -Table Name- Where -Condition-
OR/AND/NOT -Condition-
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country = 'Germany' AND City =
'Berlin'; //Show only where conditions are met (Ciy and COuntry)
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country = 'Germany' AND (City = 'Berlin'
OR City = 'Stuttgart');
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE NOT Country = 'Germany';
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE NOT Country = 'Germany' AND NOT Country =
'USA';

5. ORDER BY - The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in

ascending or descending order.
Basic Structure: Select -Condition- From -Table Name- OrDER BY -Column-
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country;
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country DESC;
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country, CustomerName;
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;

6. INSERT INTO - The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a
table.
Basic Structure(Specified): INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,
column3, ...) VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
Basic Structure(All Column): INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,
value2, value3, ...);

7. NULL - A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

Basic Structure: SELECT column_names FROM table_name WHERE column_name
IS NOT NULL;
- Help Find where there is null or no null valus.
 SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address FROM Customers WHERE Address
IS NULL;
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address FROM Customers WHERE Address
IS NOT NULL;

8. LIMT - The LIMIT clause is used to specify the number of records to

return.
Basic Structure: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition
LIMIT number;
SELECT * FROM Customers LIMIT 3; //Shows Only 3
SELECT * FROM Customers LIMIT 3 OFFSET 3; //Ignores the first 3(1,2,3)
then shows the next 3 (4,5,6)
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' LIMIT 3;

9. MIN, MAX
Basic Structure: SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE
condition;
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products;
SELECT MAX(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products;

10. AVG, COUNT, SUM

Basic Structure: SELECT COUNT/AVG/SUM(column_name) FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
SELECT COUNT(ProductID) FROM Products;
SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products;
SELECT SUM(Quantity) FROM OrderDetails;

11. LIKE - The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a
specified pattern in a column.
Basic Structure: SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name WHERE
columnN LIKE pattern;
- The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters
- The underscore sign (_) represents one, single character
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%'; //Starting with
"a"
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a'; //Ending with "a"
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%'; //Have "or" in
any position
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%'; //Have "r" as
the second letter
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%'; //Starts with
"a" and are at least 3 characters in length
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o'; //Start with "a"
ends with "o"
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName NOT LIKE 'a%'; //No Letter
"a"

12. IN - The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE

clause.
Basic Structure: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE
column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany', 'France',
'UK');
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country IN (SELECT Country FROM
Suppliers); //Selects all customers that are from the same countries as the
suppliers

13. BETWEEN - The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The
values can be numbers, text, or dates.
Basic Structure: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE
column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

14. ALIAS - Aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a

temporary name.
Basic Structure: SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name;
SELECT CustomerID AS ID, CustomerName AS Customer FROM Customers;
SELECT CustomerName, CONCAT_WS(', ', Address, PostalCode, City,
Country) AS Address FROM Customers;

15 JOIN - A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them.
Basic Structure: SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName,
Orders.OrderDate FROM Orders INNER JOIN Customers ON
Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
INNER JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName FROM Orders INNER
JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
3 Tables: SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName,
Shippers.ShipperName FROM ((Orders INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID =
Customers.CustomerID) INNER JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID =
Shippers.ShipperID);
LEFT JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched
records from the right table
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers LEFT
JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY
Customers.CustomerName;
RIGHT JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName, Employees.FirstName
FROM Orders RIGHT JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID ORDER
BY Orders.OrderID;
CROSS JOIN: Returns all records from both tables
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers
CROSS JOIN Orders;
SELF JOIN
SELECT A.CustomerName AS CustomerName1, B.CustomerName AS
CustomerName2, A.City FROM Customers A, Customers B WHERE A.CustomerID <>
B.CustomerID AND A.City = B.City ORDER BY A.City;

16. UNION - The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or
more SELECT statements.
Basic Structure: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 UNION SELECT
column_name(s) FROM table2;
Basic Structure(Allow Duplicates): SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
SELECT City FROM Customers UNION SELECT City FROM Suppliers ORDER BY
City;
SELECT City FROM Customers UNION ALL SELECT City FROM Suppliers ORDER
BY City;

17. GROUP BY - The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values
into summary rows, like "find the number of customers in each country".
Basic Structure - SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s) ORDER BY column_name(s);
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country FROM Customers GROUP BY Country;
 18. HAVING - The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword
cannot be used with aggregate functions.
Basic Structure - SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s) HAVING condition ORDER BY column_name(s);
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country FROM Customers GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;

19. EXISTS - The EXISTS operator is used to test for the existence of any
record in a subquery.
Basic Structure - SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
SELECT SupplierName FROM Suppliers WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName
FROM Products WHERE Products.SupplierID = Suppliers.supplierID AND Price < 20);

