Context and Application of Network Layers

In network communication, different layers handle specific tasks to ensure

data is transmitted efficiently and accurately.

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Primary Focus: Transmitting raw bits (0s and 1s) over a physical medium.
Concerns:
 The type of transmission media used (e.g., cables, fiber optics, wireless
signals).
 Signal encoding – How data is represented as electrical or optical
signals.
 Transmission speed and bandwidth of the medium.
Used in:
 LANs (Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi signals)
 WLANs (Wireless LANs)
 BBNs (Backbone networks)
 MANs (Metropolitan networks)
 WANs (Wide-area networks)

Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Primary Focus: Reliable communication between two directly connected
devices. Key Functions:
1. Media Access Control (MAC) – Determines who can send data on a
shared network (e.g., CSMA/CD in Ethernet, CSMA/CA in Wi-Fi).
2. Message Delineation – Defines start and end of messages in a data
stream.
3. Message Delivery – Ensures frames (data packets at Layer 2) are
delivered correctly.
4. Error Control – Detects and corrects transmission errors (e.g., CRC, ARQ
mechanisms).
Used in:
 Ethernet (LANs)
 Wi-Fi (WLANs)
 Cellular networks
 Point-to-point connections (fiber optics, leased lines)

Hub: The Basic Network Connectivity Device

A hub is a Layer 1 (Physical Layer) device that simply connects multiple
devices in a network. It acts like a multiport repeater, taking incoming data
and broadcasting it to all connected devices.

How a Hub Works

 When a device sends data to a hub, the hub does not check the
destination.
 Instead, it forwards the data to all devices connected to its ports.
 The intended recipient processes the data, while others ignore it.
Limitations of a Hub
No Filtering – Cannot determine where to send data, so it sends to all
devices.
Inefficient – Increases network congestion due to unnecessary traffic.
Collisions – Multiple devices sending at once can cause collisions (in shared
Ethernet networks).
No Security – All data is visible to every device connected to the hub.
Hub vs. Switch
Feature Hub (Layer 1) Switch (Layer 2)
Data Filtering ❌ No ✅ Yes
Broadcasts to all
Traffic Handling Sends to specific destination
ports
Efficiency Low High
Network Low (switch has collision
High
Collisions domains)
Security Low High

Where are Hubs Used?

Legacy networks where cost is a bigger concern than performance.
Small home networks with minimal traffic.
Simple network testing environments.
Modern networks prefer switches because they are more efficient and secure
than hubs. However, understanding hubs is essential for networking
fundamentals.

Understanding Circuits in Networking

A circuit refers to the path that data travels between network devices. There
are two main types:
Types of Circuits
1️Physical Circuits (Transmission Media)
 Cables (Guided Media): Ethernet cables, fiber optics, coaxial cables.
 Wireless (Unguided Media): Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite, cellular
networks.
2️Logical Circuits (Data Transmission Characteristics)
 How data is transmitted over a physical circuit.
 Defines how multiple devices share the same circuit.

Logical Circuit Configurations

Point-to-Point Circuits
Dedicated communication between two devices (e.g., a computer and a
server).
Used in switches and routers for multiple direct connections.
More secure and faster, but expensive.
Multipoint Circuits
Shared communication among multiple devices (e.g., Wi-Fi network).
Used in hubs and access points.
Cost-effective, but less secure and may cause congestion.

Data Flow in Circuits

Half-Duplex Communication
 Data can flow both directions, but only one at a time.
 Like a walkie-talkie: One person speaks, the other listens.
 Example: Old Ethernet networks (coaxial cable).
Full-Duplex Communication
 Data flows simultaneously in both directions.
 Like a phone call where both can talk at the same time.
 Example: Modern Ethernet, fiber optics, 5G networks.

