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Carla Villamor
Sampling Designs
advisable if the population is equal to or
more than 100
not applicable if population is less than
100 due to categorization (necessary to
have a large number in each
categorization of samples to arrive at
reliable results
 Sample size
The number of individuals you should
include in your sample depends on
various factors, including the size
and variability of the population and
your research design. There are
different sample size calculators and
formulas depending on what you want
to achieve with statistical analysis.
The formula for calculating sample size
depends on:
the population size
the critical value of the normal
distribution
the sample proportion, and
the margin of error
 Sampling Size
S0 = NV + [Se 2 (1-p)]
NSe + [V 2 p(1-p)]

Where
S0 - sample size
N- total number of population
V- Standard value (2.58) at 1 percent
level of probability with 0.99 reliability
Se- Sampling error (0.01)
p- largest possible proportion (0.50)
 The smaller the population is, the higher the
percentage of the sample size will be, and the
larger the population is, the lower the percentage
of the sample size will be
You should clearly explain how you
selected your sample in
the methodology section of your
paper or thesis, as well as how you
approached minimizing research
bias in your work.
 Carla Villamor

Sampling Designs

Defined: the method of getting a representative portion of a population

• Applicable if the population is too large

 When you conduct research about a group of people,
it’s rarely possible to collect data from every person in
that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample
is the group of individuals who will actually
participate in the research.
Population vs. sample

The population is the entire group that

you want to draw conclusions about.
The sample is the specific group of
individuals that you will collect data
from.
If the population is very large, demographically
mixed, and geographically dispersed, it might be
difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A
lack of a representative sample affects the validity of
your results, and can lead to several research biases,
particularly sampling bias.
Sampling frame

The sampling frame is the actual list of

individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Ideally, it should include the entire target
population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).
 Example:
You are doing research on working conditions at
a social media marketing company. Your
population is all 1000 employees of the company.
Your sampling frame is the company’s HR
database, which lists the names and contact
details of every employee.
 To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have
to carefully decide how you will select a sample that
is representative of the group as a whole. This is
called a sampling method.
A process of selecting a subset of
individuals from a population to
participate in a research study

sampling method
Sampling methods are used to derive
quantitative and qualitative data that can be
collected as part of a research study

There are two main types of sampling methods:

Sampling Designs: Scientific and Non- Scientific

 Scientific Sampling- each member in the population is

given an equal chance of being included in the sample

 Non- Scientific Sampling- not all of the members in the

population are given an equal chance of being included
in the sample
 or:
• Probability sampling involves random selection,
allowing you to make strong statistical inferences
about the whole group.
• Non-probability sampling involves non-random
selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect data.
Probability sampling means that every member of
the population has a chance of being selected. It is
mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to
produce results that are representative of the whole
population, probability sampling techniques are the
most valid choice.
 In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being
included.
 This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a
higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make
about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and
your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability
sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the
population as possible.
 Non-probability sampling techniques are often used
in exploratory and qualitative research. In these types of
research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad
population, but to develop an initial understanding of a
small or under-researched population.
Types of Scientific Sampling Designs

1. Restricted Random Sampling- applicable only when

population being investigated is homogenous
2. Unrestricted Random Sampling- every member has an
equal chance

 Techniques: lottery or table of random numbers

Example: Simple random sampling
You want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You
assign a number to every employee in the company
database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.
3. Systematic Sampling- population arranged in a
methodical manner; nth selected
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is
usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is
listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers,
individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
 Example: Systematic sampling
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical
order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every
10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on),
and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
 If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no
hidden pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if
the HR database groups employees by team, and team members are
listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip
over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed
towards senior employees.
4. Stratified Random Sampling- population into 2 or more
strata i.e. males and females
 Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw
more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly
represented in the sample.
 To use this sampling method, you divide the population into
subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.,
gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
 Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate
how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you
use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each
subgroup.
 Example: Stratified sampling
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees.
You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the
company, so you sort the population into two strata based on gender.
Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and
20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
5. Multistage Sampling- done in several stages
6. Cluster Sampling- advantageous with heterogenous group
 Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but
each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.
 If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each
sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample
individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above.
This is called multistage sampling.
 This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations,
but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be
substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee
that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.
 Example: Cluster sampling
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have
the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use
random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
Non- Scientific Sampling

1. Purposive Sampling- selection based on purpose;

good evidence that sample is a representative of
the total population
 This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling,
involves the researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
Non- Scientific Sampling

 It is often used in qualitative research, where the

researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a
specific phenomenon rather than make statistical
inferences, or where the population is very small and
specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to
describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.
 Example: Purposive sampling
You want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your university, so you
purposefully select a number of students with different
support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on
their experiences with student services.
Non- Scientific Sampling

2. Incidental Sampling- samples taken because they are

“the most available”
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no
way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results.
 at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.
 Example: Convenience/Incidental sampling
You are researching opinions about student support services in your
university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to
complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data,
but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the
same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your
university.
 Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response
sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the
researcher choosing participants and directly contacting
them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
public online survey).
 Voluntary response samples are always at least
somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more
likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
 Example: Voluntary response sampling
You send out the survey to all students at your university
and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can
certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the
people who responded are more likely to be those who
have strong opinions about the student support services, so
you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of
all students.
 4. Snowball sampling
 If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be
used to recruit participants via other participants. The
number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get
in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how
representative your sample is due to the reliance on
participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.
 Example: Snowball sampling
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your
city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city,
probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person
who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you
in contact with other homeless people that she knows in the
area.
Non- Scientific Sampling

4. Quota Sampling- samples meet the prescribed criteria or

characteristics
 Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.
 You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups
(called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your
quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you
prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control
what or who makes up your sample.
 Example: Quota sampling
You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery
service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the
population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample
of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you
set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can
easily compare these groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the
quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.
That’s all for today