20. ANY, ALL - The ANY and ALL operators allow you to perform a comparison
between a single column value and a range of other values.
Basic Structure(ANY) - SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE
column_name operator ANY SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
Basic Structure(ALL) - SELECT ALL column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE
condition;
SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE ProductID = ANY (SELECT
ProductID FROM OrderDetails WHERE Quantity = 10);
SELECT ALL ProductName FROM Products WHERE TRUE;
SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE ProductID = ALL (SELECT
ProductID FROM OrderDetails WHERE Quantity = 10);

21. INSERT INTO SELECT - The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from
one table and inserts it into another table. With Matching data types and target
tables
Basic Structure - INSERT INTO table2 SELECT * FROM table1 WHERE
condition;
Basic Structure - INSERT INTO table2 (column1, column2, column3, ...)
SELECT column1, column2, column3, ... FROM table1 WHERE condition; //Selected
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country) SELECT
SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers;
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, Country) SELECT SupplierName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode,
Country FROM Suppliers;

22. CASE - The CASE statement goes through conditions and returns a value
when the first condition is met (like an if-then-else statement). So, once a
condition is true, it will stop reading and return the result. If no conditions are
true, it returns the value in the ELSE clause.
Basic Structure - CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
WHEN conditionN THEN resultN
ELSE result
END;

SELECT OrderID, Quantity,

CASE
WHEN Quantity > 30 THEN 'The quantity is greater than 30'
WHEN Quantity = 30 THEN 'The quantity is 30'
ELSE 'The quantity is under 30'
END AS QuantityText
FROM OrderDetails;
 23. COMMENTS
-- --, /* */

24. STRING FUNCTIONS - Example (Output)

ASCII - Returns the ASCII value for the specific character
Syntax: ASCII(character)
Example: ASCII('A') (65)

CHAR_LENGTH - Returns the length of a string (in characters)

Syntax: CHAR_LENGTH(string)
Example: CHAR_LENGTH('Hello') (5)

CHARACTER_LENGTH - Returns the length of a string (in characters)

Syntax: CHARACTER_LENGTH(string)
Example: CHARACTER_LENGTH('Hello') (5)

CONCAT - Adds two or more expressions together

Syntax: CONCAT(string1, string2, ...)
Example: CONCAT('Hello', ' ', 'World') ('Hello World')

CONCAT_WS - Adds two or more expressions together with a separator

Syntax: CONCAT_WS(separator, string1, string2, ...)
Example: CONCAT_WS('-', '2024', '01', '11') ('2024-01-11')

FIELD - Returns the index position of a value in a list of values

Syntax: FIELD(value, val1, val2, ...)
Example: FIELD('B', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D') (2)

FIND_IN_SET - Returns the position of a string within a list of strings

Syntax: FIND_IN_SET(string, string_list)

Example: FIND_IN_SET('b', 'a,b,c,d') (2)

FORMAT - Formats a number to a format like "#,###,###.##", rounded to a

specified number of decimal places
Syntax: FORMAT(number, decimal_places)
Example: FORMAT(1234567.89, 2) ('1,234,567.89')

INSERT - Inserts a string within a string at the specified position and

for a certain number of characters
Syntax: INSERT(original_string, position, length, new_string)
Example: INSERT('Hello World', 7, 5, 'Universe') ('Hello Universe')

INSTR - Returns the position of the first occurrence of a string in

another string
Syntax: INSTR(string, substring)
Example: INSTR('Hello World', 'World') (7)

LCASE - Converts a string to lower-case

Syntax: LCASE(string)
Example: LCASE('HELLO') ('hello')

LEFT - Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from

left)
Syntax: LEFT(string, length)
Example: LEFT('Hello World', 5) ('Hello')

LENGTH - Returns the length of a string (in bytes)

Syntax: LENGTH(string)
 Example: LENGTH('Hello') (5)

LOCATE - Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring in

a string
Syntax: LOCATE(substring, string)
Example: LOCATE('World', 'Hello World') (7)

LOWER - Converts a string to lower-case

Syntax: LOWER(string)
Example: LOWER('HELLO') ('hello')

LPAD - Left-pads a string with another string, to a certain length

Syntax: LPAD(string, length, pad_string)
Example: LPAD('Hello', 10, '*') ('*****Hello')

LTRIM - Removes leading spaces from a string

Syntax: LTRIM(string)
Example: LTRIM(' Hello') ('Hello')

MID - Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any position)

Syntax: MID(string, position, length)
Example: MID('Hello World', 7, 5) ('World')

POSITION - Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring

in a string
Syntax: POSITION(substring IN string)
Example: POSITION('World' IN 'Hello World') (7)

REPEAT - Repeats a string as many times as specified

Syntax: REPEAT(string, count)
Example: REPEAT('Hello', 3) ('HelloHelloHello')

REPLACE - Replaces all occurrences of a substring within a string, with

a new substring
Syntax: REPLACE(string, from_string, to_string)
Example: REPLACE('Hello World', 'World', 'Universe') ('Hello Universe')