Communication Media in Networking

Communication media refers to the physical materials that transmit voice or
data in a network. It can be classified into:

1. Guided Media (Wired)

Transmission follows physical cables.
Offers higher reliability and better security than wireless.
Twisted-Pair (TP) Cable
 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Cheaper, more common.
 STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Better protection against interference.
 Key Features:
o Uses electrical signals for transmission.
o Twisting reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI).
o Categories: Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 6a (higher category = better
speed).
o Max Length: 100 meters before a repeater is needed.
o Common Use: LANs, Ethernet cables.
Fiber Optic Cable
 Uses light pulses instead of electricity.
 More secure (harder to tap without detection).
 No electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Supports higher speeds & longer distances than TP.
 Types:
o Multimode (MM): Up to 500m (cheap but lower speed).
o Graded Index MM: Up to 1km (better dispersion control).
o Single Mode (SM): Up to 100km (expensive, used in core
networks).
 Common Use: Backbone networks (BBNs), high-speed internet.

2. Wireless Media
Transmission occurs through the air (radio waves, infrared, microwave).
Offers flexibility but is prone to interference and security risks.

Wireless Communication Media

Wireless media uses radio waves, microwaves, or satellite signals to transmit
data without physical cables.

1. Radio Waves
Vibrations in the air allow wireless data transmission.
Used in Wi-Fi (802.11x WLANs) & mobile networks.
Each device has a radio transceiver that operates on a specific frequency.
Range & speed depend on frequency and power.
Pros: No cables needed, flexible, supports mobility.
Cons: Prone to interference, security risks, shorter range than wired media.

2. Media NOT Commonly Used in Organizations

Coaxial Cable (Used in Cable TV)
 Thicker than twisted pair, making installation harder.
 Less commonly used for networking today.
Terrestrial Microwave (Short-Range Wireless Transmission)
 Covers ~60 km per relay station.
 Affected by weather conditions (rain, fog, etc.).
Satellite Microwave (Long-Distance Wireless Transmission)
 Uses satellites as relays for communication.
 High latency due to long distances.
 Used for global communication, GPS, remote areas.

3. Structured Cabling Standard (p.64)

Defines how cables should be organized in a network.
Helps maintain efficiency, scalability, and organization.
Used in LANs, data centers, and enterprise networks.

Choosing the Right Communication Media

When selecting the right transmission media, you need to consider network
type, cost, distance, security, error rates, and data speed.

1. Type of Network
 LANs & BBNs → Twisted-Pair (TP) & Fiber Optic Cables (for reliability &
speed).
 WLANs → Radio Waves (for mobility).
 MANs & WANs → Discussed in Ch.9.
Key Consideration: Use WLANs if users require mobility (Ch.7).

2. Cost
Cheapest → Twisted-Pair (TP) cables.
More expensive → Fiber Optics (higher initial cost but better performance).
Reasonable cost → Wireless (Radio Waves) (Ch.7, p.200).
Key Consideration: TP is budget-friendly but fiber optics is worth the
investment for high-speed & secure networks.

3. Transmission Distance
TP cables → Max 100m before a repeater is needed.
Fiber optics → 500m to 100km, depending on the grade (Ch.7).
Radio waves → 100m to 150m max (Ch.7).
Key Consideration: Fiber optics support long distances with minimal
interference.

4. Security
Wireless media (Radio Waves) = Least secure (prone to eavesdropping).
Fiber Optics = Most secure (eavesdropping is easily detectable).
TP Cables = Moderate security (can be tapped without detection).
Key Consideration: If security is a priority, fiber optics is the best choice.

5. Error Rates (Interference Susceptibility)

Wireless (Highest error rate) → Prone to interference from walls, devices,
weather.
TP (Moderate error rate) → Some electromagnetic interference.
Fiber Optics (Lowest error rate) → Immune to interference.
Key Consideration: For high reliability, fiber optics is best.

6. Data Rates (Transmission Speeds)

Fiber Optics (Highest speeds) → Supports 100 Gbps+.
TP (Decent speeds) → Up to 10 Gbps (Cat 6a & higher).
Wireless (Lowest speeds) → Hundreds of Mbps (depends on Wi-Fi standard).
Key Consideration: Guided media (fiber & TP) offer higher speeds than
wireless.

Digital Transmission of Digital Data

When sending digital data, computers follow coding schemes, transmission
modes, and specific network rules to ensure data is interpreted correctly.

