Chapter 1

Electric Fields

1.1 The Electric Field

Figure 1.1 shows two positively charged particles. We know that an
electrostatic force acts on particle 1 due to the presence of particle
2. We also know the force direction and, given some data, we can
calculate the force magnitude. There are two main points about this
force: 1. How is the particle 1 aware of the presence of the particle
2? and 2. How can this force be sent without any connection at a
distant?
The answer is that the particle 2 creates the electric field at all
the points around it in the surrounding space, even if the space is
Figure 1.1: How does charged particle
vacuum. And, after we bring the particle 1 to the electric field of the
2 push on charged particle 1 when they
particle 2, it is affected by the particle 2 without any connection or
have no contact?
touching it.
There are two types of fields in the nature: scalar fields (temper-
ature field describing the tempreature distribution in the room, pressure field describing the pressure of water
flowing in the tubes) and vector fields (electric field, magnetic field, gravitational field). Scalar fields have only
magnitude, vector fields have both magnitude and direction.
The Q positively charged object in Figure 1.2 creates the electric
field around it. Now, let’s bring positive q0 test particle to the electric
field of Q charged object at the point P. Let’s consider that the force
on q0 due to the Q charged object is F. If this force is divided by the
charge of the test particle, the resultant quantity describes the electric
field of Q at the point P where q0 located. This quantity is called the
electric field vector of Q charged particle.

⃗
⃗ = F
E (1.1)
q0
⃗ indicates the strength of the electric charge Q at the point
E
where q0 test particle is located.
We can shift the test charge around to various other points and
change the amount of charge q0 of the test particle to measure the
electric fields there, so that we can figure out the electric field set up
by the charged object. That field is independent of the test charge.
The unit of the electric field vector is

⃗ = [F⃗ ] N
[E] =1 (1.2)
q C

1.2 Electric Field Lines

Firstly, Michael Faraday suggested the term of the electric field lines Figure 1.2: (a) A positive test charge
to describe the direction of electric field of the charged particles around q0 placed at point P near a charged ob-
them. ject.An electrostatic force acts on the
test charge. (b) The electric field at
1 point P produced by the charged ob-
ject.
2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC FIELDS

Figure 1.3: Electric field lines of a positive

charge originate from it and are directed far
away from it. Electric field lines of a negative Figure 1.4: Field lines for two particles with
charge originated on distant positive charges equal positive charge. The pattern itself sug-
and are towards it gests that the particles repel each other

Figure 1.6: Field lines for two particles with

Figure 1.5: Field lines for two particles with opposite sign of equal charges. The pattern
equal negative charge. The pattern itself sug- itself suggests that the particles attract each
gests that the particles repel each other other

Electric field lines extend away from positive charge

(where they originate) and toward negative charge (where
they terminate)
The rules for drawing electric fields lines are these: (1) At any
point, the electric field vector must be tangent to the electric field line
through that point and in the same direction. (This is easy to see in
Fig. 1.3 where the lines are straight, but we’ll see some curved lines soon.) (2) In a plane perpendicular to
the field lines, the relative density of the lines represents the relative magnitude of the field there, with greater
density for greater magnitude.
In Figure 1.7 a nonconducting sheet is charged positively. So, the electric field lines of this charged sheet
are directed far away from it. Because this sheet is charged uniformly, there is the same amount of
charge on every point of the sheet.
If a sheet is charged non-uniformly, the amount of electric charge will change from point to
point.

1.3 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED PARTICLE

To find the electric field due to a charged particle (often called a point charge),we place a positive test charge
q0 at any point near the particle, at distance r. From Coulomb’s law, the force on the test charge q0 due to the
particle with charge q is
1.4. THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE 3

Figure 1.7: ((a) The force on a positive test charge near a very large, nonconducting sheet with uniform positive
charge on one side. (b) The electric field vector at the test charge’s location, and the nearby electric field lines,
extending away from the sheet. (c) Side view

qq0
F⃗ = k 2 r̂ (1.3)
r
As previously, the direction of this force is directly away from the particle if q is positive (because q0 is
positive) and directly toward it if q is negative. So, at the location of the test particle we can determine the
electric field set up by a charged charge, q.