REVERSE - Reverses a string and returns the result

Syntax: REVERSE(string)
Example: REVERSE('Hello') ('olleH')

RIGHT - Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from

right)
Syntax: RIGHT(string, length)
Example: RIGHT('Hello World', 5) ('World')

RPAD - Right-pads a string with another string, to a certain length

Syntax: RPAD(string, length, pad_string)
Example: RPAD('Hello', 10, '*') ('Hello*****')

RTRIM - Removes trailing spaces from a string

Syntax: RTRIM(string)
Example: RTRIM('Hello ') ('Hello')

SPACE - Returns a string of the specified number of space characters

Syntax: SPACE(number)
Example: SPACE(5) (' ')
 STRCMP - Compares two strings
Syntax: STRCMP(string1, string2)
Example: STRCMP('Hello', 'hello') (-1)

SUBSTR - Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any position)

Syntax: SUBSTR(string, position, length)

Example: SUBSTR('Hello World', 7, 5) ('World')

SUBSTRING - Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any

position)
Syntax: SUBSTRING(string, position, length)
Example: SUBSTRING('Hello World', 1, 5) ('Hello')

SUBSTRING_INDEX - Returns a substring of a string before a specified

number of delimiter occurrences
Syntax: SUBSTRING_INDEX(string, delimiter, count)
Example: SUBSTRING_INDEX('www.example.com', '.', 2) ('www.example')

TRIM - Removes leading and trailing spaces from a string

Syntax: TRIM(string)
Example: TRIM(' Hello ') ('Hello')

UCASE - Converts a string to upper-case

Syntax: UCASE(string)
Example: UCASE('hello') ('HELLO')

UPPER - Converts a string to upper-case

Syntax: UPPER(string)
Example: UPPER('hello') ('HELLO')

25. NUMERIC FUNCTIONS

ABS - Returns the absolute value of a number
Syntax: ABS(number)
Example: ABS(-10) (10)

ACOS - Returns the arc cosine of a number

Syntax: ACOS(number)
Example: ACOS(0.5) (1.047197551)

ASIN - Returns the arc sine of a number

Syntax: ASIN(number)
Example: ASIN(0.5) (0.523598775)

ATAN - Returns the arc tangent of one or two numbers

Syntax: ATAN(number) or ATAN(y, x)
Example: ATAN(1) (0.785398163)

ATAN2 - Returns the arc tangent of two numbers

Syntax: ATAN2(y, x)
Example: ATAN2(1, 1) (0.785398163)

AVG - Returns the average value of an expression

Syntax: AVG(expression)
Example: AVG(2, 4, 6) (4)

CEIL - Returns the smallest integer value that is >= to a number

Syntax: CEIL(number)
Example: CEIL(4.2) (5)
 CEILING - Returns the smallest integer value that is >= to a number
Syntax: CEILING(number)
Example: CEILING(4.2) (5)

COS - Returns the cosine of a number

Syntax: COS(number)
Example: COS(0) (1)

COT - Returns the cotangent of a number

Syntax: COT(number)
Example: COT(1) (0.642092616)

COUNT - Returns the number of records returned by a select query

Syntax: COUNT(expression)
Example: COUNT(*) (returns the number of rows)

DEGREES - Converts a value in radians to degrees

Syntax: DEGREES(radians)
Example: DEGREES(PI()) (180)

DIV - Used for integer division

Syntax: number1 DIV number2
Example: 9 DIV 4 (2)

EXP - Returns e raised to the power of a specified number

Syntax: EXP(number)
Example: EXP(1) (2.718281828)

FLOOR - Returns the largest integer value that is <= to a number

Syntax: FLOOR(number)
Example: FLOOR(4.7) (4)

GREATEST - Returns the greatest value of the list of arguments

Syntax: GREATEST(value1, value2, ...)
Example: GREATEST(10, 20, 5) (20)

LEAST - Returns the smallest value of the list of arguments

Syntax: LEAST(value1, value2, ...)
Example: LEAST(10, 20, 5) (5)

LN - Returns the natural logarithm of a number

Syntax: LN(number)
Example: LN(2.718281828) (1)

LOG - Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the logarithm of a

number to a specified base
Syntax: LOG(number) or LOG(base, number)
Example: LOG(100) (4.605170186)

LOG10 - Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 10

Syntax: LOG10(number)
Example: LOG10(100) (2)

LOG2 - Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 2

Syntax: LOG2(number)
Example: LOG2(8) (3)

MAX - Returns the maximum value in a set of values

 Syntax: MAX(expression)
Example: MAX(1, 5, 3) (5)

MIN - Returns the minimum value in a set of values

Syntax: MIN(expression)
Example: MIN(1, 5, 3) (1)

MOD - Returns the remainder of a number divided by another number

Syntax: MOD(number1, number2)
Example: MOD(10, 3) (1)

PI - Returns the value of PI

Syntax: PI()
Example: PI() (3.141592654)

POW - Returns the value of a number raised to the power of another

number
Syntax: POW(base, exponent)
Example: POW(2, 3) (8)

POWER - Returns the value of a number raised to the power of another

number
Syntax: POWER(base, exponent)
Example: POWER(2, 3) (8)

RADIANS - Converts a degree value into radians

Syntax: RADIANS(degrees)
Example: RADIANS(180) (3.141592654)

RAND - Returns a random number

Syntax: RAND()
Example: RAND() (random number)

ROUND - Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places

Syntax: ROUND(number, decimal_places)
Example: ROUND(123.456, 2) (123.46)

SIGN - Returns the sign of a number

Syntax: SIGN(number)
Example: SIGN(-5) (-1)

SIN - Returns the sine of a number

Syntax: SIN(number)
Example: SIN(PI()/2) (1)

SQRT - Returns the square root of a number

Syntax: SQRT(number)
Example: SQRT(9) (3)

SUM - Calculates the sum of a set of values

Syntax: SUM(expression)
Example: SUM(10, 20, 30) (60)

TAN - Returns the tangent of a number

Syntax: TAN(number)
Example: TAN(PI()/4) (1)

TRUNCATE - Truncates a number to the specified number of decimal places

Syntax: TRUNCATE(number, decimal_places)
 Example: TRUNCATE(123.456, 2) (123.45)

25. DATE FUNCTIONS

ADDDATE - Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date
Syntax: ADDDATE(date, INTERVAL expr type)
Example: ADDDATE('2023-01-01', INTERVAL 10 DAY) ('2023-01-11')

ADDTIME - Adds a time interval to a time/datetime and then returns the

time/datetime
Syntax: ADDTIME(time, expr)
Example: ADDTIME('10:00:00', '02:30:00') ('12:30:00')

CURDATE - Returns the current date

Syntax: CURDATE()
Example: CURDATE() ('2025-01-11')

CURRENT_DATE - Returns the current date

Syntax: CURRENT_DATE()
Example: CURRENT_DATE() ('2025-01-11')

CURRENT_TIME - Returns the current time

Syntax: CURRENT_TIME()
Example: CURRENT_TIME() ('14:32:10')

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP - Returns the current date and time

Syntax: CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()
Example: CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() ('2025-01-11 14:32:10')

CURTIME - Returns the current time

Syntax: CURTIME()
Example: CURTIME() ('14:32:10')

DATE - Extracts the date part from a datetime expression

Syntax: DATE(datetime)
Example: DATE('2025-01-11 14:32:10') ('2025-01-11')

DATEDIFF - Returns the number of days between two date values

Syntax: DATEDIFF(date1, date2)
Example: DATEDIFF('2025-01-11', '2025-01-01') (10)

DATE_ADD - Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the

date
Syntax: DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL expr type)
Example: DATE_ADD('2023-01-01', INTERVAL 10 DAY) ('2023-01-11')

DATE_FORMAT - Formats a date

Syntax: DATE_FORMAT(date, format)
Example: DATE_FORMAT('2025-01-11', '%Y/%m/%d') ('2025/01/11')

DATE_SUB - Subtracts a time/date interval from a date and then returns

the date
Syntax: DATE_SUB(date, INTERVAL expr type)
Example: DATE_SUB('2025-01-11', INTERVAL 10 DAY) ('2025-01-01')

DAY - Returns the day of the month for a given date

Syntax: DAY(date)
Example: DAY('2025-01-11') (11)

DAYNAME - Returns the weekday name for a given date

 Syntax: DAYNAME(date)
Example: DAYNAME('2025-01-11') ('Saturday')

DAYOFMONTH - Returns the day of the month for a given date

Syntax: DAYOFMONTH(date)
Example: DAYOFMONTH('2025-01-11') (11)

DAYOFWEEK - Returns the weekday index for a given date

Syntax: DAYOFWEEK(date)
Example: DAYOFWEEK('2025-01-11') (7)

DAYOFYEAR - Returns the day of the year for a given date

Syntax: DAYOFYEAR(date)
Example: DAYOFYEAR('2025-01-11') (11)

EXTRACT - Extracts a part from a given date

Syntax: EXTRACT(unit FROM date)
Example: EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '2025-01-11') (2025)

FROM_DAYS - Returns a date from a numeric date value

Syntax: FROM_DAYS(days)
Example: FROM_DAYS(738204) ('2025-01-11')

HOUR - Returns the hour part for a given date

Syntax: HOUR(time)
Example: HOUR('14:32:10') (14)

LAST_DAY - Extracts the last day of the month for a given date
Syntax: LAST_DAY(date)
Example: LAST_DAY('2025-01-11') ('2025-01-31')

LOCALTIME - Returns the current date and time

Syntax: LOCALTIME()
Example: LOCALTIME() ('2025-01-11 14:32:10')

LOCALTIMESTAMP - Returns the current date and time

Syntax: LOCALTIMESTAMP()
Example: LOCALTIMESTAMP() ('2025-01-11 14:32:10')

MAKEDATE - Creates and returns a date based on a year and a number of

days value
Syntax: MAKEDATE(year, day_of_year)
Example: MAKEDATE(2025, 11) ('2025-01-11')

MAKETIME - Creates and returns a time based on an hour, minute, and

second value
Syntax: MAKETIME(hour, minute, second)
Example: MAKETIME(14, 32, 10) ('14:32:10')

MICROSECOND - Returns the microsecond part of a time/datetime

Syntax: MICROSECOND(time)
Example: MICROSECOND('14:32:10.123456') (123456)

MINUTE - Returns the minute part of a time/datetime

Syntax: MINUTE(time)
Example: MINUTE('14:32:10') (32)

MONTH - Returns the month part for a given date

Syntax: MONTH(date)
 Example: MONTH('2025-01-11') (1)

MONTHNAME - Returns the name of the month for a given date

Syntax: MONTHNAME(date)
Example: MONTHNAME('2025-01-11') ('January')

NOW - Returns the current date and time

Syntax: NOW()
Example: NOW() ('2025-01-11 14:32:10')

PERIOD_ADD - Adds a specified number of months to a period

Syntax: PERIOD_ADD(period, months)
Example: PERIOD_ADD(202501, 2) (202503)

PERIOD_DIFF - Returns the difference between two periods

Syntax: PERIOD_DIFF(period1, period2)
Example: PERIOD_DIFF(202501, 202401) (12)

QUARTER - Returns the quarter of the year for a given date value
Syntax: QUARTER(date)
Example: QUARTER('2025-01-11') (1)

SECOND - Returns the seconds part of a time/datetime

Syntax: SECOND(time)
Example: SECOND('14:32:10') (10)

SEC_TO_TIME - Returns a time value based on the specified seconds

Syntax: SEC_TO_TIME(seconds)
Example: SEC_TO_TIME(3661) ('01:01:01')

STR_TO_DATE - Returns a date based on a string and a format

Syntax: STR_TO_DATE(str, format)
Example: STR_TO_DATE('11-01-2025', '%d-%m-%Y') ('2025-01-11')

SUBDATE - Subtracts a time/date interval from a date and then returns

the date
Syntax: SUBDATE(date, INTERVAL expr type)
Example: SUBDATE('2025-01-11', INTERVAL 10 DAY) ('2025-01-01')

SUBTIME - Subtracts a time interval from a datetime and then returns

the time/datetime
Syntax: SUBTIME(datetime, expr)
Example: SUBTIME('14:32:10', '01:10:00') ('13:22:10')

SYSDATE - Returns the current date and time

Syntax: SYSDATE()
Example: SYSDATE() ('2025-01-11 14:32:10')

TIME - Extracts the time part from a given time/datetime

Syntax: TIME(datetime)
Example: TIME('2025-01-11 14:32:10') ('14:32:10')

TIME_FORMAT - Formats a time by a specified format

Syntax: TIME_FORMAT(time, format)
Example: TIME_FORMAT('14:32:10', '%h:%i %p') ('02:32 PM')

TIME_TO_SEC - Converts a time value into seconds

Syntax: TIME_TO_SEC(time)
Example: TIME_TO_SEC('01:01:01') (3661)
 TIMEDIFF - Returns the difference between two time/datetime expressions
Syntax: TIMEDIFF(datetime1, datetime2)
Example: TIMEDIFF('14:32:10', '12:00:00') ('02:32:10')

TIMESTAMP - Returns a datetime value based on a date or datetime value

Syntax: TIMESTAMP(date, time)
Example: TIMESTAMP('2025-01-11', '14:32:10') ('2025-01-11 14:32:10')

TO_DAYS - Returns the number of days between a date and date "0000-00-
00"
Syntax: TO_DAYS(date)
Example: TO_DAYS('2025-01-11') (738204)

WEEK - Returns the week number for a given date

Syntax: WEEK(date)
Example: WEEK('2025-01-11') (2)

WEEKDAY - Returns the weekday number for a given date

Syntax: WEEKDAY(date)
Example: WEEKDAY('2025-01-11') (5)

WEEKOFYEAR - Returns the week number for a given date

Syntax: WEEKOFYEAR(date)
Example: WEEKOFYEAR('2025-01-11') (2)

YEAR - Returns the year part for a given date

Syntax: YEAR(date)
Example: YEAR('2025-01-11') (2025)

YEARWEEK - Returns the year and week number for a given date
Syntax: YEARWEEK(date)
Example: YEARWEEK('2025-01-11') (202502)

26. ADVANCE FUNCTIONS

BIN Returns a binary representation of a number
Syntax
BIN(number)
Example
SELECT BIN(5); -- Output: 101

BINARY Converts a value to a binary string

Syntax
BINARY value
Example
SELECT BINARY 'abc'; -- Output: 'abc' as binary

CASE Goes through conditions and returns a value when the first
condition is met
Syntax
CASE WHEN condition THEN result [WHEN condition THEN result] ... [ELSE
result] END
Example
SELECT CASE WHEN 1 > 0 THEN 'True' ELSE 'False' END; -- Output: True

CAST Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype

Syntax
CAST(value AS datatype)
Example
 SELECT CAST(12.34 AS SIGNED); -- Output: 12

COALESCE Returns the first non-null value in a list

Syntax
COALESCE(value1, value2, ...)
Example
SELECT COALESCE(NULL, NULL, 'First non-null'); -- Output: First non-
null

CONNECTION_ID Returns the unique connection ID for the current

connection
Syntax
CONNECTION_ID()
Example
SELECT CONNECTION_ID(); -- Output: (connection ID)

CONV Converts a number from one numeric base system to another

Syntax
CONV(number, from_base, to_base)
Example
SELECT CONV(15, 10, 2); -- Output: 1111

CONVERT Converts a value into the specified datatype or character

set
Syntax
CONVERT(value, datatype) or CONVERT(value USING charset)
Example
SELECT CONVERT('abc' USING utf8mb4); -- Output: 'abc' in utf8mb4

CURRENT_USER Returns the user name and host name for the current
MySQL account
Syntax
CURRENT_USER()
Example
SELECT CURRENT_USER(); -- Output: user@host

DATABASE Returns the name of the current database

Syntax
DATABASE()
Example
SELECT DATABASE(); -- Output: (database name)

IF Returns a value if a condition is TRUE, or another value if a

condition is FALSE
Syntax
IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false)
Example
SELECT IF(1 > 0, 'Yes', 'No'); -- Output: Yes

IFNULL Returns a specified value if the expression is NULL,

otherwise returns the expression
Syntax
IFNULL(expression, value)
Example
SELECT IFNULL(NULL, 'Default'); -- Output: Default

ISNULL Returns 1 or 0 depending on whether an expression is NULL

Syntax
ISNULL(expression)
 Example
SELECT ISNULL(NULL); -- Output: 1

LAST_INSERT_ID Returns the AUTO_INCREMENT id of the last row

inserted or updated
Syntax
LAST_INSERT_ID()
Example
SELECT LAST_INSERT_ID(); -- Output: (last inserted ID)

NULLIF Compares two expressions and returns NULL if they are

equal, otherwise returns the first expression
Syntax
NULLIF(expression1, expression2)
Example
SELECT NULLIF(5, 5); -- Output: NULL

SESSION_USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
Syntax
SESSION_USER()
Example
SELECT SESSION_USER(); -- Output: user@host

SYSTEM_USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
Syntax
SYSTEM_USER()
Example
SELECT SYSTEM_USER(); -- Output: user@host

USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
Syntax
USER()
Example
SELECT USER(); -- Output: user@host

VERSION Returns the current version of the MySQL database

Syntax
VERSION()
Example
SELECT VERSION(); -- Output: (MySQL version)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NOTES FROM SIR ALZAGA

NOTE 1:
-- Displaying existing databases
SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| mysql |
| performance_schema |
| sakila |
| sys |
| world |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.03 sec)

-- Creating a new database

CREATE DATABASE FIRSTDATABASE;
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

-- Using the newly created database

USE FIRSTDATABASE;
Database changed

-- Mathematical function examples

SELECT ABS(123); -- Absolute value
+----------+
| ABS(123) |
+----------+
| 123 |
+----------+

SELECT MOD(10, 4); -- Modulus operation

+-----------+
| MOD(10,4) |
+-----------+
| 2 |
+-----------+

SELECT MOD(10, 4) AS remainder;

+-----------+
| remainder |
+-----------+
| 2 |
+-----------+

SELECT POWER(4, 2) AS result; -- Exponential calculation

+--------+
| result |
+--------+
| 16 |
+--------+

SELECT GREATEST(2, 23, 435, 343, 34); -- Greatest value

+---------------------------+
| greatest(2,23,435,343,34) |
+---------------------------+
| 435 |
+---------------------------+

SELECT LEAST(1, 2, 4, 53, 45, 4, 4); -- Least value

+------------------------+
| least(1,2,4,53,45,4,4) |
+------------------------+
| 1 |
+------------------------+

SELECT TRUNCATE(22.234242, 2); -- Truncate decimal value

+-----------------------+
| TRUNCATE(22.234242,2) |
+-----------------------+
| 22.23 |
+-----------------------+
 SELECT SQRT(25) AS RESULT; -- Square root
+--------+
| RESULT |
+--------+
| 5 |
+--------+

SELECT ROUND(22.987); -- Round without decimal precision

+---------------+
| ROUND(22.987) |
+---------------+
| 23 |
+---------------+

SELECT ROUND(22.987, 2); -- Round to two decimal places

+-----------------+
| ROUND(22.987,2) |
+-----------------+
| 22.99 |
+-----------------+

-- Showing updated databases

SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| firstdatabase |
| information_schema |
| mysql |
| performance_schema |
| sakila |
| sys |
| world |
+--------------------+

-- Creating a table within the database

CREATE TABLE students (
stud_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
stud_name VARCHAR(255),
age INT,
gender CHAR(1),
dob DATE,
city VARCHAR(255)
);
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.03 sec)

-- Inserting a record into the table

INSERT INTO students VALUES(10000, "tannnnnnnnn", 19, "M", "2005-04-
15", "BAGUIO");
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

-- Attempting to insert a duplicate record (error example)

INSERT INTO students (stud_id, stud_name, age, gender, dob, city)
VALUES(10000, "tannnnnnnnn", 19, "M", "2005-04-15", "BAGUIO");
ERROR 1062 (23000): Duplicate entry '10000' for key 'students.PRIMARY'

-- Displaying tables in the current database

SHOW TABLES;
 +-------------------------+
| Tables_in_firstdatabase |
+-------------------------+
| students |
+-------------------------+

-- Querying all records from the 'students' table

SELECT * FROM students;
+---------+-------------+-----+--------+------------+--------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city |
+---------+-------------+-----+--------+------------+--------+
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO |
+---------+-------------+-----+--------+------------+--------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

NOTE 2
mysql> show databases;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| contacts |
| firstdatabase |
| information_schema |
| mysql |
| new_database |
| performance_schema |
| sakila |
| sys |
| world |
+--------------------+
9 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> use firstdatabase;

Database changed

mysql> show tables;

+-------------------------+
| Tables_in_firstdatabase |
+-------------------------+
| students |
+-------------------------+
1 row in set (0.01 sec)

mysql> describe students;

+-----------+--------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+-----------+--------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| stud_id | int | NO | PRI | NULL | |
| stud_name | varchar(255) | YES | | NULL | |
| age | int | YES | | NULL | |
| gender | char(1) | YES | | NULL | |
| dob | date | YES | | NULL | |
| city | varchar(255) | YES | | NULL | |
+-----------+--------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT * FROM students;

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------+--------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city |
 +---------+------------------+------+--------+------------+--------+
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO |
| 2300217 | My Database | 21 | F | 2005-04-13 | Manila |
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------+--------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select gender from students;

+--------+
| gender |
+--------+
| M |
| F |
+--------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select gender from studenrs where gender="M";

ERROR 1146 (42S02): Table 'firstdatabase.studenrs' doesn't exist

mysql> select gender from students where gender="M";

+--------+
| gender |
+--------+
| M |
+--------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> insert into students values(102, "Jose", 22, "M", "2016-11-23",

"La Trinidad");
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

mysql> insert into students values(103, "Jose", 45, "M", "2016-11-23",

"Baguio");
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

mysql> insert into students values(104, "Tina", 30, "F", "2016-11-23",

"Baguio");
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT * FROM students;

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| 102 | Jose | 22 | M | 2016-11-23 | La Trinidad
|
| 103 | Jose | 45 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 104 | Tina | 30 | F | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO
|
| 2300217 | My Database | 21 | F | 2005-04-13 | Manila
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
 mysql> SELECT city from students where city="Baguio";
+--------+
| city |
+--------+
| Baguio |
| Baguio |
| BAGUIO |
+--------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT stud_name from students where city="Baguio";

+------------------+
| stud_name |
+------------------+
| Jose |
| Tina |
| tannnnnnnnn |
+------------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select * from students where age=32 or city="Baguio";

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------+--------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city |
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------+--------+
| 103 | Jose | 45 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio |
| 104 | Tina | 30 | F | 2016-11-23 | Baguio |
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO |
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------+--------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select city from students;

+-------------+
| city |
+-------------+
| La Trinidad |
| Baguio |
| Baguio |
| BAGUIO |
| Manila |
+-------------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select city, count(stud_id) as total_students from students

group by city;
+-------------+----------------+
| city | total_students |
+-------------+----------------+
| La Trinidad | 1 |
| Baguio | 3 |
| Manila | 1 |
+-------------+----------------+
3 rows in set (0.01 sec)

mysql> insert into students values(106, "Roy", 31, "M", "2016-11-23",

"Baguio");
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)

mysql> select city, count(stud_id) as total_students from students

group by city;
 +-------------+----------------+
| city | total_students |
+-------------+----------------+
| La Trinidad | 1 |
| Baguio | 4 |
| Manila | 1 |
+-------------+----------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select * from students order by city;

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| 103 | Jose | 45 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 104 | Tina | 30 | F | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 106 | Roy | 31 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO
|
| 102 | Jose | 22 | M | 2016-11-23 | La Trinidad
|
| 2300217 | My Database | 21 | F | 2005-04-13 | Manila
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select * from students order by age;

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO
|
| 2300217 | My Database | 21 | F | 2005-04-13 | Manila
|
| 102 | Jose | 22 | M | 2016-11-23 | La Trinidad
|
| 104 | Tina | 30 | F | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 106 | Roy | 31 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 103 | Jose | 45 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select * from students order by age desc;

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| 103 | Jose | 45 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 106 | Roy | 31 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 104 | Tina | 30 | F | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 102 | Jose | 22 | M | 2016-11-23 | La Trinidad
|
| 2300217 | My Database | 21 | F | 2005-04-13 | Manila
|
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select * from students order by stud_name desc;

+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| stud_id | stud_name | age | gender | dob | city
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
| 10000 | tannnnnnnnn | 19 | M | 2005-04-15 | BAGUIO
|
| 104 | Tina | 30 | F | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 106 | Roy | 31 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
| 2300217 | My Database | 21 | F | 2005-04-13 | Manila
|
| 102 | Jose | 22 | M | 2016-11-23 | La Trinidad
|
| 103 | Jose | 45 | M | 2016-11-23 | Baguio
|
+---------+------------------+------+--------+------------
+-------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select city, count(stud_id) as total_students group by city

having count(stud_id > 2);
ERROR 1054 (42S22): Unknown column 'city' in 'field list'

mysql> select upper(stud_name) from students;

+------------------+
| upper(stud_name) |
+------------------+
| JOSE |
| JOSE |
| TINA |
| ROY |
| tannnnnnnnn |
| MY DATABASE |
+------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
 mysql> select lcase(stud_name) from students;
+------------------+
| lcase(stud_name) |
+------------------+
| jose |
| jose |
| tina |
| roy |
| tannnnnnnnn |
| my database |
+------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select stud_name, length(stud_name) from students;

+------------------+-------------------+
| stud_name | length(stud_name) |
+------------------+-------------------+
| Jose | 4 |
| Jose | 4 |
| Tina | 4 |
| Roy | 3 |
| tannnnnnnnn | 16 |
| My Database | 11 |
+------------------+-------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select concat("Jich", "is", "my", "name");

+------------------------------------+
| concat("Jich", "is", "my", "name") |
+------------------------------------+
| Jichismyname |
+------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.01 sec)

mysql> select stud_name, age, concat(stud_name, " ", age) from

students;
+------------------+------+-----------------------------+
| stud_name | age | concat(stud_name, " ", age) |
+------------------+------+-----------------------------+
| Jose | 22 | Jose 22 |
| Jose | 45 | Jose 45 |
| Tina | 30 | Tina 30 |
| Roy | 31 | Roy 31 |
| tannnnnnnnn | 19 | tannnnnnnnn 19 |
| My Database | 21 | My Database 21 |
+------------------+------+-----------------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select reverse(stud_name) from students;

+--------------------+
| reverse(stud_name) |
+--------------------+
| esoJ |
| esoJ |
| aniT |
| yoR |
| nnnnnnnnnat |
| esabataD yM |
+--------------------+
 6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select abs(age) from students;

+----------+
| abs(age) |
+----------+
| 22 |
| 45 |
| 30 |
| 31 |
| 19 |
| 21 |
+----------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select replace("Orange is a fruit", "fruit", "color");

+------------------------------------------------+
| replace("Orange is a fruit", "fruit", "color") |
+------------------------------------------------+
| Orange is a color |
+------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select length(" WORLD WAR Z

");
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| length(" WORLD WAR Z ") |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| 50 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select rtrim(" WORLD WAR Z

");
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| rtrim(" WORLD WAR Z ") |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| WORLD WAR Z |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select ltrim(" WORLD WAR Z

");
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| ltrim(" WORLD WAR Z ") |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| WORLD WAR Z |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select length(ltrim(" WORLD WAR Z

"));
+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
| length(ltrim(" WORLD WAR Z ")) |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 22 |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> select position("Jich" in "My name is Jich");
+---------------------------------------+
| position("Jich" in "My name is Jich") |
+---------------------------------------+
| 12 |
+---------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select ascii('a');

+------------+
| ascii('a') |
+------------+
| 97 |
+------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select ascii(age) as ascii_age from students;

+-----------+
| ascii_age |
+-----------+
| 50 |
| 52 |
| 51 |
| 51 |
| 49 |
| 50 |
+-----------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> select age, ascii(age) as ascii_age from students;

+------+-----------+
| age | ascii_age |
+------+-----------+
| 22 | 50 |
| 45 | 52 |
| 30 | 51 |
| 31 | 51 |
| 19 | 49 |
| 21 | 50 |
+------+-----------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)