1. Coding Schemes (Data Representation)

Computers use binary (0s & 1s) to represent data.
Coding schemes translate data into binary form:
 ASCII (8-bit) → Common for text.
 Unicode (16-bit) → Supports multiple languages & symbols.
Key Takeaway: ASCII is standard for English text, while Unicode is better for
multilingual support.
2. Transmission Modes (How Bits Travel)
There are two ways to transmit digital data:
Parallel Transmission → Sends one byte (8 bits) at a time → Faster but used
for short distances (e.g., inside a computer).
Serial Transmission → Sends one bit at a time → Slower but used for long-
distance communication (e.g., Ethernet).
Key Takeaway: Parallel is fast but limited to short distances, serial is better
for networking.

3. Digital Transmission Rules (Standards & Compatibility)

Devices must follow common rules (protocols) for communication, including:
 Voltage levels to represent 1s & 0s.
 Network standards to ensure device compatibility.
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) → The most common wired LAN & BBN standard.
Key Takeaway: Ethernet ensures seamless communication between devices
in wired networks.

4. How Ethernet Transmits Data

Data transmission method depends on speed:
 10Mbps & 100Mbps → Uses serial transmission (one bit at a time).
 1Gbps, 10Gbps & above → Uses parallel transmission (multiple bits at
once).
 Signaling technique varies based on network speed & media type.
Key Takeaway: Faster Ethernet requires multi-speed devices & different
signaling techniques.

Digital Transmission of Digital Data: Unipolar & Bipolar Signals

When transmitting digital data, signal encoding methods determine how 1s
and 0s are represented using voltage levels. Two key methods are unipolar
and bipolar signaling.

1. Unipolar Signaling (Single Voltage Level)

Uses only one voltage level (+V) to represent binary 1s, and zero voltage
(0V) for binary 0s.
Simple but has more power consumption and is prone to synchronization
issues.
Example: Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) encoding.
Key Takeaway: Unipolar is easy to implement but inefficient due to power
usage and synchronization problems.

2. Bipolar Signaling (Two Voltage Levels)

Uses both positive (+V) and negative (-V) voltages to represent binary data.
Two main types of bipolar signaling:
 NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Bipolar → 1s switch between +V and -V, 0s
stay at 0V.
  Manchester Encoding → 1s & 0s are represented by voltage transitions
(more reliable).
Advantages:
Less power consumption.
Better synchronization.
Less chance of transmission errors.
Key Takeaway: Bipolar signals reduce power consumption and improve
synchronization compared to unipolar signals.

Final Summary
Signal Voltage
Pros Cons
Type Levels
0V (0), +V High power usage,
Unipolar Simple, easy to implement
(1) sync issues
-V (0), +V Lower power use, better
Bipolar More complex circuitry
(1) synchronization

📡 Digital Transmission of Digital Data: Binary Representation & Transmission

Modes

Parallel vs. Serial Transmission

When transmitting binary data, we can use either parallel transmission or
serial transmission depending on speed and distance requirements.
1️.Parallel Transmission
Sends multiple bits (usually 8 bits or 1 byte) at a time using multiple wires.
Used for short-distance high-speed transfers (e.g., inside a computer).
Faster but more expensive and prone to signal degradation (due to
interference).
Example:
 Data transfer inside the CPU and RAM.
 Old printer ports used parallel transmission.

2️.Serial Transmission
Sends 1 bit at a time, over a single wire or channel.
Used for long-distance communication (e.g., networks, internet).
More reliable than parallel because it reduces interference and crosstalk.
Types of Serial Transmission:
Asynchronous Serial Transmission – Uses start & stop bits to frame data.
Synchronous Serial Transmission – Sends continuous streams of bits (used in
high-speed networks).
Example:
 Ethernet, USB, Wi-Fi, Fiber Optic Networks use serial transmission.

Parallel vs. Serial Transmission: Comparison

Feature Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission
Faster (8+ bits at a Slower (1 bit at a
Speed
time) time)
Distance Short (<2 meters) Long (several km)
Wiring Expensive (multiple Cheaper (single
Cost wires) wire)
More errors
Reliability More reliable
(interference)
Final Takeaway:
 Parallel transmission is used inside computers for short distances.
 Serial transmission is used for network communication & long
distances.