⃗ = k q r̂(charged − particle)
E (1.4)
r2
The last equation means that the electric field is parallel to the force on the positive test charge.
As the Coulomb force obeys the superposition principle, the electric field also obeys a superposition
principle.
Let’s consider that there are 5 charged particles (q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 ) and create electric fields in the space.
And, we bring q0 as a test particle to point P in this space of the electric fields. Firstly, we have to calculate
the net electric force on q0 due to these 5 charged particles:

F⃗0 = F⃗01 + F⃗02 + F⃗03 + F⃗04 + F⃗05 (1.5)

Then, we can calculate the net electric field of all 5 charged particles at P point where q0 is located:

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ = F0 = F01 + F02 + F03 + F04 + F05 = E
E ⃗1 + E
⃗2 + E
⃗3 + E
⃗4 + E
⃗5 (1.6)
q0 q0 q0 q0 q0 q0
The last equation shows that the net electric field is the vector sum of the electric fields of the individual charges.

1.4 The Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole

Electric Dipole is an rigid arrangement of two charges of the same magnitude and opposite sign (Figure
1.8). The distance between the particles is d and they are along the dipole axis. Our purpose is to find the
⃗ at an arbitrary point P along the dipole axis, at distance z
magnitude and direction of the net electric field E
from the dipole’s midpoint.

q d
E= (1.7)
2πϵ0 z 1 − ( d )2 2
3

2z

Because we are usually interested in electrical effect of the dipole at distances (z) larger than the dimensions
(d) of the dipole, we will consider z ≫ d in the last equation of E and get:

1 qd
E= (1.8)
2πϵ0 z 3
p⃗ is called the electric dipole moment of the dipole.

p⃗ = q d⃗ (1.9)
4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC FIELDS

Figure 1.8: Dipole is a rigid set of two equal chargesof the opposite sign. Green line is a dipole axis. d⃗ is a
dipole vector, p⃗ is the electric vector of the dipole, and it is directed from a negative charge to a positive one.

Figure 1.10: (a) An electric dipole.The elec-

⃗ (+) and E
tric field vectors E ⃗ (−) at point P on
the dipole axis result from the dipole’s two
charges. Point P is at distances r(+) and r(-
Figure 1.9: The pattern of electric field lines ) from the individual charges that make up
around an electric dipole, with an electric the dipole. (b) The dipole moment p⃗ of the
field vector shown at one point (tangent to dipole points from the negative charge to the
the field line through that point) positive charge

p⃗, electric dipole moment, is from the negative end of the dipole to the positive one.
After considering the Equation (1.9) in (1.8), E reads as:

1 p
E= (1.10)
2πϵ0 z 3

Note. The actual magnitude of the electric field of a dipole is defined as

q q
E= d 2
− d 2
(1.11)
4πϵ0 z 2 (1 − 2z ) 4πϵ0 z 2 (1 + 2z )
1.5. THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE OF CHARGE 5

Figure 1.11: A ring of uniform positive Figure 1.12: The electric fields set up at P by
charge. A differential element of charge oc- a charge element and its symmetric partner
cupies a length ds (greatly exaggerated for (on the opposite side of the ring). The com-
clarity).This element sets up an electric field ponents perpendicular to the z axis cancel;
dE⃗ at point P the parallel components add.

Equations 1.8 and 1.10 are considered as the approximate magnitude of the electric field of a dipole.
The electric field of the dipole decreases more rapidly with distance than that of a single charge does. The
reason is that the former is proportional to 1/r−3 , and the latter is proportional to 1/r−2 .

1.5 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE OF CHARGE

Linear charge density λ is charge per unit length of a charged line
q
λ= (1.12)
s
Its unit is C/m
[q] C
[λ] = =1 (1.13)
[s] m
A small charge element of the charged line is written as dq, here d means a small contribution of charge.So,
ds means a small length element where dq charge has settled. So, dq = λds
Let’s consider that there is a closed ring uniformly charged positively, and we start to find the net electric
field at P point at the z distance from the center point of the ring. (Look at the Figure 1.11)
Uniformly charged ring means that there is the same amount of charge at every point of the ring. The
electric field dE of a charge element dq is determined as

1 dq 1 λds
dE = 2
= (1.14)
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r2
√
Due to the Figure 1.11, r is r = z 2 + R2 , so dE is reduced as

1 λds
dE = (1.15)
4πϵ0 z + R2
2
6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC FIELDS

The net force of all the dq charge elements of the ring has zero x component at P point, and only y component
of the net force is different from zero. Due to the Figure 1.11, the cosine of the θ angle is
z z
cos θ = =√ (1.16)
r z + R2
2

By multiplying the last two equations, we can get the parallel field component

1 zλ
dE cos θ = ds (1.17)
4πϵ0 (z 2 + R2 ) 23

The length of the charged ring is s = 2πR. So,

q
λ= (1.18)
2πR
and the net field at P point from the center of the charged ring is
qz
E= 3 (1.19)
4πϵ0 (z 2 + R2 ) 2

For a point on the central axis that is far away from the center
point of the charged ring, z ≫ R, the electric field is

1 q
E= (1.20)
4πϵ0 z 2
From a large distance, the ring looks like a point charge.
When at the center of the charged ring, z = 0, the field and force
are zero because the force due to any element of the ring would be
canceled by the force due to the element on the opposite side of the
ring.