Analog Transmission of Digital Data: How Modems Enable Digital

Communication Over Analog Circuits

The Telephone System & Analog Transmission

Originally, the telephone system was designed for analog signals, meaning it
transmitted continuous electrical waveforms that mimicked human speech.
These signals could take any value within a range, unlike digital signals,
which have only two states (0 and 1).

Analog Transmission happens when a signal is sent over analog voice-grade

telephone networks (POTS – Plain Old Telephone Service).
Problem: Computers only understand digital data (binary: 0s and 1s), but
analog telephone lines cannot carry digital signals directly.
Solution: Use a Modem (MOdulator/DEModulator) to convert digital data into
analog signals for transmission over telephone lines.

Role of a Modem in Digital-to-Analog Conversion

A modem performs two main functions:
Modulation (Sending Side)
 Converts digital signals from a computer into analog waveforms that
can travel over telephone lines.
Demodulation (Receiving Side)
 Converts analog waveforms back into digital signals for the receiving
computer.
Modem Standards & Compatibility
 Both sending and receiving modems must follow the same standard to
communicate properly.
 Modem standards define data rates, modulation techniques, and
compression methods.

How Modems Improve Efficiency

Modems include data compression techniques to reduce the amount of data
sent over the line.
Example: A 6:1 compression ratio means that 600 KB of original data is
compressed to 100 KB for transmission.
Benefits of Compression:
 Reduces transmission time 📉
 Saves bandwidth 📡
 Improves efficiency of analog networks 🚀

Analog vs. Digital Transmission

Analog Transmission Digital Transmission (Ethernet,
Feature
(Telephone) Fiber, 5G)
Continuous wave (varying
Signal Type Discrete (0s and 1s)
values)
Lower (noise and Higher (error detection &
Data Accuracy
interference) correction)
Speed Slower (limited bandwidth) Faster (Gigabit speeds)
Reliability More affected by noise More reliable
Required No modem needed (direct
Modem (for conversion)
Hardware transmission)

Digital Transmission of Analog Data: How VoIP Works

What is Digital Transmission of Analog Data?

This process is essentially the opposite of analog transmission of digital data.
Instead of modems converting digital signals into analog for transmission, we
use codecs to convert analog signals into digital so they can be transmitted
over a digital network.
Key Device: Codec (Coder-Decoder)
A codec (hardware or software) at the sending end converts an analog voice
signal into a digital signal. At the receiving end, another codec reconverts
the digital signal back into analog audio.
Why is this necessary?
 Traditional voice communication is analog (e.g., human speech,
traditional phone calls).
 Modern networks (LANs, fiber optics, 5G) are digital and cannot
transmit pure analog signals.

Application: Voice over IP (VoIP)

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is the most common example of digital
transmission of analog voice signals over a network.
How VoIP Works:
1️A codec in the VoIP phone converts the analog voice signal into digital
packets.
2️Packets travel over the LAN (Local Area Network) and possibly across the
internet.
3️At the receiving end, another codec converts the digital packets back into
analog audio.
Advantages of VoIP
 No special phone lines required (connects directly to a LAN).
 Lower cost compared to traditional PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network).
 Can integrate with business applications, video calls, and messaging.

VoIP Network Components

 VoIP Phones 🎙 (built-in codecs, connect via LAN).
 Switch 🖧 (connects VoIP phones within a LAN).
 Voice Gateway 🌐 (converts VoIP to traditional phone signals if needed).
 Router & Internet Connection 🌍 (if VoIP calls go over the internet).
Different VoIP Implementations:
 Hosted VoIP (Cloud-based services like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Skype).
 On-premises VoIP (Managed internally with dedicated VoIP servers and
gateways).

Comparison: Analog vs. Digital Transmission

Feature Analog (Traditional Phones) Digital (VoIP, 5G, Fiber)
Continuous wave (varies in
Signal Type Discrete (0s and 1s)
amplitude & frequency)
Transmission
Copper telephone lines (PSTN) Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Fiber, 5G
Medium
Quality Prone to noise/interference Higher quality, clearer calls
Cost Higher (long-distance charges) Lower (internet-based)
Fixed location (phone line Can work anywhere with an
Flexibility
required) internet connection