1.6 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A

CHARGED DISK
Surface charge density σ is a charge per unit surface.

dq Figure 1.13: A disk of radius R and

σ= (1.21) uniform positive charge.The ring shown
dA
has radius r and radial width dr. It
⃗
dq is a small charge element, and dA is a small area component in sets up a differential electric field dE
2
which this charge element has settled. Its unit is C/m . So, dq = σdA. at point P on its central axis.
Let’s consider that we have a uniformly charged disc and start to
find the electric field at an arbitrary point P on the central axis, at
distance z from the center of the disc (r ≤ R). (Look at Figure 13).
 
σ z
E= 1− √ (charged − disc) (1.22)
2ϵ0 z 2 + R2
is the magnitude of the electric field produced by a flat, circular, charged disc at points (0 ≤ z) on its central
axis.
If R → 0 is considered while keeping z finite, E reduces as
σ
E= (inf inte − sheet) (1.23)
2ϵ0
This is the electric field produced by an infinite sheet of uniform charge located on one side of a nonconductor
such as plastic. Equation 1.23 indicates that at points very close to the disk, the electric field set up by the disk
is the same as if the disk were infinite in extent.

1.7 A Point Charge In an Electric Field

1.7. A POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD 7

There is a charged particle in the electric field, and the force on this
charge due to the field is

F⃗ = q E
⃗ (1.24)
here q is the charge of the particle, including its sign,
⃗ is the electric field vector (intensity of the field) at the location
E
of the particle.
Note. The electrostatic force F⃗ acting on a charged par-
ticle located in an external electric field E ⃗ has the direction
⃗
of E if the charge q of the particle is positive and has the
opposite direction if q is negative.
So, if a charged particle is brought to the external electric field it
will start to accelerate.If charge is positive, particle will move in the
direction of the field. If it is negative, it will move in the opposite
direction of the field.
So, we can write F = ma = qE
Figure 1.14: A charged particle in the
external electric field. The force on the
positive charge due to the external field
is parallel to that field. But the force on
the negative charge due to the external
field is in the opposite direction of it.
8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC FIELDS

1.8 A DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC

FIELD
⃗ A dipole is a rigid
There is a dipole in a uniform external field E.
structure consisting of two centers of two opposite charges, each of
magnitude q, separated by a distance d. The dipole moment p⃗ makes an angle θ with field E. ⃗ Electrostatic
forces act on the charged ends of the dipole. Because the electric field is uniform, those forces act in opposite
directions and with the same magnitude F=qE. Thus, because the field is uniform, the net force on the dipole
from the field is zero and the center of mass of the dipole does not move. However, the forces on the charged
ends do produce a net torque ⃗τ on the dipole about its center of mass.

⃗τ = d⃗ × F⃗ = p⃗ × E
⃗ (1.25)
This is the torque on a dipole. Its direction is determined with Right Hand Rule.

1.9 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

With the orientation of a dipole in an electric field, potential energy
U is associated. The dipole has at least potential energy when it is in
equilibrium, which is when its moment p⃗: is lined up with the field E⃗
⃗ So, the dipole is oriented, and the work is done as a
(then ⃗τ = p⃗ × E.
result.
Due to the Potential Energy Theorem, ∆U = −W . In Rthe electric
field, the dipole turns from 90o to θ. The work is W = τ dθ. The
potential energy at any angle is determined as

Z Z θ
U = −W = − τ dθ = pE sin θdθ = −pE cos θ = −⃗
pE⃗ (1.26)
90o

When θ = 0o (⃗ ⃗ U = −pE and the dipole has the

p is parallel to E),
minimum potential energy. When θ = 180o (⃗ p and E⃗ are in opposite
directions), U = pE the dipole has the maximum potential energy.
When a dipole rotates from an initial orientation θi to another
orientation θf , the work W done on the dipole by the electric field is

W = −∆U = −(Uf − Ui ) (1.27)

Uf and Ui are calculated from Equation 1.26.

Then,the work Wa done on the dipole by the applied torque is the
negative of the work done on the dipole by the field; that is,

Wa = −W = (Uf − Ui ) (1.28)

Figure 1.15: