Your Essential Guide to

Power Supplies
This easy reference guide provides an invaluable resource for system designers when
choosing and integrating power supplies and DC-DC converters.

Your Essential Guide to Power Supplies covers subjects such as safety, electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC), thermal management, lifetime, and reliability of power converters.
Also considered are energy efficiency, analog and digital control interfaces, the increasing
benefits of digital control and intelligent power and much more.

Whether you are experienced or new to designing-in power supplies or DC-DC converters
this book offers a wealth of information in one easy reference guide.

I
Contents
Introduction to Power Conversion 1

• Introduction 1
• Common Topologies 2
• Linear Power Supplies 11
• Green Mode Power Supply Topologies 12
• Digital Power Supplies 16

Input Considerations 21

• Power Sources 21
• Input Protection 27
• AC Input Current & Harmonics 34
• Real Power, Apparent Power & Efficiency 37
• Earthing/Grounding 42

DC Output Considerations 45

• Output Regulation 45
• Peak Load Applications 47
• Powering Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s) 51
• Ripple & Noise 53
• Output Protection 55
• Series & Parallel Operation 59
• Redundant Operation 61
• Power Supply De-rating 62
• Status Signals & Controls 64
• Digital Communication Interfaces 69

Thermal Management 71

• System Cooling Fan Selection 71

• Cooling Power Supplies 74
• Cooling Power Modules 77
• Baseplate Cooling 79
• Electrolytic Capacitor Lifetime 81

II
 Contents

Reliability 84

• Terminology 84
• Factors Affecting Reliability 86
• System Reliability 88

Legislation 90

• Power Supply Safety 90

• Medical Safety 93
• Safety for Household and Similar Electrical Appliances 96
• High Voltage Safety Testing 98
• Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) 100
• CE Marking 107
• UKCA Marking 108
• Energy Efficiency Legislation for External Power Supplies (EPS) 109
• Energy Efficiency of Component Power Supplies 110

Integrating Power Converters 111

• Understanding Efficiency 111

• Installation of Open Frame and U Channel AC-DC Power Supplies 114
• System Integration of Baseplate Cooled Converter Modules or “Bricks” 120
• Power Architecture for Patient Connected Medical Devices 125
• Power Systems for Railway Applications 131

Further technical articles are available online at: www.xppower.com

Glossary 135

Index 147

III
 Written and produced by XP Power

Issue 3
IV
Introduction to Power Conversion
• Introduction
Electronic devices and equipment require AC-DC power supplies and DC-DC converters to power
processes, control systems, displays, communications & much more. The DC supplies must be
accurately controlled, low noise and present a low output impedance to support load changes. They
often include indicators, status signals and signal level controls through analogue or digital interfaces
to interact with the equipment or application and for interrogation and communication via appropriate
networks.

Power supplies and DC-DC converters also provide protection against fault conditions and input
power disturbances protecting both the power converter itself and the end equipment against
phenomena such as overload, over temperature, spikes, and surges. They also offer isolation for
safety, noise reduction & transient protection.

End applications usually require a combination of AC-DC power supplies, isolated DC-DC converters
and/or Non-Isolated Point Of Load (NIPOL or POL) converters to support a variety of power supply,
power system and isolation needs for sub-systems to support processes, control electronics, displays,
communications and electromechanical or applied parts.

AC-DC power supplies are typically designed to support global market mains supplies offering
universal input voltage ranges for single phase or three phase supplies. DC-DC converters commonly
offer 2:1 or 4:1 input ranges and in some instances input ranges as wide as 12:1 to cater for a broad
range of nominal battery voltages with a single device. These wide or universal input ranges broaden
the potential markets for individual products and equipment increasing volumes and reducing cost.
Standard power products also incorporate features, EMC certification and safety agency approvals to
comply with world-wide requirements.

For very high-volume low-cost applications, it may be advantageous to implement an application

specific or custom power solution where the initial risks & costs associated with time to market,
design & approvals may be outweighed by reduced unit cost with only the exact electrical, thermal
and mechanical properties required for the specific application. The ever growing and extensive range
of standard format supplies often means a simple modification with low risk is a better approach.

Power supplies and DC-DC converters are available in different mechanical formats, or packages,
to suit a wide variety of applications and power ranges. They may be integrated into the equipment
in open frame, chassis mount, enclosed or conduction cooled formats. They may be external to the
equipment in plug-top, desk-top or rack mount products. They may also be designed for specific
applications such as DIN rail mounting power supplies.

Your Essential Guide to Power Supplies addresses input & output specifications, EMC & safety
considerations, cooling & thermal management, reliability, lifetime and much more.

1
Introduction to Power Conversion

• Common Topologies
Isolated Fly-back Converter

The topology uses only one major magnetic component, which is a coupled inductor providing
both energy storage and isolation. Energy transfer to the secondary and the load occurs during the
switching element off-time.

Vc D

Np Ns LOAD

S1

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Isolated Fly-back Converter

PWM

VDS Vc
(S1)

IDS
(S1)

VNS

ID

t on t off
T

This topology provides a low cost means of converting AC to DC power due to its simplicity and low
component count. The power level is restricted by the high levels of ripple current in the output
capacitor and the need to store high levels of energy in the coupled inductor in a restricted volume.
Flyback converters commonly utilize valley or transition mode controllers, which reduce losses by
switching the main power device on at the point of minimum applied voltage, and green mode
controllers to maximize efficiency across the load range and minimize no load power consumption.

Flyback converters can be operated in either discontinuous or continuous mode defined by the
starting amplitude of the switching current. Waveforms above are for discontinuous mode where the
switching current (IDS) starts from zero for each switching cycle.

The fly-back converter is used in DC-DC converters but only at low power (<50W) due to the low
input voltage and high ripple currents.

2
 Introduction to Power Conversion

Forward Converter

This topology uses two major magnetic components; a transformer and an output inductor. Energy
transfer to the secondary and the load occurs during the switching element on-time. Forward
converters are used in both AC power supplies and DC-DC converters.

D1 L
Vc

Np Ns D2 LOAD

S1

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Forward Converter

PWM

VDS Vc
(SI)

IDS
(SI)

VNS

ID1

ID2

IL

t on t off
T

There is no energy stored in the transformer; energy is stored in the output stage of the converter in
the inductor and capacitor. The output inductor reduces the ripple currents in the output capacitor
and the volume of the transformer is dependent on switching frequency and power dissipation.

3
Introduction to Power Conversion

Two Transistor Forward Converter

At the higher end of the power spectrum, two transistor forward converters can be employed (see
below). The two switching elements operate simultaneously, halving the voltage on each switching
element and allowing the use of a device with a higher current rating.

Vc
S2
D1 L

Np Ns D2 LOAD

S1

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Two Transistor Forward Converter

PWM

Vc
VDS
(S1)

VDS Vc
(S2)

IDS
(S1 & S2)

VNS

ID1

ID2

IL

t on t off
T

As the power rating increases, it is desirable to utilize the transformer core more efficiently by driving
it through two quadrants of its available area of operation, rather than the one utilized in forward
converters. This is achieved in half bridge or full bridge converters.

4
 Introduction to Power Conversion

Half Bridge & Full Bridge Converters

This topology also uses two major magnetic components, a transformer and an output inductor, but
in this case the transformer core is better utilized than in a forward converter. The switching elements
operate independently, with a dead time in between, switching the transformer primary both positive
and negative with respect to the center point. Like the forward converter there is no energy stored in
the transformer.

Vc L
D1
S2
LOAD
Ns1
Np

Ns2
S1 D2

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Half Bridge Converter

PWM

Vc

VDS 1/2 Vc
(S1)

Vc

VDS 1/2 Vc
(S2)

IDS
(S1)

IDS
(S2)

VNS1

VNS2

ID1

ID2

IL

t on t off
T

5
Introduction to Power Conversion

Energy is transferred to the secondary and the load during each switching element on-time by
utilizing a split secondary winding. This has the added benefit of doubling the switching frequency
seen by the secondary, helping to reduce the volume of the output inductor and capacitor required
and halving the voltage seen by each switching element.

In higher power solutions a full bridge converter can be employed (see below).

Vc D1 L
S4 S2
NS1 LOAD
Np
NS2
S3 S1 D2

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Full Bridge Converter

PWM

Vc

VDS 1/2 Vc
(S1)

Vc

VDS 1/2 Vc
(S2)

IDS
(S1 & S4)

IDS
(S2 & S3)

VNS1

VNS2

ID1

ID2

IL

t on t off
T

This topology will provide double the output power for the same primary switching current, but
increases the complexity of switching element drive circuits, compared to the half bridge.

6
 Introduction to Power Conversion

In DC-DC power supplies a similar topology to the half bridge is employed, called a push-pull
converter. As the voltage applied to the switching element is typically low, this arrangement is
designed to halve the primary switching current in each switching element, otherwise operation is
similar to a half bridge.

D1 L

Np1 Ns1 LOAD

Ns2
Np2

S2 S1 D2

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Push-Pull Converter

PWM

VDS Vc
(S1)

VDS Vc
(S2)

IDS
(S1)

IDS
(S2)

VNS1

VNS2

ID1

ID2

IL

t on t off
T

7
Introduction to Power Conversion

LLC Half Bridge Converter

This resonant topology utilizes Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) to minimize switching losses and maximize
efficiency. The resonant circuit is formed from two inductive elements and one capacitor (LLC).
Frequency modulation is employed to regulate the output over the load range. Power transferred to
the secondary, and the load, increases as the switching frequency nears the frequency of the resonant
network and reduces as the frequency moves further away. The resonant inductor (Lr) is often
combined with the power transformer by controlling the leakage inductance. The LLC converter is
usually paired with a pre-regulator mostly in the form of a PFC boost converter as it has limited ability
to compensate for changes in input voltage.

Vc S2
D2 L
Cr Lr
VP LOAD
NS1
NP
S1
NS2
D2

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

LLC Half Bridge Converter

IP
IM

IDS2

IDS1

IO

VGS2

VGS1

VP

t on t off

8
 Introduction to Power Conversion

Buck Converter

Buck converters are used to step down the input voltage to produce a lower output voltage. This basic
topology is widely employed in Non Isolated Point Of Load (NIPOL) or Point Of Load (POL) converters
used to produce locally regulated supplies in distributed power architectures.

Vc L
S1

D1 LOAD

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Buck Converter

PWM

VDS Vc
(S1)

IDS
(S1)

ID

IL

t on t off
T

During the switching element on-time the current through the inductor rises as the input voltage is
higher than the output voltage and the inductor acquires stored energy. When the switch opens the
current freewheels through the diode and supplies energy to the output.

9
Introduction to Power Conversion

Boost Converter

Boost converters are used to step up the input voltage to produce a higher output voltage. They can
be used to boost DC supplies but are most commonly used in AC input power supplies configured
to provide active Power Factor Correction (PFC). The following are diagrams of a standard boost
converter and a boost converter in a PFC application

Vc L D1

S1 LOAD

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

Boost Converter

PWM

VDS
(S1)
Vc

IDS
(S1)

ID1

IL

t on t off
T

Energy is stored in the inductor during the switching element on-time, the voltage across the
inductor is added to the input voltage and transferred to the output capacitor during the switching
element off-time. Practically, output voltages of up to five times the input voltage can be achieved.

10
 Introduction to Power Conversion

L D1

FILTER
S1 LOAD

FEEDBACK
& DRIVE

PFC Boost Converter

In active PFC configurations, the pulse width of the switching current is controlled so that the
average input current to the boost converter is proportional to the magnitude of the incoming AC
voltage. This forces the input current to be sinusoidal. The input filter removes the switching frequency
ripple. See page 36 for more information.

• Linear Power Supplies

Linear power supplies are typically only used in specific applications requiring extremely low noise, or in
very low power applications where a simple transformer rectifier solution is adequate and provides the
lowest cost. Examples are audio applications (low noise) and low power consumer applications such as
alarm panels (low cost).

SPE

FEEDBACK
LOAD
& DRIVE

Linear Power Supply

The 50/60Hz mains transformer reduces the voltage to a usable low level, the secondary AC voltage
is peak-rectified and a Series Pass Element (SPE) is employed to provide the necessary regulation. The
benefits of this solution are low noise, reliability and low cost. On the downside, these units are large,
heavy and inefficient with a limited input voltage range.

11
Introduction to Power Conversion

• Green Mode Power Supply Topologies

Many power supply products are marketed under the “Green Power” label meaning that they are
designed to maximize efficiency across the load range (known as average active mode efficiency) and
minimize power consumed at no load. Active mode efficiency is the average of four measurements
made at 25, 50, 75 & 100% of full load.

There are multiple pieces of legislation applicable to external power supplies (EPS) including the
EU ErP directive (Energy related Products), US DoE (Department of Energy), NRCan (Natural Resources
Canada) and the AS-NZS Standard (Australia and New Zealand). Many power supply makers are also
marketing component power supplies with similar specifications, designed to enable users to meet
green criteria for end applications.

Green Mode Off Line Fly Back Converters

The simplest approach is the green mode off line fly back converter which is suitable for supplies up to
around 100W.

At higher loads the switching frequency is typically 60–70kHz. As the load reduces the switching
frequency also reduces to minimize the number of switching cycles per second, reducing switching
losses and maximizing efficiency across the load range. The switching frequency reduction stops at
around 22kHz to remain in the ultrasonic range of the human ear. At very light or zero load the power
supply enters burst mode to minimize the power consumption.

The graph below shows the general concept.

Oscillaon Frequency

60-70 kHz PWM Frequency

22 kHz
Burst Mode
Load

The oscilloscope traces overleaf show the switching waveform and output voltage of a typical 100W
green mode component power supply at full load (switching at 62kHz) at 10% load (switching at
35kHz) and at zero load when the supply has entered burst mode to reduce the power consumed to
<0.5W. Individual bursts occur at a repetition rate of 900Hz.

12
 Introduction to Power Conversion

VO-

VDS-

100% Load 10% Load Zero Load

A side effect of burst mode operation can be audible noise at no load or very light load as components
with parts which can move under electrical stress can act as transducers and emit audible noise. These
may be wound components, filter capacitors, line capacitors & snubber capacitors. This low level
audible noise is normal and does not indicate malfunction.

Active Power Factor Correction & Fly Back Converter Combination

This topology combines an active power factor correction boost converter stage with a fly back main
converter, typically used up to around 150W and driven by green legislation which demands high
power factor for power levels above 100W.

The use of two conversion stages means that both must be considered when optimizing active mode
efficiency across the load range. An effect of this optimization is that the PFC boost converter will
switch off at lower loads, typically less than 50-60W as harmonic correction is not required and the
losses from the boost converter are removed. The fly back converter is able to operate over a wide
range of input voltages so there is no impact on the output voltage from the loss of the regulated
supply generated by the boost converter.

When the PFC boost converter is disabled at lower loads the power factor reduces significantly, from
>0.9 to around 0.5, as the power factor correction is no longer active and the input current reverts to
the non sinusoidal shape with higher levels of harmonic current associated with non PFC converters as
described on page 33.

The traces below show the typical operation of the PFC boost converter for a green mode power
supply incorporating active PFC at higher load.

VO-

lin

PFC VDS

PFC Off PFC Active

13
Introduction to Power Conversion

During the on/off transition of the PFC boost converter it may be possible to detect some
audible noise.

As the load continues to decrease the fly back converter performs in the same manner as the off line
fly back converter above reducing the switching frequency with load and entering burst mode at very
light or zero load with the same potential side effects.

Active Power Factor Correction & LLC Resonant Converter Combination

LLC resonant converters are common place, providing a cost effective high efficiency solution for
power supplies in the 100–1500W range when combined with an active PFC boost converter.

LLC converters are not able to operate over wide input ranges, requiring a stable input supply which
is provided by the boost converter stage. This characteristic of the LLC converter means that the PFC
boost converter cannot be disabled at lower loads and enters a burst mode to maximize active mode
efficiency while maintaining the stable supply to the main converter. This burst mode switching results
in a lower power factor and non-sinusoidal input current.

The input current wave shape is also asymmetrical during boost converter burst mode operation. The
trace below shows typical input current wave shape under boost converter burst mode operation.

lin

Vin-

In addition to the non-sinusoidal input current it may be possible to detect audible noise as the boost
converter transitions on/off.

The LLC main converter changes frequency by a small amount across the load range by nature of
its operation but at light and zero loads it must also burst fire to achieve the low and no load power
dissipation. At light loads both the PFC boost converter and the main LLC resonant converter are burst
firing. The traces overleaf show the PFC converter (top trace) and the LLC converter (bottom trace) at
zero load, 1% load and 10% load of a typical product.

14
 Introduction to Power Conversion

PFC VDS

LLC VDS

Zero Load 1% Load 10% Load

Noticeable effects when using this topology are reduced power factor, non-sinusoidal input current
and audible noise from both the PFC boost converter and the LLC resonant converter.

Audible Noise In Green Mode Power Supplies

A consequence of green mode operation is the potential for audible noise created by the repetition
rate or frequency of the burst which is in the audible range between 20Hz & 20kHz. While this does
not indicate malfunction and is not harmful to the power supply it is undesirable if it is noticeable in
the end application. The diagram below explains burst mode operation pictorially.

Normal Switching Operation

Above 20 kHz

Burst Switching Operation

Above 20 kHz
20 Hz ~ 20 kHz

Steps are taken to mitigate audible noise such as varnish impregnation of transformers and other
wound components, changing ceramic capacitors to film types in key areas to avoid piezo electric
effects and controlling burst mode frequency to avoid the areas most sensitive to the human ear
(2kHz–4kHz). These steps may not eradicate audible noise under all conditions but go a long way to
minimize the effects.

15
Introduction to Power Conversion

• Digital Power Supplies

The implementation of digital signal processing (DSP) control in power supplies & power systems
brings a wealth of benefits. From communications & control to support networked factories and
efficient smart manufacturing, known variously as industry 4.0, the 4th industrial revolution or more
broadly as the Internet of Things (IoT), through to flexibility and efficiency in stand-alone applications
by communication and control within the end equipment and/or, by tailoring the power supply during
the end equipment development phase to ensure efficient integration & optimized performance
characteristics.

Background

Digital control in power supplies and power systems broadly fits into two implementations. The more
common approach is a digital interface between the traditional analog control system and the outside
world providing signals & alarms and various levels of control via a communication bus.

Primary Secondary

Transformer

Recfiers & Output

DC Bus Primary
Switches Output Filters

Drive ADC
Analog
Controller & Comms Bus
DAC

Analog power supply with digital interface

Simple, low cost microcontrollers have also been implemented in power applications for many years for
functions such as fan speed control, protection functions & alarm detection.

Increasingly, manufacturers are using digital signal processing (DSP) via a micro-controller for power
system control bringing more sophisticated functions and greatly enhanced flexibility, allowing user
programmable features and characteristics.

16
 Introduction to Power Conversion

Primary Secondary

Transformer

Recfiers & Output

DC Bus Primary
Switches Output Filters

Drive
Micro
Controller
Comms Bus

DSP controlled digital power supply

DSP is higher cost when compared to an off the shelf analog controller but the cost of a
microcontroller capable of implementing full DSP control has decreased over time, making this an
increasingly attractive and desirable solution given the significant benefits it provides, especially as
the power rating increases. The mixed domain architecture required, combining power analog design
principles with efficient code and stabilization of the control loop in the discrete time or z-domain,
rather than the frequency or s-domain, is well proven and understood by the product design &
development teams within the major power manufacturers.

While the development, documentation, verification and approval of efficient, robust firmware takes
significant time and resources to ensure a robust and reliable power supply, once the initial investment
has been made the significant benefits of digital power and the ability to reuse the firmware across a
broad range of products and platforms with relatively minor changes can be realized.

Digital control loops have the advantage of being insensitive to changes in environment, temperature,
ageing and tolerances of components. They can be calibrated at the point of manufacture to further
improve accuracy and they enable monitoring of the performance of the power system in real time and
adjust parameters to tune for optimal performance at the operating point, increasing efficiency and
reducing power losses.

Features & Benefits of Digital Signal Processing (DSP)

Fully digital power supplies offer unparalleled flexibility and adjustability to suit a wide range of
applications without the hardware changes and adaptations which traditional analog control systems
have historically demanded.

DSP control loops bring the capability of output voltage and current adjustment over ranges as
wide as 0 to 105-110% by tailoring the converter operational mode to the demand. They ease the
implementation of constant current overload characteristics, which can be complex and costly in
modern resonant switching topologies, without the need to compromise efficiency. This entails the
employment of multiple switching schemes and control algorithms in the same power conversion
stage to achieve optimal performance at the required operational point, an extremely complex, if not
impossible task, in a traditional analog control scheme with fixed hardware drive and compensation
schemes. This wide range control can be implemented as a continuously variable power supply to
maximize system flexibility and efficiency or, exploited during the system development phase, to
optimize the supply characteristics to the application without the need for hardware updates.

17
Introduction to Power Conversion

DSP also enables the user to determine start up ramp times, soft start characteristics and slew rates in
software, another feature that would result in hardware changes in traditional control systems.
Warning levels and fault conditions such as input over/under voltage, output over/under voltage,
output under/over current, temperature warnings & fault conditions can be set by the user to suit the
application via software. The use of DSP further allows the response type & delay times applied to
individual warning or fault conditions to be user specified. Options, under warning or fault conditions,
may be as varied as continuing operation for a short delay & then disable, continuing operation
indefinitely, disable & retry (including how many times to retry & time between retries before
shutdown) and disable & resume when OK or disable & latch, all user selected.

Digital control systems also allow users to set the polarity of signals, alarms and controls to suit the
system demands. A good example is the ability to set the remote on/off control to operate as inhibit or
enable simply by toggling a digital switch.

Information from the power system is readily available through the communication interface enabling
reporting and status such as model, revision, serial number, run time, operating temperature & fault/
event logs.

This level of flexibility and user control is possible as the latest microcontrollers for digital power
applications contain DSP functionality that allows the digital control loop to execute within a fraction
of one switching period, every switching period. In the simplified example below, the output voltage is
sampled once per switching cycle. An ADC conversion time of a few hundred nanoseconds is typical.

Control
Loop
Duraon
Spare Bandwidth t

PWM

Switching Period

Simplified example of control loop & spare bandwidth

The time that the MCU does not spend executing the controller is spare bandwidth and this spare
bandwidth can be used to perform other tasks or functions. Low priority tasks are run in a slow loop
and are interrupted whenever a high priority task occurs, such as the ADC interrupt to run the control
loop code.

The provision for analog control of digital power is usually also provided for systems that use traditional
0-5V or 0-10V control signals by the implementation of an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) within
the power supply and all alarms & controls can usually be accessed through conventional connections
as well as digitally through the communications bus.

18
 Introduction to Power Conversion

Connected Systems

Communication and control are increasingly important with the rise of connected, smart factory and
IoT applications benefiting from real time status information from power systems as well as adjustment
and control inputs, allowing real time adjustments to maximize process efficiency where it benefits
from accurate voltage and/or current supplies and the ability to tune these to suit the environment and
application.

Digital power products are able to report warnings, fault conditions, power delivery information, run
time, thermal data and event logs in addition to enabling the real time adjustments to output voltage,
current and power delivery to maximize system efficiency in sensitive processes or test applications.
A range of digital interfaces and protocols ranging from the commonly used I2C/PMBus & RS232/
RS485 serial buses to DeviceNet & EtherCAT enabled interface solutions are available to suit a wide
range of environments, applications and requirements.

While not all end applications require communication to the outside world, the ability to communicate
with and adjust the parameters of the power system within an end equipment can enhance features &
operating characteristics and has the potential to save cost by replacing the external hardware controls
that are required for traditional fixed output supplies. DSP enabled power supplies can support
dynamic requirements for output voltage, current and power delivery that are normally associated with
far higher cost laboratory supplies, where tolerances are acceptable, and enable complex test, burn-in
& process routines directly from a cost-effective power source.

Stand-alone Applications

In end equipment where there is no requirement for communication, either external or internal, there
are still benefits to be gained in tailoring the power supply to suit the application, easing integration
and removing the need for an application specific solution requiring a modified standard or custom
power solution.

Output voltage, output current, power delivery, warnings, alarms, protection & controls can be
adjusted, evaluated, amended and finalised during the development stage, creating a set of unique
characteristics in firmware which are then implemented by the power supply provider at the point
of manufacture for the end equipment production phase. These iterations of characteristics can
be implemented on the same standard product saving considerable time and cost compared to the
hardware changes required in traditional power products.

End applications employing analog controls for voltage or current adjustment still benefit from the
ability to determine the warning and fault condition settings & responses and polarity settings of alarm
and control signals again, without resorting to application specific or fully customised power solutions
with the time delays, risks and inevitable costs that are involved in development, EMC and safety
agency approvals.

19
Introduction to Power Conversion

Manufacturers of digital power supplies commonly offer a Graphical User Interface (GUI) to enable
users to define the requirements for just this purpose as well as enabling speedy evaluation of
capabilities for connected applications. A typical example is shown below.

Graphical User Interface (GUI) for XP Power’s HPx series digital power supplies

In summary, there are clear and realizable advantages to implementing DSP control in power supplies
and power systems in many, usually higher power (1kW+), applications which benefit from the
flexibility and the time and cost savings it brings. For simple, lower power applications it is likely to be
overly complex and cost prohibitive, with standard off the shelf analog controllers enabling fast time to
market combined with low acquisition cost for the commonly used topologies.

20
Input Considerations
• Power Sources
AC Power Sources

Alternating Current (AC) power sources, from rotary generators or renewable energy source inverters,
are the most common form of mains power with a range of nominal voltages and frequencies in
different parts of the world. It is delivered to the point of use as either a single-phase or three-phase
power supply.

Single-phase AC Power

Single-phase power is a two-wire power circuit comprising a phase conductor and a neutral
conductor. Single phase power is generally used in domestic and light industrial settings and is usually
derived from one phase of a three-phase AC system configured to supply three single phase supplies.
Single-phase power may also be derived from a phase-to-phase connection, providing a higher
nominal voltage from the same source system. The power delivered by a single-phase system pulsates
and falls to zero during each cycle.

Three-phase AC Power
S

C B
Three-phase AC power systems use either a three or four conductor arrangement depending on the
configuration employed. The three phases are 120 degrees apart providing more consistent power
which never pulsates to zero, transmitting 3 times the power of a single-phase system by the addition
of one conductor. Three phase power is generally used in commercial and industrial settings which
require higher power delivery.

There are two basic three-phase configurations used;

Three-phase power starfalls
never orbelow
wyezero
connection and delta connection.

21
Input Considerations

Star or Wye Connection

L1
Connecting one end of each of the phases
together, as shown on the right, makes a star or
wye connection. The phase voltage (or phase to L2
neutral voltage) is the voltage measured across Line Voltage
a single coil. The line voltage (phase to phase
voltage) is measured across two coils. V V
Phase Voltage
In a star or wye-connected system, the line voltage L3

is higher than the phase voltage by a factor of the

square root of 3 (1.732).
N
VLINE = VPHASE x √3, VPHASE = VLINE / √3.

Delta Connection

The three phases are connected to L1 A

form a triangle in a delta-connected Line Current
system, which derives its name from the V A
schematic diagram of this connection which Phase Current
resembles the Greek letter delta (∆). Line Voltage
L2

In this configuration the line voltage and Phase Voltage V

phase voltages are the same. VLINE = VPHASE L3

The line current is higher than the phase current by a factor of the square root of 3 (1.732). The
reason for this difference in current is that current flows through different windings at different times
in a three-phase circuit. At times, current will flow between two lines only, at other times current will
flow from two lines to the third.

22
 Input Considerations

Single-Phase Voltage and Frequency

Europe and most other countries in the world use a single phase mains supply voltage which is
nominally between 220 and 240 volts. In Japan and in most of the Americas the voltage is nominally
between 100 and 127 volts. Buildings are supplied with two phases and neutral to provide a higher
phase to phase voltage where required for higher power appliances. Switch mode power supplies are
typically designed for global use and cover an input range of 90-264VAC or 90-305VAC to cater for
the various nominal supplies and their tolerance.

Three-Phase Voltage and Frequency

Although single-phase power is more prevalent, three phase supplies are the power of choice for
many applications. As previously discussed, power stations supply three-phase electricity and it is
often used in industrial applications to drive motors and other devices. Three-phase electricity is a
smoother form of power than single or two-phase systems allowing machines to run more efficiently
and extending their lifetime.

220-240VAC single phase supplies are derived from 400VAC three phase systems and
100-127VAC single phase supplies from 200VAC three phase systems. In the USA there is also
a 480VAC three phase system used for some high power applications which results in a nominal
277VAC single phase supply often used for applications such as street furniture & street lighting.

220-240V to 50Hz 380-415V to 50Hz

220-240V to 60Hz 380-415V to 60Hz

100-127V to 60Hz 170-220V to 60Hz

100-127V to 50Hz 170-220V to 50Hz

23
Input Considerations

DC Power Sources

DC power sources are typically produced by rectifying an AC source, often incorporating power factor
correction, or an electrochemical reaction in the form of a battery.

There is a move to DC power systems or microgrids, where the incoming utility supply is rectified to a
nominal 400VDC bus which is distributed around the facility. This eliminates the first stage of power
conversion within the individual devices resulting in significant component count reduction, increased
efficiency and reliability, improved ride-through characteristics and lower running costs.

Batteries

There are four battery chemistries in common use: Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA), Nickel
Cadmium (NiCad), Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) & Lithium (Lithium Ion & Lithium Polymer).

Valve Regulated Lead Acid

Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries are widely used in industrial control applications,
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), alarm & security systems and telecommunications to provide
standby power in the event of mains failure. These batteries are simple to charge and maintain,
requiring a charger with a constant current characteristic of typically 0.1 times capacity (0.1C) for the
initial charge period followed by a constant voltage of 2.25V/cell to complete the charge and trickle
charge thereafter, the constant voltage trickle charge is connected indefinitely to compensate for self
discharge. This is known as a float charge system and for best performance the voltage applied should
be temperature compensated at 3 mV/ºC per cell decreasing above 20ºC and increasing below 20ºC.

VRLA batteries are often boost or equalize charged at the higher voltage of 2.4V/cell for an initial
period to speed the charging process and equalize the cell voltages to restore full capacity, this is a
three step charging regime as shown in the diagram below.

Baery
Voltage
Current
Voltage

Baery
Current

Time

Three step charge curve

24
 Input Considerations

Nickel Cadmium and Nickel Metal Hydride

Nickel Cadmium (NiCad) is an older technology typically used in portable applications and has the
advantages of high power density and high current discharge rates 20 to 30 times capacity (20-30C)
typical but has the disadvantage of memory effect when the battery is not fully cycled losing capacity.
This can be overcome but requires a complex charging regime to achieve a recovery.

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) is a more recent evolution of NiCad and does not suffer with the same
memory effect when used in a non-cycled system.

Both of these chemistries are best charged using a delta peak charging regime. The battery is charged
with a constant current up to 5 times capacity (5C) and the voltage monitored. The voltage on the cell
will rise for the majority of the charge period. During the charge period the charge power is applied to
the battery for a period then removed to monitor the cell voltage then reapplied. This is repeated until
the battery unit achieves 95% of charge when the cell voltage will drop slightly, this is the knee point.
The charger will recognize this and revert to constant voltage trickle charging to achieve the final 5%
of charge; the advantage is that the battery is fast charged to 95%.

NiCad and NiMH batteries can also be charged at 0.1C permanently as the battery is able to dissipate
the excess charge as heat without damage to the cell structure.

Pulsed Current Limited Pulsed Voltage Limited

NiMH

Baery NiCad
Voltage
Voltage

NiMH

Baery
Temperature NiCad

Time

Lithium NiCad/NiMH Battery Charging Characteristics

Lithium batteries are also typically used in portable applications and have a higher power density
than VRLA or Nickel batteries, they are also lighter than VRLA batteries. There are many chemistry
derivatives including lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese, lithium manganese cobalt and lithium
titanate, all have similar properties.

Li-Ion NiCad NiMH

Energy Density Whr/kg 90 90 90
Energy Density Whr/I 210 100 140
Operating Voltage 3.6 1.2 1.2
Lifetime (approx. cycles) 1000 1000 800
Self Discharge 6%/month 15%/month 20%/month

A stringent charging regime is required for lithium technologies as incorrect charging may result in
irreversible damage to the battery or, in the worst case, a fire which is virtually inextinguishable as the
battery has both the fuel and an oxidant to supply oxygen.

Initially these battery chemistries could only be charged at a maximum rate of 1C and discharged at
no more than 5C. At the time of writing this has improved to charge rates up to 3C and discharge
rates up to 35C.
25
Input Considerations

The general charging requirements for a Lithium Ion (Li-Ion) or Lithium Polymer (Li-Po) batteries are
given below.

The battery must never be discharged below 3.0 volts per cell as this will cause irreversible damage.
The battery is charged at a constant current of 1C until the cell voltage rises to 4.25 volts then at a
constant voltage until the current drawn falls to 0.05C. At this point it is deemed to be 98% charged.
From this point on a trickle charge is applied at 0.05C indefinitely. The trickle charge applied is a
constant voltage 0.05V above the battery terminal voltage, current limited to around 100mA.

Constant Current Constant Voltage Reduced Maintenance Voltage

4.2
Ba ery
Voltage
Voltage-V

Ba ery
Current

~
~100 mA

Time End of Charge

Li-lon Battery Charging Characteristics

During charging certain parameters are monitored to avoid damage or fire risk. These include over
voltage, over temperature & charging balance of series strings. If these parameters are found to be
outside specification then the charger is shut down. Smart battery packs are available with built in
protection. Many also include a serial interface which reports a fuel gauge indicating charge status,
charge cycles, cell temperature, serial number and capacity.

Due to inconsistencies in manufacturing, a string of cells may each have slightly different capacity.
When they are charged as a complete string the charge state of each will also differ. This imbalance
can be corrected by cycling the battery through 2 or 3 balance charges to equalize the cell voltages.
Balance charging is effected by the addition of a voltage monitor on each of the battery cells via
a balance connector on the battery pack. The monitoring circuit measures the cell voltage and
dissipates excess charge as an individual cell becomes charged allowing other cells in the string to
catch up. If this is not done imbalance becomes more noticeable and the capacity of the battery
is reduced.

Typical Battery Discharge Curves

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0 Li-Ion
Voltage per cell V

2.5

2.0
VRLA
1.5

1.0 NiCad/
NiMH
0.5

0 Time
100% 80 60 40 20 0
Percentage Capacity

26
 Input Considerations

• Input Protection

Input Current Protection

Input protection is implemented in power supplies and DC-DC converters to ensure safe operation.
The input fuse fitted within a power supply is not intended to be field-replaceable, it is rated such
that only a catastrophic failure of the power supply will cause it to fail. It will not be cleared (or blown)
by an overload as the power supply has some other form of overload protection, usually electronic.
The fuse will often be soldered into the PCB rather than being a replaceable cartridge type fuse.

The power supply fuse is listed as a critical part of the safety approval process and is used to ensure
that the power supply does not pose a fire risk under a fault condition. If the fuse clears the most
likely cause is that the converter has failed short circuit presenting a short circuit to the mains supply.
In this event the fuse will clear very quickly.

The fuse in the power supply should only be replaced by competent service personnel, following
repair. When using a component power supply, there will be additional mains wiring within the
enclosure before the power supply and its fuse. This is where an additional fuse or circuit breaker as
a protection device is fitted to ensure that the wiring and associated components do not present a
hazard.

When the end equipment is tested for safety it is subjected to abnormal testing to ensure that it will
not present a safety or fire hazard under a fault condition. If a fault were to occur many hundreds of
Amps can flow causing wires to heat up very quickly, causing noxious fumes from the melting plastic
insulation and creating a potential fire hazard.

Power
Supply

Power distribuon
Fire hazard

Applicaon

Enclosure

Typical application
Input Voltage Protection

The input of the equipment may be subjected to a number of transient voltage conditions. These
differ between AC & DC systems.

AC Systems Switching transients DC Systems Engine cranking transients

Lightning strikes DC line transients
Spikes Reverse polarity

The AC system transients are outlined in the EN61000-4-x series of standards. The DC transients
relate to DC systems in vehicle, traction and telecommunications applications and have other
applications specific standards.
27
Input Considerations

Inrush Current

An AC mains system is a low impedance power source that can supply a large amount of current. In a
power supply, at the instant of switch-on, the reservoir capacitor is discharged giving the appearance
of a short circuit. Without any additional precautions the input current will be very large for a short
period of time until the capacitor is charged.

NTC
I Fuse
I Input Current vs Time
60-100A peak

AC t
Source V

R I

Typical power supply input circuit

Precautions are taken to limit the inrush current as this may cause disturbances on the supply
line and could damage any switches or relays and nuisance-blow fuses or circuit breakers. Fuses
and circuit breakers need to be of a size and characteristic to cope with this inrush current
without nuisance tripping. The most commonly used technique, due to its simplicity and low cost,
is the fitting of a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor. These devices have a high
resistance when cold and a low resistance when hot. Inrush current is often specified from a cold start
and at 25°C due to thermal inertia and the time it takes for the thermistor to cool down following
switch off of the power supply. In some applications, in order to solve this problem and improve
efficiency, the thermistor is shorted by a relay following the initial inrush. There are other techniques
using resistors and triacs but these are more complex and less common. A typical value of inrush
current in an AC power supply is 40-60A lasting 1-2ms but can it be as high as 90-100A in some
products. There is a trade off to be made between lower inrush current and higher efficiency due to
the power dissipated in the thermistor.

The same principles apply to DC circuits; the source impedance is very low, only this time it is a
battery and not the mains supply. As with the AC circuit the peak will be over within a millisecond
or so.
NTC
I Fuse
I Input Current vs Time
typically 30-40A Peak

Baery
Source V

Typical DC-DC converter input circuit

Batteries have short circuit ratings measured in thousands of Amps and when the reservoir capacitor
is discharged there appears to be a short circuit. Once again, the protection devices need to be
sized to be able to cope with this. Inrush current levels tend to be higher, as is the nominal current,
due to the efficiency trade-off. Often the inrush current will be specified as a multiple of the
nominal current.

28
 Input Considerations

Sizing of Fuses & Circuit Breakers

So that the rating of the fuse or breaker can be determined, the nominal input current of the power
supply needs to be established. If the application has more than one power supply or other mains
powered equipment these will need to be taken into account.

To determine the input current, we need first to determine the input power and, in AC systems, take
into account the power factor and use the lowest operating input voltage.

Input Power = Output Power / Efficiency

Input Current = (Input Power / Input Voltage) / Power Factor

Choose fuse or CB rating at least 1.5 x Input Current - Time Lag

It is advisable to use a time lag fuse or breaker to avoid nuisance tripping on start up. The 1.5 x input
current rating is to overcome the ageing effects of fuses.

Fuses are rated FF, F, T, TT (ranging from super fast to long time lag). For power supplies it is
recommended that T or TT types are used.

Circuit breakers are A-K (very fast to long time delay). For power supplies, C or above would
be recommended.

3.15 A
1.25 A

6.3 A
2.5 A
1.6 A

12 A
10 A
4A
5A
1A

8A
2A
Fuse Characteristics 100

Fuses are thermal devices and do not

react instantly, even fast-blowing
types. It is important to look at the actual
rupture current of a given fuse. See the 10
graph to the right.

Looking at the curve for a 1A fuse, it can

be seen that it will not clear at 1A or 2A.
1
It would take 0.5 seconds before the fuse
clears at 3A. It would need 20A to clear
Time (s)

this fuse in 3ms. This should be taken

into account when ensuring nuisance
tripping does not occur.
0.1

Looking at the 5A fuse, it would take

80ms to clear the fuse at a current
of 30A.
0.01

0.001
0.05 0.1 1 10 100 500
Current (A)

29
Input Considerations

Circuit Breakers - Thermal 10000

Circuit breakers are available in two basic 0.05 - 2.7 A

technologies, thermal and magnetic. 2.8 - 25 A
1000 25 A
The thermal types have similar
characteristics to a fuse and it is necessary
to ensure there is adequate time lag to
prevent nuisance tripping.
100

Trip me (s)
In the case opposite, for the 0.05-2.7A
breaker at 10 times the rated current, it
would take 1 second for the break to occur.
The temperature derating of the device 10
should also be considered to ensure that it
complies with the environmental parts of
the specification.
1
If a battery source is being used, it is also
important to check the short circuit rating
of the battery and the interrupt capacity of
the circuit breaker. Because it has contacts,
0.1
excessive current may cause it to weld shut 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40
rather than break. Times rated current

Circuit Breakers – Magnetic

Curve F1 (Instantaneous) for DC Curve
Curve F1 (Instantaneous) for DC Curve M0M0 (medium
(medium delay)
delay) forfor AC/DC
AC/DC
1000
1000 1000
1000
The other 1000
type
1000of circuit breaker is a magnetic type, which is more accurate and is manufactured
1000
1000
to allow for100
different delay times, allowing accurate selection100
of
100a device suitable for the application.
Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

100

1010 Curve
Curve
F1 F1
(Instantaneous)
(Instantaneous)
forfor
DCDC 1010
Curve
Curve
M0M0
(medium
(medium
delay)
delay)
forfor
AC/DC
AC/DC
1000
10001 1 1000
10001 1
1000
1000
0.10.1 1000
1000
0.10.1
Trip me in seconds
Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

1001000.01
0.01 100
100
0.01
0.01
100.001
10
0.001 100.001
10
0.001
0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 910101111
1212 0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 910101111
1212
1 1 1 1
Times
Times rated
rated current
current Times
Times rated
rated current
current
0.10.1 0.10.1
0.01
0.01 0.01
0.01
0.001
0.001 0.001
0.001
0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 10 9 10
11 11
12 12 0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 10 9 10
11 11
12 12
Times rated
Times current
rated current Times
Times
rated
rated
current
current

Curve
Curve F2F2 (Instantaneous)
(Instantaneous) forfor
ACAC 50/60
50/60 HzHz Curve
Curve M1M1 (medium
(medium delay)
delay) forfor
DCDC
1000
1000 1000
1000
1000
1000 1000
1000
Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

100
100 100
100
1010
Curve
Curve
F2 F2
(Instantaneous)
(Instantaneous)
forfor
ACAC
50/60
50/60
Hz Hz 1010 Curve
Curve
M1M1
(medium
(medium
delay)
delay)
forfor
DCDC
1000
10001 1 1000
10001 1
1000
1000
0.10.1 1000
1000
0.10.1
Trip me in seconds
Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

Trip me in seconds

100
100
0.01
0.01 100
100
0.01
0.01
100.001
10
0.001 100.001
10
0.001
0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 910101111
1212 0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 910101111
1212
1 1 1 1
Times
Times rated
rated current
current Times
Times rated
rated current
current
0.10.1 0.10.1
The important
0.01
0.01 issues are the same; ensuring that there is0.01 adequate
0.01 time delay to prevent tripping
during0.001
the initial inrush and the breaking current if it is 0.001
0.001
being
0.001
used in a battery application.
0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 10 9 10
11 11
12 12 0 01 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 10 9 10
11 11
12 12
30 Times
Times
rated
rated
current
current Times
Times
rated
rated
current
current
 Input Considerations

Input Voltage Transient Protection

Input overvoltages include spikes, surges and fast transients. These are created by the switching of
other loads (spikes), motors and fluorescent lamps (fast transients) and surges, which are created by
lightning strikes. These transients are regulated by the following standards:

EN61000-4-4 Electrical fast transient (EFT)/burst immunity test Switching transients

EN61000-4-5 Surge immunity test Near lightning strikes
FEEDBACK
LOAD
There are four levels within the standards, plus one user-defined level. The four levels are detailed in
& DRIVE

the table below. Standard power supplies are typically specified to level 3 and installation class 3.

Fast Transient Burst Surge EN61000-4-5

EN61000-4-4 Common Mode L/N - Differential Mode (L-N)
Level 1, 0.5kV Installation Class 1, 0.5kV Installation Class 1, N/A
Level 2, 1kV Installation Class 2, 1kV Installation Class 2, 0.5kV
Level 3, 2kV Installation Class 3, 2kV Installation Class 3,1kV
Level 4, 4kV Installation Class 4, 4kV Installation Class 4, 2kV

EN61000-4-4 specifies a short pulse with little energy while EN61000-4-5 specifies a longer pulse,
which contains substantially more energy.

EFT Waveforms VPEAK

100%

90%

tR :5 ns ±30%
tD :50 ns ±30% V
Single Pulse

Vmax
50% 0.9 V max
tD

0.5 V max

tR 0.3 V max
10%
0 t(ns)
1.2 µs

50 µs 30%
VPEAK

I
Burst of Pulses

Imax
0.9 I max

0.5 I max

0.3 I max
0 t(ms)
15 ms

8 µs

VPEAK
20 µs 30%
Repe‚‚ve Bursts

0 t(ms)
300 ms

31
 tR 0.3 V max
10%
0 t(ns)

Input Considerations 1.2 µs

t
50 µs 30% max undershoot
VPEAK
Surge Waveforms
I
V
Burst of Pulses

Imax
Vmax 0.9 I max
0.9 V max

0.5 I max
0.5 V max

0.3 I max
0 0.3 V max t(ms)
15 ms

8 µs
1.2 µs
t
VPEAK t
30% max undershoot 20 µs 30% max undershoot
50 µs

Open Circuit Voltage Short Circuit Current

Repe‚‚ve Bursts

Imax
0.9 I max

The devices listed below are the major components used to protect electronic equipment from
0.5 I max
0
damage caused by these transients. These components have varying response times and
t(ms)
energy
0.3 I max absorption
300 ms capabilities and are usually used in combination to provide effective protection.

8 µs
Device Description
t
20 µs 30% max undershoot
- Semiconductor device
Transorb Sharp characteristics
Fast response low energy

- Voltage dependent resistor

MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) Soft characteristics
t(ms) Medium response high energy

- Gas-filled spark gap

GDT (Gas Discharge Tube) Slow response very high energy
Used in conjunction with MOV

- Used for vehicle traction applications

Active electronic protection
Linear regulator or open circuit

NTC

The diagram on the right shows a typical L

application of a GDT and MOVs providing a high

level of protection. Transorb

The MOV prevents the fuse blowing when the

GDT fires and the two MOVs are in series across N

line and neutral providing protection against MOV MOV

differential disturbances.
GDT
These components may also be added prior to a
standard power supply to enhance the protection
in harsh environments. Typical application of GDTs and MOVs

32
 Input Considerations

In DC applications, such as vehicle, train and traction applications, none of the devices listed
previously are adequate, due to the magnitude and duration of the transients which contain higher
levels of energy. Practical solutions include the addition of a regulator prior to the DC-DC converter
or a circuit to disconnect the DC-DC converter during the transient using capacitors to provide hold-
up during the disconnect period.
Electronic
Regulator
In the diagram to the right, the regulator is controlled so +

that its output voltage does not exceed the input voltage
of the DC-DC converter. DC-DC
DC SUPPLY CONVERTER
Transorb

The disconnect method works in a similar way

but with the regulator being replaced with an electronic
-
switch, such as a MOSFET. In this method, the switch is
opened when the input voltage is too high. The output is Typical application of DC input
held up using additional capacitance either at the input of surge protection
the DC-DC converter or at the load.

Reverse Polarity Protection

For reverse polarity protection there are two commonly-used techniques; shunt diode/transorb and
series diode or MOSFET. In the shunt technique the fuse blows if the input is reverse-connected,
as the diode is forward biased. This will prevent damage to the DC-DC converter but means that
the fuse will need to be replaced. In this configuration the diode must be sized so that it will not fail
before the fuse ruptures.

The second option is to implement a series diode or MOSFET which, in the event of reverse
connection, will block the current path. The fuse will not blow and no damage will occur. The
disadvantage of the method is that the diode or MOSFET is permanently in circuit causing inefficiency
and raising the minimum input operating voltage of the DC-DC converter solution.

+ + +

DC-DC DC-DC DC-DC

CONVERTER CONVERTER CONVERTER

- - -

Shunt diode/transorb Series diode Series MOSFET

33
Input Considerations

• AC Input Current & Harmonics

Power Supply Harmonic Distortion

As a result of the peak rectification techniques used in power supplies, harmonic currents are
generated. To limit these harmonics, legislation has been introduced. The relevant standard is
EN61000-3-2 for equipment with an input current ≤16A per phase.

EN61000-3-2 establishes four classes of equipment, each with their own limits for harmonic
emissions.

• Class D: T.V.’s, personal computers and monitors consuming ≤600W

• Class C: Lighting equipment
• Class B: Portable tools
• Class A: Everything else

Equipment Classes A & B have absolute limits for harmonics whatever the input power, Class C
equipment has limits expressed as a percentage of the 50 Hz current consumed and for Class D
equipment the harmonic current limits are proportional to the mains power consumed. Equipment
categorized in Classes C & D will normally require a power supply incorporating active power
factor correction.

In the diagram below right, the incoming AC voltage

Bridge
wave form is identified as VLINE, the dotted line Recfier
represents the rectified AC voltage following the
bridge rectifier.

The bulk capacitor is charged during the conduction

Reservoir
angle and is discharged slowly by the power stage of
Capacitor
the power supply (VCAP). As soon as the input sine wave
voltage falls below the bulk capacitor voltage then the
diode in the bridge rectifier is reverse biased and no
current flows until the incoming rectified sine wave is
once again higher than the bulk capacitor voltage. The
conduction angle is typically 2-3ms.
V/I

The complex input current waveform generates VCAP

the harmonics which are of concern to the
power generator. The harmonics contribute to
the apparent power. Real power and apparent
power are discussed later in more detail. The
current wave form shown will result in a power t

factor of around 0.5 - 0.6.

Input Current
VLINE

V/I

34
 Input Considerations

Why is Harmonic Distortion a Problem?

The utility provider must supply the voltage and all of the current, even though some of the current
is not turned into useful output power – See the section entitled Real Power, Apparent Power and
Efficiency on page 37. The provider has no means of charging for the extra current because the
power is charged in kWh.

The combined effect of millions of power supplies is to clip the AC voltage because all of the current
is drawn at the peak of the sine wave. Power conductors must be sized to carry the extra current
caused by the low power factor. Neutral conductors can overheat because they are typically not
sized to carry all of the harmonic currents which do not exist for high power factor loads.

Solutions for Power Supplies

In order to comply with the legislation for harmonic distortion there are two main solutions available
for power supplies:

Passive Power Factor Correction

Passive power factor correction involves

L
the addition of a line frequency inductor
or resistor into the AC line. The effect Recfied
Line
of the inductor is to squash the current AC Input C Voltage to
wave shape as the inductor is a reactive Switchmode
Converters
component which resists change in
current. The effect of the resistor is to
PFC Circuit
reduce the peak current.

The smoother the current wave-shape the less harmonic distortion will be present.

This is a very simple solution which has some advantages and some disadvantages. It is not really
practical in power supplies above 300W due to the size of the components required to provide
adequate inductance at 50/60Hz and to keep the resistive losses low enough. This solution is not
adequate in lighting, personal computing or color television applications, but is a viable solution
for Class A equipment. The diagram below shows real time measurement of passive power factor
correction and the harmonic current levels.

100%

V t 80%

60%

40%

20%
I t
0%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Harmonics

35
Input Considerations

Active Power Factor Correction

Active power factor correction uses a boost converter running at high frequency to electronically
control the wave-shape of the input current. The incoming AC voltage is monitored and used as a
reference to determine the pulse width of each current pulse of the high frequency switched current.

The current is drawn in a series of pulses at around 100kHz which equates to 2000 pulses per cycle
of the mains voltage.

VFeedback
L1
+

AC Low pass
Input EMC Filter S1 C1

VIN Sense -
Current Sense

-
-
X U2 PWM
U1 Mulplier +
+
PFC Controller IC

The low pass EMC filter takes the high frequency element and filters it out so that the current seen
by the mains supply is sinusoidal. The system regulates the DC output at approximately 400VDC. The
diagram below shows real time measurement of active power factor correction.

100%
V t 80%

60%

40%

20%
I t
0%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Harmonics

Comparison Between Passive and Active Power Factor Correction

Passive Power Factor Correction

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple Heavy and bulky components
Cost effective AC range switching required
Rugged and reliable Low power factor
Noise (EMI) Cannot use multiple PSUs in a system
Assists filtering

Active Power Factor Correction
Advantages Disadvantages
High power factor >0.9 Higher cost
Low input current Higher complexity
Universal input Higher component count
Regulated high voltage bus Lower calculated MTBF
Hold up time
Multiple PSUs can be used
36
 Input Considerations

• Real Power, Apparent Power and Efficiency

Power

Power is the rate at which work is done. The more

power available in a system, the more work can be
completed in the same period of time. In terms of
electricity, increasing power means the ability to do Work or Energy (J)
more electrical work (energy) in the same number Power (W) =
of seconds, for example, running more appliances, WorkTime (s) (J)
or Energy
spinning a motor faster, or running a faster CPU. Power (W) =
WorkTime
or Energy
(s) (J)
Power is measured in Watts (W). One Watt equals Power (W) = Work or Energy (J)
one Joule of energy expended in one second. Power (W) = Time (s)
Time (s)
Conversely, the amount of energy used Work or Energy (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)
by a device can be computed as the amount
Work or Energy (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)
of power it uses multiplied by the length of time
over which that power is applied. Work or
Power Energy
(W) (J) = Power
= Voltage (W) x Time
(V) x Current (I) (s)
Work or Energy (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)
Computing electrical power can be simple or Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (I)
complicated. With direct current, power (in Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (I)
P = V/R Work or Energy (J)
Watts) is just the product of the voltage (in Volts) Power
Power(W)
(W)== Voltage (V) x Current (I)
and the current (in Amps) of the circuit. Time (s)
P = V/R
More work is done when electrons push with more P (W) = V (V) x A (I)
= V/R
force (higher voltage) and when there are more of P (W)
= V/R
P = V (V) x A (I)
them per period of time (higher current). Since P = V x I,
and I = V/R, another way to express power is: P (W) or
Work = VEnergy
(V) x A(J)(I)= Power (W) x Time (s)

In a DC system power is measured and calculated as P (W) = V (V) x A (I)

shown above. In an AC system it is more Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current (I)
complicated because phase shift and wave form shape
must be taken into consideration.

Real Power P = V/R

Real, true or active power is the measurement of power

dissipated in the load. It can be shown as: P (W) = V (V) x A (I)

37
Input Considerations

Reactive Power

Reactive power is power which is supplied to the load and returned to the source, rather than
being dissipated in the load. This is caused by the reactive elements in an AC circuit, specifically
inductors and capacitors which charge and discharge during normal operation. Reactive power is
measured as Volt-Amps-reactive (VAr).

Apparent Power

This is the total power in a circuit at any one time. It

includes both dissipated (real) and returned (reactive)
power. Apparent power is measured in Volt-Amps (VA).
The relationship between these three types of power Apparent power (S)
measured in VA Reacve
can be described using a power triangle as shown to power (Q)
the right. measured
in VAr
Real, reactive and apparent power are trigonometrically
related to each other. Each power type can be
described as follows: Impedance
phase angle
P (real power) is the adjacent length
Q (reactive power) is the opposite length Real power (P)
S (apparent power) is the hypotenuse measured in Was

In this form we can see that the opposite angle gives us the impedance of the circuit. Using the
cosine of this angle provides the ‘power factor’ of the circuit.

What is Power Factor?

Power Factor is a characteristic of AC circuits. It is always a number between zero and one, the closer
to one, the better the system’s Power Factor.

Power Factor = Real Power/Apparent Power

Using the previously discussed data, it is now possible to add in this third element to the formula:

Power (W) = Apparent Power (VA) x Power Factor (PF) or

Apparent Power (VA) = Power (W)/Power Factor (PF)

Power factor is a measure of the efficiency of energy transfer from source to load. The greater the
efficiency the closer to unity power factor. If power is not being dissipated in the load but simply
circulates round the reactive elements of the circuit (inductors and capacitors), then energy transfer is
not as efficient and the power factor will be less than unity. Two key elements affect the power factor
of any system. These are phase shift and harmonics.

38
 Input Considerations

Effects of Phase Shift on Power Factor

To understand how phase shift affects the power factor of a system, following are two examples:

AC Motor Load
Lload
The diagram to the right shows a simple circuit description of a
motor load. The load is primarily inductive (motor windings) with 120V
a small resistive component (the resistance of the windings). 60Hz

If the voltage is plotted against current in this system, two Rload

waveforms appear out of phase with each other, as shown right.

1
1.0

Key:
0.5
2
1 Voltage B
A
2 Current 0
A
Time

B
A Real power -0.5

B Reactive power
-1.0

The current waveform is lagging behind the voltage wave form. This lagging phase shift is measured
as an angle. One cycle of the mains is a full 360 degrees, any difference along the horizontal axis can
be shown as a phase angle measured in degrees. This phase angle can be used to calculate the PF of
the system. While the voltage and current are in phase i.e. both positive or both negative real power
is delivered A . When voltage and current are out of phase then reactive power is delivered to and
returned by the load B .

The phasor diagram, below, can be used to illustrate the phase relationship. This is shown static but is
continuously rotating through 360 degrees.

Here, active or real power is shown on the horizontal portion of the phasor diagram, the apparent
power as a lagging phasor, reactive power being shown on the vertical. This is the origin of the power
triangle discussed earlier.

Capacive
(leading) wrad/s (w=2T Tf)

Real Power

Inducve
(lagging) Apparent
Power

Phasor diagram of motor load

39
Input Considerations

If the triangle has its vertical (reactive portion) positive, then the reactive portion is capacitive. If the
vertical is negative then the reactive portion is inductive. If the angle of the opposite is 30 degrees,
then the cosine of this angle will give us the power factor of this system:

Cos 30 = 0.87 lagging

87% of the energy supplied by the source is being dissipated in the load. The other 13% is
circulating currents not being dissipated in the load (reactive power).

AC Resistive Load

Below are the circuit diagram of a resistive load and the voltage and current waveforms. There are no
reactive elements, and because of this there is no phase shift between voltage and current.

1.0

0.5

Rload 0 Time

-0.5

-1.0

The phase angle between voltage

V/ V and current is zero, the two elements
V/ V are in phase.

1.0 1.0
Cos 0 = 1 1.0 fundamental fundamental +
3rd Harmonic
3rd harmonic
0.5
0.5 0.5
Therefore the power factor of the system is unity. All of the energy supplied by the source is
dissipated by the load. The energy
0
transfer is 100% efficient.
0 0 Time
Time Time
Effects of Harmonics on Power Factor
-0.5
-0.5 -0.5

The following diagrams show how-1.0 a waveform is distorted by adding the 3rd harmonic to the
-1.0 -1.0
fundamental. The resultant waveform is shown below right.

V/ V V/ V

1.0 1.0
fundamental fundamental +
3rd Harmonic
3rd harmonic
0.5 0.5

0 0
Time Time

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

Any waveform that is not sinusoidal contains harmonics. Any distortion or harmonic content will
cause the power factor of the system to fall. As with phase shift, any power not being dissipated
as useful power to the load is known as reactive power. The effects of harmonic currents within a
system cause a reduction in power factor and therefore reduce the efficiency of energy transfer from
source to load.

40
 Input Considerations

Effects of a Low System Power Factor

Both phase shift and harmonics can cause a reduction in the power factor of the system. This
reduction in power factor means that more current has to be generated at source to deliver the
power to the load. This in turn means that, unless power factor correction is applied, a number of
problems are caused. Power factor correction can be either passive or active. Whichever form it takes,
it will be used to ensure that the amount of harmonics specifically within a system is reduced; this will
increase the power factor of the system and increase the source-load energy transfer efficiency.

In phase shift applications (e.g. motor load), passive power factor correction can be applied (adding
inductance or capacitance to circuit) to correct any phase shift between voltage and current. This
again will increase source-load energy transfer efficiency.

Common examples of problems with low power factors within a system can be seen in the
list below:

Mains voltage distortion  aused by harmonics which can cause problems such as
C
light flicker.

Oversizing of conductors Necessary as circulating currents must also be allowed for

when cable sizing.

Overheating of neutral conductors Caused because protection is generally in the live

wire only.

Electromagnetic load failures Generally occur wh­­en harmonics present cause the magnetic
device to heat up.

Circuit breakers tripping Circulating currents, due to reactive power, not considered.

Calculating Power Supply Efficiency

When calculating the efficiency of AC-DC power supplies it is imperative that power factor is taken
into consideration. Power supplies that do not incorporate active power factor correction may exhibit
a power factor between 0.5 and 0.6 causing a large error in any efficiency calculation were it based
on apparent power (VA) rather than real power (W). In power supplies which incorporate active power
factor correction the error would be smaller but still significant as efficiencies increase above 90%.

Efficiency is given:

Efficiency = (Output power/Input power) x 100 and is expressed as a percentage.

Where:

Input power = Input Voltage x Input Current x Power Factor

Output power = Output Voltage x Output Current

41
Input Considerations

• Earthing / Grounding
Earth or Ground is a place of zero potential, a place where fault currents can be directed of sufficient
capacity to enable fuses to rupture. It is usually the ground beneath our feet and we connect to this
in a number of different ways.

Buildings are connected to the ground and therefore the floors on which we stand are at the
same potential.

The electrical connections that come into our homes and offices need to be safe. This is why the
earth connection in a domestic location is usually made to a metal pipe (generally the mains water
supply) somewhere close to where it enters the ground.

The distribution transformer has an earth connection, usually in the form of a copper rod anchored in
the ground.

Lightning conductors that are found on tall buildings will also be rooted in the ground, so that in the
event of a lightning strike the current passes harmlessly to ground and not into the structure of the
building, saving the building from damage.

Other floors

Common bonding
network ( also bonds
services & metalwork) Lightning
Items of protecon
equipment system
Distribuon Ground floor (LPS)

1 2 3N Protecve conductor

HV
soil
Earth (mass) electrodes Earth (mass) electrodes

Earthing overview

42
 Input Considerations

Ground Resistivity

The wetter the ground, the less resistance it will have. This is the reason buildings have their own
earth connection and do not rely on the earth point at the distribution transformer.

Ground resistivity p (Ωm)

Type of ground
Range of values Typical value

Boggy ground 2 - 50 30

Adobe clay 2 - 200 40

Silt & sand-clay ground, humus 20 - 260 100

Sand and sandy ground 50 - 3,000 200 (moist)

Peat 200+ 200

Gravel (moist) 50 - 3,000 1,000 (moist)

Stony and rocky ground 100 - 8,000 2,000

Concrete: 1 part cement + 3 parts sand 50 - 300 150

Concrete: 1 part cement + 5 parts gravel 100 - 8,000 400

Earthing for Safety

For an electrical system to be safe, a sufficient level of protection must be provided. This can be
achieved by the use of insulation and earthing. The table below details the level of protection (LOP)
provided by different types of insulation and earth.

Abbreviation Earth Type Level of Protection (LOP)

FE Functional Earth 0

PE Protective Earth 1

Abbreviation Insulation Type Level of Protection (LOP)

OP Operational (Functional) 0

B Basic 1

S Supplementary 1

D Double 2

R Reinforced 2

For a system to be safe a total LOP of 2 must be provided.

43
Input Considerations

The table below specifies the distance required between two conductors for the different types of
insulation for IT and industrial applications. Basic insulation does not require such a large gap as
double or reinforced and therefore provides a lower level of protection.

Insulation Type Clearance Creepage

Functional 1.5mm 3.2mm

Basic/Supplementary 2.0mm 3.2mm

Double/Reinforced 4.0mm 6.4mm

The distances above are based on a 300VAC working voltage. The working voltage is the voltage
between the two circuits to be isolated. The lower the working voltage, the lower the creepage and
clearance distances required. If the peak working voltage exceeds the peak value of the AC mains
supply additional distance is required.

To ensure that the insulation is correct and not damaged or manufactured incorrectly a test voltage
must be applied. The table below shows the test voltages for a 300VAC working voltage.

Insulation Type Test Voltage

Basic/Supplementary 1500VAC or DC equivalent

Double/Reinforced 3000VAC or DC equivalent

Two types of earth can be present in a system.

FE – Functional Earth – This does not provide a safety function.

PE – Protective Earth – This provides protection against electric shock in a class I system.

D/R Insulaon

L
Primary Secondary LOAD
N

B (Basic insulaon)
PE

The diagram above represents a complete class I power supply. Primary to earth protection is
provided by basic insulation and protective earth (LOP 2). Primary to secondary protection
(240VAC to 12VDC) is provided by double/reinforced insulation (Total LOP 2).

44
DC Output Considerations
• Output Regulation
Initial Set Accuracy

The initial set accuracy defines the nominal set point of the power supply output, normally under
defined conditions such as nominal input and 50% load. Defining the conditions is particularly
important in external power supplies when an output cable is employed introducing a voltage drop
between the power supply and the connector. A typical tolerance for initial set accuracy is in the
range of 0.5% to 1% of the nominal voltage.

Line Regulation

Line regulation is a static performance measure of the change in the power supply output as a result
change in the applied input voltage over a specified range, usually the full specified input voltage
range from minimum to maximum. Line regulation is normally expressed as a percentage.

% Line Regulation =
(
VOUT (Max) - VOUT (Min)

VOUT (Nominal)
x 100
)
where VOUT (Nominal) is the output voltage at nominal line input voltage
VOUT (Max) is the maximum output voltage measured over the specified input range
VOUT (Min) is the minimum output voltage measured over the specified input range

Load Regulation

Load regulation is the static performance measure that defines the ability of a power supply to
maintain the output within specified limits over a predetermined load range. Load regulation is
normally expressed as a percentage with the load range dependent on the product type and design
and is specified in the product data sheet.

% Load Regulation =

where
( VOUT (Nominal)

VOUT (Nominal) is the nominal output voltage

)
VOUT (Load Max) - VOUT (Load Min)
x 100

VOUT (Max) is the output voltage at maximum output current

VOUT (Min) is the output voltage at minimum output current

Cross Regulation

For multiple output power supplies and DC-DC converters a further measure of output accuracy
is cross regulation which determines the ability of an output to remain within a specified range for
a change in load on another output. It is also expressed as a percentage change but in a different
format. E.g., V1 cross regulation = 1% for a 10% change in V2.

Temperature coefficient

The temperature coefficient is a measure of the stability of the output for a change in ambient
temperature within the operating temperature range specified for the product. It is generally
expressed as a percentage in the form x.xx% / °C
45
DC Output Considerations

Remote Sense

Remote sense is a feature designed to regulate the output at the load rather than at the terminals
of the supply. It is used to compensate for voltage drops between the power supply and the point
of use of the output. Power supplies and DC-DC converters with this feature provide two sense
connections, one for the positive connection and another for the return, which can be connected at
the load, which may be located some distance from the supply itself.

+Vout R cable

+Sense

Load
Power Supply
-Sense

-Vout R cable

The sense connections monitor and regulate the output at the point of use and adjust the power
supply terminal voltage to compensate for variations caused by the impedance of the wiring between
the supply and the load. The amount of compensation is typically limited to around 0.5V in total or
0.25V for each of the output & return cables.

Remote sense is normally employed when the load current is variable resulting in an irregular voltage
at the point of use. If the load current is constant and therefore the voltage drop is fixed the trim or
adjustment feature can be used to compensate for the lead drop. Remote sense connections may also
be used to compensate for voltage drops when using ORing diodes or MOSFETS though this may
compromise the fault tolerance of redundant systems.

The remote sense leads should be twisted to minimize noise pick up and it may be necessary
to employ noise decoupling on the sense connections in noisy environments or where the
interconnections are long.

The maximum remote sense voltage compensation is specified in the power supply data sheet and
should not be exceeded. Care should be taken to ensure that the maximum power rating is also not
exceeded.

Transient Load Response

Transient response is a measure of how quickly and effectively the power supply or DC-DC converter
can adjust in response to sudden changes in current demand.

The figure (right) shows the typical response of a power 100%

converter to a sudden increase or sudden decrease
75%
current
Load current

in load current.
50%
Load

The maximum deviation is a function of the output 25%

impedance, and the recovery time a function of the 0 t

feedback loop speed and compensation. The transient
Max deviaon
load response is usually specified in these terms
following a defined step load change. E.g. 4% +Tol
Voltage

maximum deviation, 500µs recovery for a 25%

Output Voltage

load change. Vnom t

Output

-Tol

Recovery me

46
 DC Output Considerations

• Peak Load Applications

Specifying a power converter for systems with peak load requirements that are higher than the
normal power requirements for short periods can result in larger, higher power and higher cost
product selection. In these applications the average power required is typically significantly lower
than the peak demand and, with care, savings in product size and cost can be realized without
compromising system reliability or lifetime. Using a power converter that is capable of supporting the
peak load but with a lower continuous power rating will result in a physically smaller power supply
reducing system size, weight and cost.

For example, in a system that requires 300W for a short duration, using a 200W continuously rated
power supply that can support a 300W+ peak load will result in significant savings in volume and
cost over a supply rated at 300W continuous output power, provided that the average load is below
200W. The supply must be electrically rated to safely support the peak demand but can be thermally
rated at the lower power level.

Applications that require higher peak currents often include some electromechanical elements such
as print heads, pumps, motors, and drives. These products are found in factory automation, medical
devices, fluid & material handling, robotics, power tools, machining, packaging, test, dispensing
systems and printers and have average power demands far lower than the peak power requirements

Some products specify a peak load capability which can be characterized in several different ways
outlined below.

1. The power supply is rated for up to 30 seconds with a duty cycle of 10 to 15% at a peak load
that is just below the Over Current Protection (OCP) limit. The OCP is usually set around 20 to
30% above the continuous current rating. This is essentially a standard design, evaluated and
characterized to give short duration headroom over and above the nominal continuous rating.
There are applications that where an additional 20-30% of power for short durations is required
though electromechanical applications often demand higher peak current for a shorter duration.
Taking advantage of these characteristics to support occasional peak power demands results in
a smaller lower cost supply but the average power demand must be kept below the maximum
continuous rating.

2. A very high peak of up to 200% of nominal for a very short duration where the OCP does not react
to the overload condition. Typically, this allows peak current handling for 200-500µs. This type of
peak capability covers a limited range of applications.

3. A higher power rating at high line, normally meaning 180VAC and above. For example, a 1200W
power supply may be able to provide 1500W of continuous power when operated at an AC input
voltage greater than 180VAC. This is a genuine size and cost benefit if the AC input is in the high
line range and is ideal for higher power systems connected from phase to phase when the nominal
single-phase supply is low.

4. A power supply with the topology and thermal characteristics, designed to support high peak
electromechanical loads. Such units may deliver up to twice their nominal power for 10 seconds
or more with duty cycles up to 35% for demanding electromechanical applications in industrial
process control. XP Power’s fleXPower modular power system is one example which allows several
standard outputs alongside one that provides a high peak current.

5. Often overlooked when considering peak load applications are power supplies with a convection
rating and a higher fan cooled rating. It is not uncommon for such a supply to be rated at up to
50% higher power when fan cooled compared to a naturally cooled environment. These products
are generally of open frame or U channel construction and cover power ranges up to 500–600W.

47
DC Output Considerations

Such products are naturally electrically rated for the fan cooled power rating and thermally rated for
the convection cooled power rating, the exact characteristics we need for peak load applications
where the peak load is does not exceed the fan cooled rating and the average load is lower than the
convection rating, without the noise nuisance of a cooling fan.

In general the larger the difference between the fan cooled rating and the convection rating the
shorter the peak load capability and it is important to ensure that components do not overheat during
peak load periods. A benefit for the system designer is that these dual rated products will normally
identify key components and their temperature ratings to ensure safe and reliable operation when
installed in end applications. This information can be used to ensure that the product will remain
safe and reliable in a peak load application by monitoring the temperature of the key parts during the
development phase.

The specification will also outline the life time expectations based on key electrolytic capacitor
temperatures enabling confirmation of the suitability of the product based on system requirements.

When selecting a power supply for a high peak power application, based on the force cooled and
convection cooled ratings, the key parameters are the peak power required, which must not exceed
the fan cooled rating, the maximum duration of the peak, the duty cycle and power consumed by the
load during the non-peak duration to ensure that the continuous convection ratings of the supply are
not exceeded.

The following example is based on an open frame power supply with a force cooled rating of 250W
and a convection or naturally cooled rating of 180W, XP Power’s GCS250 series, operating in a
convection cooled application where the system requires a peak load of 250W for 10s in every
40s or a duty cycle of 25%. This peak load (Ppk) requirement defines the absolute maximum power
consumption during the non-peak period so that the average power does not exceed the convection
cooled rating.

In this case the maximum available power during the non-peak duration (Po) will be 156 Watts in
order that the convection cooled power rating (Pav) is not exceeded.

Pav = (Ppk x T1) + (Po x T2)
T1 +T2

Using the same formula, if the duty cycle is reduced 15%, or 10s in every 67s then the non-peak
power can be increased to 168W without exceeding the average continuous convection power rating
of 180W.

48
 DC Output Considerations

Calculations show that these operating conditions will not exceed the ratings of the power supply.
However, we must also consider the key component temperatures of the supply when installed in the
unique end equipment to ensure safe, reliable operation over the design life of the end equipment.

The diagrams below show the maximum temperature of the components for this product to ensure
that the safety and reliability requirements are met and the predicted service life of the product based
on the average capacitor operating temperature over the life of the equipment can be realized.

In order to ensure safe operation of the PSU in the end-use equipment, the temperature of the
components listed in the table below must not be exceeded. Temperature should be monitored using
K type thermocouples placed on the hottest part of the component (out of direct air flow).
See below for component locations. (Temperature measurements at ambient 50°C)

127.0 (5.00)

5.7 (0.225) 115.6 (4.55) 36.3

(1.43)
5.1 (0.20)

1
2
J1
1
J1

J2

88.8 6
(3.50) 67.3
J3

2.55 2
1
J3
(2.65)
(64.8)
61.0
(2.40)
38.7
(1.53)
13 5 J4
12.1
(0.48) 2 4

3.5 9.5
0.25 faston ground tab (0.14) (0.37) 26.6 (1.05)
(5.1) 0.20

4 x ø.3.96 (0.156) mounng hole 3.8 (0.15)

SMD Component height
ø7.92 (0.312) clearance top and boom

Component Max Temperature

T1 Coil 120°C
L3 Coil 120°C
Q1 Body 120°C
Q3 Body 120°C
C6 105°C
C23 105°C

49
DC Output Considerations
185000

165000

145000
185000

125000
165000
Lifeme (Hrs) 105000
145000

85000
125000

65000
105000
Lifeme (Hrs)

45000
85000

25000
65000

5000
45000
105 95 85 75 65 55
25000
C23 Temperature (°C)
5000
105 95 85 75 65 55

C23 Temperature (°C)

70000

60000

50000
70000
Lifeme (Hrs)

40000
60000

30000
50000
Lifeme (Hrs)

20000
40000

10000
30000

0
20000
105 95 85 75 65 55
10000
C6 Temperature (°C)
0
105 95 85 75 65 55

Selecting and evaluating a product such as C6 Temperature

this, based on(°C)the
readily available thermal data, rather
than one continuously rated for the full peak power results in a smaller, lighter, lower cost solution
without compromising the performance, reliability and lifetime of the end application.

50
 DC Output Considerations

• Powering Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

LEDs are used in a wide variety of applications including domestic, street, tunnel, architectural and
horticultural lighting, moving signs and traffic signals. Other common applications include data
transmission, pulse oximeters, heaters, and ultra-violet curing & sterilisation. They provide more light
output per watt than other light sources combined with significantly longer life offering significant
reductions in in both running costs and maintenance costs. LEDs are solid state meaning they are also
shock resistant.

LEDs function in the same way as a normal diode, current flows from positive to negative, when the
junction is forward biased, with electrons flowing from negative to positive. Inside the junction the
electrons combine with holes to release light with the color of the light determined by the material
employed. The forward volt drop also varies across the color spectrum from around 1.5V, for infrared
light, to as high as 3.5V for ultraviolet light.

Light Junction
(depletion region)

+ -
+
- P - - N
+
+ -

- -
- -
+ -
Electrons

LED Junction

LEDs have a typical diode characteristic, as shown below, meaning that the LED must be driven from
a limited, controlled current source which is most efficiently achieved using a constant or regulated
current supply.

Breakdown Reverse I Forward

Vbr
Vf V

+ V -

Typical Characteristics

51
DC Output Considerations

Dimming & Control

Many applications require the LED light output to be controlled. This can be achieved by reducing the
current through the LED, or LED string, to reduce the light output or by employing a pulsed current
from zero to maximum to reduce the average light output at a frequency undetectable by human eye.
The current is normally pulsed at a fixed frequency with a variable mark space ratio, known as Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) control.

There are a vast range of power and voltage requirements from a few watts to tens of kilowatts
with string voltages from a few volts for a simple light source to hundreds of volts for high power
applications such as water treatment, heaters, horticultural lighting, and large format printing & UV
curing.

Lower power applications may use simple standard LED drivers, with dimming controls if required,
and with either AC or DC input as appropriate.

The higher power applications, which are typically an integral part of a process, require higher voltage
power supplies to support string voltages up to 400VDC or more with programmable constant
current which can be programmed by the host equipment control system through varying the DC
current, or via PWM control to manage the desired power levels employed.

Current Harmonics & Safety

Lighting applications have restrictions on generation of harmonics, due to proliferation, and will need
a power supply or driver which complies with the class C limits set out in IEC61000-3-2. Lighting
applications also have their own standards for electrical safety such as IEC61347 and UL8750 which
applies to LED power sources.

Other applications are typically covered by the class A harmonic limits and the appropriate industrial,
ITE or medical safety standards with the power source likely to be approved to
IEC62368-1 and/or IEC60601-1.

52
 DC Output Considerations

• Ripple and Noise

Switching power supplies and DC-DC converters have the fundamental advantage of smaller size
and higher efficiencies when compared to linear voltage regulators. However, the switching technique
has the associated disadvantage of relatively high AC content on the output.

3. Switching noise
2. PWM frequency & ripple

4. Noise

1. Recfied mains ripple

Typical output ripple and noise trace

Four AC components can be identified:

1. Low frequency ripple at two times the AC mains input frequency.

2. Switching frequency ripple.

3. Switching noise, which is high frequency pulse noise.

4. Aperiodic noise that is not related to the AC source frequency or the switching frequency of
the converter.

These AC components are normally specified as a peak to peak noise amplitude so that the best
method for testing is by an oscilloscope with the bandwidth set as specified in the data sheet, usually
20MHz. Some data sheets also specify a requirement to fit external components to the
measurement point, such as electrolytic and ceramic capacitors, to mimic typical applications.

Accurate measurement of the output noise and ripple requires special attention to the equipment
used, measuring probes and an understanding of noise being measured. The switch mode converter
switches large amounts of power quickly when compared to the amplitude of the noise being
measured. This means that even a few inches of ground wire loop in the oscilloscope probe will pick
up fractions of Volts of noise. These probes must be properly connected to the measurement point.

Measurement of the noise is performed as close as physically possible to the converter’s output
terminals to reduce radiated noise pick-up. The greatest source of error is usually the unshielded
portion of the oscilloscope probe. Voltage errors induced in the loop by magnetic radiation from the
supply can easily swamp the real measured values.

53
DC Output Considerations

To reduce these measurement errors unshielded leads must be kept as short as possible. The figure
below shows the wrong method, because the ground wire of the probe can collect radiated noise and
the oscilloscope display is strongly dependent
+ on the probe position and ground lead length.
Power
Incorrect:
Supply
+-
Power
Supply

To prepare the probe for high frequency measurement, first remove the clip-on ground wire and the
probe body fishhook adapter and then attach a special tip and ground lead assembly as shown in the
figure below.

Correct:

-
+

Power Supply

The ground ring of the probe is pressed directly against the output ground of the power supply and
the tip is in contact with the output -voltage pin.
+

Power Supply

54
 DC Output Considerations

• Output Protection
Output protection is implemented on power supplies and DC-DC converters to prevent damage to
both the power solution and the end equipment. Power converters are protected against overload
and the end equipment against over-voltage and excessive fault current.

Overload Protection

In the case of an overload or short circuit being applied at the output, circuits are employed to limit
the current or power that the unit will supply, protecting both the power supply and the load from
excessive current. Overload protection is typically implemented using one of the techniques listed
below:

Trip & restart or ‘Hiccup’ mode

Fold-back current limit
Constant power limit
Constant current limit
Fuses or circuit breakers

Trip & Restart or ‘Hiccup’ Mode

In this mode, the power supply detects an overload condition and the controller shuts the power
supply off for a given time. After this time the power supply will try to start again. If the overload
condition has been removed the power supply will start and operate normally. If the overload
condition remains then the supply will switch off again, repeating the previous cycle. This condition
will repeat until such time as the overload is removed. The off-time period may vary and the voltage
reached will vary with the impedance of the overload. A typical wave form is shown below.

Normal operaon Overload removed

V Overload condion

Trip & restart, or ‘hiccup’ mode

This type of overload limit is generally unsuitable for high inrush loads, such as capacitive loads and
lamps or for battery-charging applications which benefit from constant power or constant current
characteristics.

55
DC Output Considerations

Constant Power Limit

Constant power overload limits are often used in multiple output power supplies where the primary
power is monitored and limited. This has the benefit of allowing power trading across the outputs
while ensuring that the overall power rating is not exceeded.

VOUT
+
OP3

+ Aux. VOUT
+
OP2
Adj HV
1 8
FB VOUT
2 7 +
CS Vcc OP1
3 6
Gnd Drv
4 5

V V V
Output 1 Output 2 Output 3

I I I

Multiple output power limit

This technique is also used on single output supplies in battery-charging applications as the current
is maintained during an overload with the output voltage falling. Normally the constant power output
will be maintained until the current reaches a point where damage may be caused, at which point the
power supply will either go into a constant current mode or a trip & restart mode. When the overload
condition is removed the power supply will recover automatically.

Constant
V Voltage
Constant
Power

Constant
Current or
trip & restart

Limit I

Single output power limit

56
 DC Output Considerations

Constant Current Limit

In this case, the output current is held constant at a pre-determined level at a point where the
maximum load is exceeded. This protection technique accommodates high inrush loads such as large
capacitors, lamps, and motors by driving current during the power up phase. The supply will recover
to constant voltage mode once the overload condition has been removed.

Constant
voltage

Constant
current
Maximum
rated
current

Constant current limit

In programmable power converters, the current limit inception point can be varied over a wide range
to create a variable current source to suit applications such as battery charging and management,
electrolysis, and LED based systems.

Fold-back Current Limit

Fold-back current limit decreases both the voltage and the current when an overload condition is
detected. The voltage and current decrease simultaneously as the load impedance decreases. This
technique is employed extensively on linear power supplies to prevent excessive dissipation in the
series pass element and where crowbar over-voltage protection is employed, limiting the fault current.

Constant
voltage Fold-back
point
V

Fold-back
current

Limit I

Fold-back current limit

The output voltage will recover once the overload condition is removed, following the overload curve
as the load impedance increases.

57
DC Output Considerations

Fuse or Circuit Breaker Protection

Fuses and circuit breakers are generally only used in large output distribution and battery systems.
If there are many branches in an output distribution system then each individual branch needs to be
protected against excessive current flow.

Circuit breakers are also employed where batteries are used as there is the potential for extremely
high fault currents due to the low impedance of the source. Both of these require manual intervention
to reset following the removal of the fault.

In some multiple output power supplies a resetting fuse is used, in the form of a Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC) thermistor. An overload condition will cause the thermistor to heat up to a point
where a very sharp transition of resistance occurs creating a high impedance and restricting the
current. The unit will require an off/on cycle or the complete removal of the load
to reset.

Resistance (ohms)

Power Source PTC Load

Normal operaon Tripped

Heang up 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Temperature ºC

Cooling down

Resetting PTC thermistor fuse characteristics

Over Voltage Protection

Over voltage protection is implemented using one of two basic techniques; crowbar protection,
where the output is clamped by a thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), and electronic
protection, where the unit is shut down by an independent control loop.

58
 DC Output Considerations

Crow-bar Over Voltage Protection

Should the output voltage exceed the limit set by the zener diode then the SCR is fired, clamping the
output to around 1VDC and forcing the power supply into an overload condition. The clamp remains
in place until the power supply is turned off and reset. This technique should be used in conjunction
with a fold-back current limit.
Crowbar
threshold

Normal
Operaon
V
Zener
+
Lost
regulaon Power Load
Supply SCR

-
R
Crowbar
acve

Crow-bar over-voltage protection

Electronic Control Loop Over Voltage Protection

If an excursion of the output voltage is detected beyond the set limit, the power supply output is
turned off usually via a second feedback loop. The second loop is utilized as it may be that the fault
has arisen due to a failure in the main feedback loop. This is usually a latching condition that requires
an off/on cycle to be performed to enable reset.

The characteristics of the output will be identical to the crowbar example, though the time for the
output to fall to zero will depend upon the load applied. This system is utilized in most switching
power supplies.

• Series & Parallel Operation

When implementing multiple power supplies in an application, consideration must be given to the
overall system earth leakage current to ensure compliance with safety standards.

Series Operation

In general, power supplies and DC-DC

converters can be operated with outputs +
connected in series. Some care is needed
to ensure that one supply doesn’t affect Supply
Converter
the operation of the other. The total output 1
voltage must not exceed the working output to
earth breakdown voltage of either one of the -
power supplies. Load

Common practice when putting two power +

supplies in series is to connect reverse-biased
diodes across the output of each series Converter
2
connected supply. This protects the output
from the reverse voltage of the other in the -
event of a failure.

59
DC Output Considerations

Power supplies with constant current or constant power limit are recommended for series operation.
If a power supply with foldback current limit is used, lock-out can occur at switch-on because of the
differing ramp-up times of the units. Power supplies with trip and restart or hiccup mode current
limits can also be used in the majority of cases.

A frequent application of power supplies in series is when using a dual output converter in order to
obtain one single output of a higher voltage. In this configuration 24V, 30V, or 48V outputs can be
achieved from ±12, ±15 or ±24 Volt dual output power supplies.

Parallel Operation

If greater power is needed, a common solution is to connect two or more power supplies in parallel.
The connections will normally be made with the load in a star formation, with the load being the star
center. This will ensure that the lead lengths are very nearly equal. One power supply should not be
looped to the next as connectors could be overloaded and sharing will be poor.

Sharing can be created by adjusting output voltages so that they are as close as possible and
matching the impedances of the load cables, i.e. equivalent wire lengths and ring-crimped terminals.

+ 100mΩ

Converter
Supply
1

Load

+ 100mΩ

Converter
2

The supply with the highest voltage will supply all of the load and this unit may run in current limit.
If this happens the output voltage will drop to the voltage of the other power supply. This condition
can be alleviated by the use of series resistors to balance the output load currents, but this method
is not 100% accurate. Assuming that the two resistors are equal, small output voltage differences will
still cause large current imbalances. This method does have a number of other downsides. Firstly,
the use of the series resistors will degrade the output regulation. Secondly, allowing for the possible
imbalances of up to 50%, each power supply must be capable of supplying not just 50% of the load
current but up to 75%.

60
 DC Output Considerations

Active Power Sharing

In active power sharing each unit has an additional control terminal through which the power
supplies are interconnected. This connection has many different names, the two most common being
Power Share and Current Share. This connection enables the control circuits of the two power
supplies to communicate and adjust the output voltage so that they share the load equally.
In practice the units will typically share within <±10%.

+
A Power Share
PS Interconnecon
Controller

-
Load
+
A
PS
Controller

• Redundant Operation
Redundancy is implemented when continuous operation of the system is required in mission critical
applications. Some of the most common areas are in communications, oil and gas, and other
applications where revenue is generated by the system.

+ +

Converter Converter
Supply Supply Control
1 1

- -

Load Load

+ +

Converter Converter
Control
2 2

- -

Diodes or MOSFETs can be used in redundant systems so that if one power supply fails the other
will continue to operate without the failed power supply pulling down the output rail. Diodes and
MOSFETs should always be rated higher than the power supply output current limit.

61
DC Output Considerations

Adding diodes in the output lines of a power supply causes degradation of the output regulation due
to the voltage drop across the diode at different current levels and reduced system efficiency, the
use of MOSFETs in place of diodes reduces the power loss but is more complex and less reliable.
This needs to be considered when using a redundant system as a solution as the load must be able
to accept the poorer regulation. To overcome this problem it is possible to use the remote sense
function and connect it after the diode. When doing this, the current share connection will also need
to be made if it is considered to be low enough risk to system fault tolerance.

N+M Redundancy

It is common to have a redundant system, whereby a single unit or a number of units are
required to support the load and another unit or number of units complete the system in order to
provide 100% redundancy. In some applications it is not cost-effective to have 100% redundancy,
although this approach will offer a sixty times improvement in reliability over a standalone PSU. A
much more common approach is to use N+M redundancy, where N is the number of units required
to support the load and M is the number of redundant units. In the example below a 3+1 system
is shown, using 3 x 1500W to support the 4500W load and 1 x 1500W unit in redundancy. This
solution offers a twenty-fold increase in system reliability.

• Power Supply De-rating

With market pressure on power supply size, power density and cost there are an increasing number of
AC-DC power supplies which rely on de-rating specifications to support the headline power rating.

This de-rating information may not be immediately apparent, and the short form or on-line catalogue
version of the data may not include this level of detail, so care must be taken when selecting the
product to ensure that it is truly suitable for an application.

De-rating specifications are based on reducing the specified output power rating of the power supply
during high ambient temperature or low line operation to mitigate excessive component temperature
rises and ensure that safety critical isolation components do not exceed their thermal limits.

62
 DC Output Considerations

Temperature De-rating

All power supplies have a de-rating curve based on ambient temperature. For embedded products,
designed for integration into end equipment, this de-rating typically starts at ambient temperatures in
excess of 50°C allowing for an internal temperature rise within the end equipment while maintaining
the full specified rating. The output power rating will usually fall to 50% at a maximum of 70°C to
support equipment required to operate at particularly high ambient temperature. There can also be
de-rating below 0°C based on the ability to start at low ambient temperatures.

100

80
Output Power (%)

60

40

20

0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ambient Temperature (°C)

For external plug top and desk top power supplies the de-rating normally starts at 40°C as these
products are not exposed to temperature rises within the end equipment.

Some low-cost open frame power supplies limit the maximum ambient temperature for full power
operation to 40°C with the output power reducing to 50% at a maximum ambient of 60°C. This is
due to component temperature rises which are too high to allow full power operation at 50°C limited
by component specifications, lifetime, and product safety requirements.

While this provides a higher headline power rating and appears to be smaller size or lower cost, when
integrated into the end equipment, which itself needs to operate in an ambient temperature of 40°C,
the available output power can be reduced by 25% or more. This means that such a product with a
headline power rating of 100W is actually a 75W product in practical terms and cannot be considered
comparable to other units of the same power that are rated for 50°C operation.

Input Voltage De-rating

Products designed for world-wide operation have a universal input range typically covering
90-264VAC or higher. Conventionally a product with universal input is expected to offer its full power
rating across this input range with some products offering a de-rated output for input voltages down
to 85 or 80VAC to cover critical medical device applications and operation in areas where the AC
supply is particularly low or prone to brownout.

It has become common place for lower cost and higher power density products to specify de-rating
for low line input voltages with de-rating of up to 25% when operating down to 90VAC.

If the end application is required to operate globally, a higher power version of the product could be
required. Put another way a power supply with a headline rating of 100W can only be rated at 75W
under low line conditions.

63
DC Output Considerations

Input voltage de-rating is employed to mitigate overheating in the input filter, bridge rectifier & PFC
boost converter as the unit input current increases. Some losses increase proportionally to the current
but resistive losses in filter inductors increase by the square of the current.

If the end equipment is intended for sale on a world-wide basis, care must be taken to ensure that the
power supply rating is adequate at low line voltages as exceeding the de-rating may result in reliability
and lifetime problems.

Combined De-rating

In some instances, both thermal and low line de-rating are specified in combination giving a 40°C
rated 100W power supply a rating as low as 50W if used in an ambient of 50°C with a line voltage
of 90VAC. This product cannot be compared to those offering a 100W power rating over the entire
input and temperature range required and should be compared to a 50W rated product negating any
size, power density & cost benefits and also negating the de-rating employed by the system designer
for longer life and enhanced reliability.

Practical Effects of De-rating

While the specification requires de-rating under certain line voltage and ambient conditions the
power supply will not usually limit the available power at the output and will continue to operate.
If the product is operated outside of the de-rating curves there are serious consequences in terms
of reliability, product lifetime and potentially safety if the thermal limits of isolation barriers are
exceeded.

• Status Signals and Controls

Status signals and controls enable remote monitoring and remote control of the power converter via
signal level status indicators and inputs and/or through digital interfaces. Where a digital interface is
employed, it is usually in addition to the conventional analog interfaces and typically allows the user
to determine whether they are active high or active low.

Signals report information from the converter and controls allow for changes in parameters or
function.

Common status signal outputs include power fail or AC OK, DC OK, power good, fan fail, fan
speed and over temperature. Controls include remote on/off (inhibit or enable), voltage & current
programming, voltage trimming, current share, and remote sense. Remote sense is discussed
separately in the output regulation section.

Separate standby supplies are provided in many higher power & more sophisticated products
providing an output which is always present when the input supply is present. This supply is available
for powering system standby & logic circuits and for configuring signals and controls.

64
 DC Output Considerations

Power Fail (PF) or AC OK

Power Fail and AC OK are typically the same thing. In most cases, they are a measure of the internal
DC bus voltage rather than the actual AC supply and may require the converter to be running, due to
measurement on the converter secondary side via the power transformer.

Measuring the internal DC bus voltage is advantageous as it negates nuisance alarms due to short
mains interruptions and is set to change status several milliseconds before the output falls, allowing
time for data saving routines to be implemented in the end equipment.

It is unusual for this to be an actual measurement of the AC input voltage as fault detection is likely to
be too slow, though some digital power supplies have the facility to report the input voltage via the
communications interface.

Line
Voltage Timing diagram for a typical power fail/
AC OK signal

1 = Line voltage is switched on

2 = Output voltage established
3 =  PF signal changes state
indicating input within tolerance
Output
Voltage 4 = Line voltage fails or is switched off
5 = PF signal detects line failure
6 =  Output voltage falls outside
tolerance
5–6 = PF warning period

PF Signal
1 23 45 6

DC OK & Power OK

DC OK signals indicate that the DC output is within the specified tolerance. A typical application
is to ensure that the DC output is present and correct prior to enabling the load or to detect unit/
output failure in a redundant system. The DC OK signal will also change state if the converter is in an
overload condition, has shut down due to overvoltage protection or has been disabled by a remote
signal.

When combined with a power fail signal, controlled start-up & shut down routines can be readily
applied in the end application and these two signals are sometimes combined within the power
converter to provide a single Power OK or Power Good signal to the user.

65
DC Output Considerations

Fan Fail, Fan speed and Overtemperature

Products that employ an integral fan often provide information regarding the status of the cooling
fan and/or internal temperature warnings & shutdown. The most sophisticated may be able to warn
of impending fan failure and report actual fan speed and internal temperatures, usually via a digital
interface, while others may simply detect the internal temperature of key components & shut down
the supply in the event of an excessive temperature being detected.

With power products increasingly providing variable speed fans, to reduce audible noise and extend
lifetime, understanding the fan(s) status has clear advantages in terms of system reliability and service
or maintenance requirements.

Remote On/Off

This interface is used to switch the output supply of a power converter on and off via a signal level
control, without the need to switch either the input or output power lines.

By using Remote On/Off control, input inrush current is limited to first switch on, the DC output
supply is managed via signal level components and the power up response time is reduced from 1 – 2
seconds to just tens of milliseconds.

When using multiple output configurable power supplies, the outputs can be switched on and off
independently enabling output sequencing control where desired.

Remote On/Off interfaces are categorized as remote inhibit or remote enable. In remote inhibit
configuration the user intervenes to switch the output off. When configured as remote enable,
the output is not present when input power is applied until the user intervenes. Remote enable is
advantageous in systems requiring fail safe operation of the output.

Where digital control and interfaces are employed, it is usually possible for the user to select the
Remote On/Off configuration via software control. It is also possible for the output to be controlled
via software command though this is normally overridden by the signal level control to ensure fail safe
operation in the event of a communication error.

Voltage & Current Programming

Output programming allows the user to adjust the output voltage and current limit through signal
level analog controls, external variable resistance or via software where a digital interface is employed.
In products with a constant current overload characteristic, programming can be used to create a
programmable, variable current source to suit applications such as battery charging & management,
electrolysis, and LED based systems.

Typical analog controls employ 0-5V, 0-10V or 4-20mA inputs for a specified full-scale change in
output voltage or current with ranges as wide as 0-110% available in the most sophisticated products.
Power converters employing digital control can be programmed through software and can also
report back the voltage and current level via the digital interface for closed loop control systems.
Additionally, they allow the user to set appropriate alarms, protection levels and responses for the
end application.

66
 DC Output Considerations

Output Voltage Adjustment & Trimming

The most common means of adjusting the output of a power converter is via an available adjustment
potentiometer which allows the user to adjust the output by a few percent to as much as ±10%
depending on the topology employed. In general, high efficiency resonant designs are less tolerant of
output adjustment.

Another common method of output voltage adjustment, often used in encapsulated DC-DC converts
is voltage trimming, via an external potentiometer or resistor(s) connected via the trim interface, an
example of which is shown below.

+Sense +Sense
Trim
Up
Trim Trim Trimpot

Trim
Down
-Sense -Sense

Current Share, Power Share or Single Wire Parallel

Current, power, or Single Wire Parallel (SWP) connections have a common function. The interface
is used for parallel power converters to communicate to distribute the load among the available
resources within a specified tolerance, typically between ±3% and ±10%. The total power drawn from
the parallel supplies should be de-rated by the sharing tolerance to ensure that no individual power
supply can be overloaded.

The power converter data sheet or application notes will specify the actual connections needed, the
sharing tolerance and often a maximum number of parallel units. Additional connections are likely
to be a signal ground, to improve accuracy, and, in more sophisticated systems, a connection to
synchronise power up of parallel units to avoid circulating currents. An example is shown below.

V1 Output V1 Output V1 Output

Current Current
- + Share - + Share - +
Pin 23 Pin 23

SGND SGND
Pin 12 Pin 12
+ Sense
- Sense

+
Se se
ns en
e -S
se
-S

n
en

Se
se

- +

Load

The current share connection interfaces with each power supply comparing the output current
and adjusting the output voltage of individual until the current is equally distributed. This sharing
interface is ideal for scalable power systems and may be deployed in redundant power systems if it is
considered a low enough risk to system fault tolerance.

67
DC Output Considerations

Common Topologies For Signal & Control Interfaces

Signal outputs and control inputs are presented to the user in a number of topologies varying from
converter to converter and manufacturer to manufacturer.

Analog signal interfaces may employ internal pull up resistors to 5V or 3.3V, they may be open
collector or open drain referenced to a signal ground, and they may be isolated, uncommitted opto-
coupler transistors providing an isolated output connection.

Analog control interfaces may require simple pull-up or pull-down connections referenced to a
signal ground, they may require the application of an external voltage or current, and they may be
uncommitted opto-coupler diodes providing an isolated input connection.

Common digital control interfaces include serial buses such as I2C, RS485, RS232 and UART with
protocols such as PMBus, Modbus, CANopen and SCPI, which may be isolated or referenced to a
signal ground. Network interfaces such as EtherCAT & DeviceNet are also commonplace in some
applications, such as semiconductor fabrication.
+5 V
Signals With Internal Pull Up

These signal interfaces are designed to work with 3.3V or 5V

logic systems and can be active high or active low. Sig

They are typically formed from bipolar transistor or MOSFET

with a pull up resistor to an internal 3.3V or 5V internally
generated supply and referenced to an internal signal
ground. Right is an example of a 5V signal interface.
Return

Open Collector or Open Drain Signals

Open collector or drain signal interfaces comprise a bipolar or MOSFET signal transistor with
the emitter or source connected to an internal signal ground and the collector or drain floating.
This configuration enables the user to connect the signal to an external reference using external
components to suit the application demands, the limit being the voltage and current rating of the
signal device. Signals may be active high or active low.

Sig Sig

Return Return

68
 DC Output Considerations

Isolated Signals

Isolated signal outputs are generally provided as opto-coupler transistors, allowing the user to
configure as either high or low as the application demands. They may also be provided as volt free
relay contacts. They are generally small signal relays able to switch up to 1A at 24VDC or 0.5A at up
to 120VDC.

NC c

NO

Coil

Common e

Relay signal output Opto-coupler signal output

A benefit of isolated signals is that they can be combined into a single warning when using multiple
converters in series or parallel combinations and can be referenced to a common signal ground for
the end equipment interface, regardless of positive or negative output configuration.

• Digital Communication Interfaces

PMBus

One of the most commonly used power supply interfaces is PMBus (Power Management Bus) is
an open power system protocol with a defined language, used to provide programming, control,
monitoring and communications between power converters and other devices in a system over an
I2C (inter-integrated circuit) serial bus. The PMBus protocol is implemented using SMBus (System
Management Bus), an industry standard serial interface for system management communications. It is
a standard protocol in XP Power’s digital power solutions.

Modbus

Modbus is an open data communication protocol used for connecting industrial electronic devices
transmitted over a serial bus, such as RS485 or RS232 which define the signal levels employed.
Originally designed for use with programmable logic controllers it has become a standard protocol for
industrial electronics applications and is widely supported in XP Power’s digital power products.

CANopen

CANopen is a communication protocol and device profile specification largely used in automation
applications and is supported in XP Power’s digital power solutions. It uses the Controller Area
Network Bus (CANBus) serial bus designed for industrial environments and is also used in
transportation applications.

69
DC Output Considerations

SCPI

Standard Commands for Programmable Instruments (SCPI) is designed for controlling test and
measurement instruments and devices and can be used with RS232 & RS485 serial communication
buses. It is used for programmable electronic test equipment and automated test equipment and is
supported by both laboratory power supplies and XP Power’s embedded programmable products.

DeviceNet

DeviceNet is an open network protocol, managed by ODVA, used for data exchange between
interconnected industrial devices on a Controller Area Network (CAN), using the Common Industrial
Protocol (CIP). It has been standardized in IEC62026-3 and is optional in XP Power solutions

EtherCAT

EtherCAT (Ethernet for Control Automation Technology) is an ethernet based fieldbus protocol.
Used for automation systems that require short data cycle times in real time distributed control, it is
standardized in IEC61158 and is an option in XP Power solutions.

Digital Signals, Controls, And Status Information

Depending on the individual implementation, digital communication allows the user to access
information such as the manufacturer’s build data, serial numbers, firmware revisions, run times and
event logs. It may also allow some, or all of the following features: -

• Voltage, current & temperature monitoring

• Voltage and current control
• Fan speed control & monitoring
• Fault & status monitoring
• Fault and warning limit setting such as Overvoltage Protection (OVP), overcurrent protection
(OCP), overtemperature protection (OTP) and input over and undervoltage protection
• Fault response setting
• Output on/off control
• Setting of ramp-up times & soft start configurations
• Active high or low alarm setting

Manufacturers will typically provide a Graphical User Interface (GUI), for development purposes and
configuration of application specific requirements, along with comprehensive communication, control,
and status specifications for the development of interface software.

The provision for analogcontrol of digital power is usually also provided for systems that use
traditional 0-5V or 0-10V control signals by the implementation of an Analog to Digital Converter
(ADC) within the power supply and all alarms & controls can usually be accessed through
conventional connections as well as digitally through the communications bus.

70
Thermal Management
Power losses occur in all electronic components, sub-assemblies, and equipment. The effect of
the power losses is greater as size is reduced and more components are used in tighter spaces for
miniaturization. This leads to more power dissipation and waste heat per volume of space, offset by
enhanced component performance and improved efficiency.

Power losses are typically in the form of heat and are expressed in Watts. The heat generated by
component losses is passed into the surrounding environment and is also absorbed by surrounding
components, printed circuit boards and equipment enclosures. The waste heat affects the
performance of the adjacent components raising their operating temperature and reducing their
reliability and service life.

120

100

80
Temperature (˚C)

60

40

20

0
Direcon of heat current
Air-filled Interior
Component Mounng
Component

Cabinet Panel

Ambient Area

Temperature gradient of a device to ambient

In some applications convection or conduction cooling are employed, to minimize nuisance audible
noise or to prevent pollution ingress, in others the use of a cooling fan, or cooling fans, is employed at
the power supply and/or system level.

• System Cooling Fan Selection

Allowable Temperature Rise

The maximum temperature in which the power supply and/or system electronics can safely
operate and the specified maximum ambient temperature for the system, determine the allowable
temperature rise within the system enclosure. Typically, power converters are specified to a maximum
ambient temperature of 50°C, when operated at full load with derating for higher temperatures. If the
system is to be operated in a non-air-conditioned environment, where the ambient temperature could
be up to 40°C, then the maximum allowable internal temperature rise would be 10°C.

71
Thermal Management

Power Dissipation

If the system has all of the load within the enclosure, then the power dissipated will be the system
load dissipation and the power dissipated by the power converter due to its inefficiency. For example,
If the load dissipates 260W supplied by an 85% efficient power converter then the total power
dissipation would be: -

260 + [(260/0.85) – 260] = 260 + 46 = 306W

Once the allowable temperature and power dissipation have been established, the airflow required
through the system can be estimated by

Airflow (m3/hr) = 2.6 x Power dissipation (W)

Allowable temp. rise (°C)

Fan suppliers often specify the airflow in Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM). To convert m3/hr to CFM we
need to multiply by 0.589. In the example above this would be: -

Airflow = 2.6 x 306 = 79.56m3/hr or 46.86CFM

10

Characterization of Equipment Pressure Drop

Specified airflow for equipment fans is given in free air. The system components, sub-assemblies
and enclosure present resistance or back pressure to air movement which changes with each unique
design due to the positions & size of the internal construction. There is an approximation to back
pressure which can be applied which is an average based on accumulated historical data from fan
manufacturers applicable to most electronic equipment, as shown in the graph below. The graph plots
the flow rate in liters per second against the back pressure in pascals.

90

Pa

70

60
Pressure loss pv

50

40

30

20

10 p = Rv 2V 2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Flow rate V l/s

This can be used to estimate the system back pressure, where 1m3/hr = 0.278l/s or for the example
above approximately 10 Pascals.

72
 Thermal Management

90

Pa

70

60

Pressure loss pv
50

40

30

20

10 p = Rv 2V 2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Flow rate V l/s

Fan Characteristic Curves

Using 10Pa as the back pressure with a required flow rate of 79.56m3/hr and the fan characteristic
graph below, which shows the optimum performance in the shaded area, we would select fan 2 as
the suitable system cooling fan.

0 20 40 60 CFM 80
50
Pa
3
40 Curve Type
1 FAN 1
pf

30 FAN 2
2 2
Stac Pressure

3 FAN 3
20
1

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Flow Rate V m3/h

73
Thermal Management

• Cooling Power Supplies

Power supplies generate waste heat which has to be dissipated. They typically have either convection
cooled or forced cooled ratings or, in some cases, both. Force cooled power supplies may incorporate
a cooling fan, or may specify the user cooling required to operate the unit at maximum load and
ambient temperature.

Where user cooling is required it is important that the power supply cooling is adequate for both
safe operation and adequate service life. It is very application specific and dependent on the ambient
temperature, applied load and physical location with respect to the cooling fan and other system
assemblies.

The main difference between convection and force cooled products is in the power density offered.
For a given efficiency, convection cooled products offer a lower power density, meaning that
they occupy a larger volume. A power supply on a 3” x 5” industry standard footprint may have a
convection rating of 250W while the force cooled version may have a rating as high as 500W.

Convection Cooling

Where the power supply has a convection cooled rating, it is intended to be used in an environment
where there is free air. The system designer must ensure that there is adequate space around and
above the unit for free air convection currents to cool the unit and must also ensure that the ambient
temperature local to the power supply is controlled to a level within its maximum ratings.

Forced Cooling

Force cooled products with integral cooling fans are easy to apply as it is a simple matter of ensuring
that the maximum specified ambient temperature is not exceeded for a given load rating and that the
intake and exhaust areas are not obstructed.

Typically, power supplies that require the user to provide forced air cooling will specify a minimum
required airflow. This is usually for operation at 100% of the power rating at the maximum ambient
temperature allowed.

The required airflow is often specified in Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM) which is also a common rating
for cooling fans. The effectiveness of cooling fans installed in enclosures must be given consideration,
as discussed earlier in this section, and the CFM rating deals in volume of air rather than air speed,
which is the important factor. The object is to maintain the components used within the power supply
at a safe operating temperature and to ensure adequate service life.

When the required airflow is specified in CFM it assumes that the power supply is installed in an
area which is relatively similar to it’s own cross sectional area. This is rarely the case as the power
supply is typically used as a sub-assembly within a complete equipment enclosure. It will also assume
that the air is directed at the power supply, which may also not be the case, so converting to Linear
Feet per Minute (LFM) or meters per second (m/s) provides a more valid criterion as linear air speed
measurements specify where the air is flowing and directly relate to heat transfer.

74
 Thermal Management

5.0 (127.0)

0.225 (5.72) 4.5 (115.57) 1.43

0.20 (5.1) (36.3)

T1
C45
Q3

3.00
(76.2)
2.15
7 CFM (54.6)
AIRFLOW C23
2.55
(64.7) C6 Q1

L3

C28
A
A

0.225 (5.72) 0.15 (3.8)

SMD Component Height
0.20 (5.1)

In the case above, the power supply requires forced air of 7CFM in the direction indicated by the
arrow. The cross sectional area is:-

3” x 1.43” = 4.29 inches2 or 0.0297 feet2

Therefore the air velocity required is:-

7/0.0297 = 236LFM or 1.2m/s

This air speed can be measured locally to the power supply to ensure that sufficient forced air cooling
is being applied.

Evaluation of the Application

The object is to maintain the components used within the power supply at a safe operating
temperature and to ensure adequate service life. Given the huge potential for variation between
one application and another, the only real test is measurement of the temperature of the critical
components within the power supply assembly when installed within the end application under the
worst case external ambient conditions. The other option is to model the application exactly using a
suitable software simulation.

The criteria for safe operation will be specified for the power supply in question or can be obtained
from the manufacturer. For the example above, the specific component temperatures for safe
operation are given on the next page; these are typical for a power supply of this type.

Component Max Temperature

T1 Coil
L3 Coil
120°C
Q1 Body
Q3 Body
C6
105°C
C23

75
Thermal Management

While these figures will ensure safe operation they do not give any indication of the service life that
can be expected. The lifetime of a power supply is largely determined by the temperature of the
electrolytic capacitors, which have a wear out mechanism. As a general rule, capacitor lifetime can be
doubled for every 10°C drop in operating temperature.

The graph below indicates the expected service life of the power supply based on measurement of70000
120000
two key electrolytic capacitors.
100000 60000
Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

50000
80000
120000 70000
40000
60000
100000 60000
30000
40000 50000
80000 20000
40000
20000
60000 10000
30000
0
40000 0
105 95 85 75 65 55 20000
105
20000 10000
C6 Temperature (°C)
0 0
105 95 85 75 65 55 105

C6 Temperature (°C)

185000 185000
165000 165000
145000 145000
Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

125000

Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

185000 125000
185000
105000 105000
165000 165000
85000 85000
145000 145000
65000 65000
125000 125000
45000 45000
105000 105000
25000 25000
85000 85000
5000 5000
65000 65000
105 95 85 75 65 55 105
45000 45000
C23 Temperature (°C)
25000 25000
5000 5000
105 95 85 75 65 55 105
C23 Temperature (°C)

76
 Thermal Management

• Cooling Power Modules

( (
Thermal management is a key element in the1 integration
power modules which are Waste Heat
designed
- Eff%
x Pout
to=be baseplate cooled.
(
1 AC-DC or DC-DC
of baseplate cooled
-1 x Pout
Or module is designed
The power with the
(
power dissipating components thermally bondedEff%to the baseplate, which Eff%
must then be maintained
below the maximum operating temperature under the worst-case conditions of the end system. The
thermal resistance of the cooling scheme must be matched to the power required by the load or end
equipment, the efficiency of the module and the maximum temperature in which it is expected to
operate.

The power dissipated, in Watts, can be determined from the power module efficiency specification
under the worst-case operating system conditions. It is important to consider the actual operating
load and lowest input voltage applied rather than the data sheet headline efficiency. An example of
the variation in efficiency with input voltage and load is given below: -

95%

90%

85%

18V
Efficiency

80%
24V
36V
75%

70%

65%

60%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load (%)

Once the efficiency at the worst-case operating point is established the waste power to be dissipated
as heat is calculated as below: -

( (
Waste Heat =
1 - Eff%
x Pout
( Or
1
-1
( x Pout
Eff% Eff%

Having determined the waste heat/power, the simple model overleaf determines the thermal
resistance required for operation with ∆T defined as the difference between the maximum operating
temperature of the equipment and the maximum baseplate temperature of the power module. The
thermal resistance from the case to heatsink is typically 0.1⁰C/W when using a thermal pad or grease.

95%

90%

85%

18V
Efficiency

80% 77
24V
36V
75%
Thermal Management

θ = ΔT
Q
where θ is thermal resistance in °C/W
ΔT is the temperature difference between two reference points in °C
Q is the heat flux or power passing through the two points in Watts.

This definition allows the calculation of junction temperatures using a thermal circuit similar to an
electrical circuit:
• Ta
• Ta Ta
Ta
sa
sa θsa is thermal resistance
Ts heatsink–to–ambient ˚C/W
Ts
• Ts
• Ts
θcscsis thermal resistance
• cs
• Tc case–to–heatsink ˚C/W
Tc
Tc Tc

Thermal resistance to the flow of heat from the power module to the ambient temperature air
surrounding the package is made up of the thermal resistances of the case to heatsink and heatsink
to ambient interfaces and can be added together to give an overall thermal resistance from power
module to ambient θca.

TC = TA + PD (θCA)

where TC = maximum power supply temperature

TA = ambient temperature
PD = power dissipation
θca = case to ambient thermal resistance

The thermal resistance of the heatsink to ambient is heavily dependent on available airflow meaning
that in convection cooled applications it’s physical size will be greater than in a comparable power
system with forced air or liquid cooling.

When utilising multiple bricks connected to a common heatsink or cold wall the sum of the dissipated
power from each brick in the system under worst case conditions determines the overall thermal
resistance required.

78
 Thermal Management

• Baseplate Cooling
The use of power supplies in harsh or remote environments brings many fundamental design
issues that must be fully understood if long-term reliability is to be attained.

Under these conditions, it is generally accepted that electronic systems must be sealed against
the elements making the removal of unwanted heat particularly difficult. The use of forced-air
cooling is undesirable as it increases system size, adds the maintenance issues of cleaning or
replacing filters and introduces a wear out mechanism in the fan.

A commonly adopted solution is to use a standard power supply and modify the mechanical design to
enable removal of heat from the sealed system. This simple compromise does not really address the
fundamental issues of power supply design for the applications described and a more
practical approach is to select a power supply which has been designed specifically for sealed
enclosure applications.

The extremes of ambient temperature encountered in remote sites can range from -40ºC to over
+40°C. It is common for the temperature within the enclosure to rise some 15 to 25°C above the
external temperature. The positioning of the power supply within the enclosure can help minimize
the ambient temperature in which it operates and this can have a dramatic effect on system reliability.
As a rule of thumb, lifetime halves with every 10°C rise in temperature. The power supply therefore
needs to be able to operate from –40°C to +65°C as a minimum specification.

Remote system enclosures are typically sealed to IP65, IP66 or NEMA 4 standards to prevent ingress
of dust or water. Removal of heat from other electronic equipment and power supplies in a situation
with negligible airflow is the challenge. From the power system perspective, the most effective
solution is to remove the heat using a heatsink that is external to the enclosure. However, most
standard power supplies cannot provide an adequate thermal path between the heat-dissipating
components within the unit and the external environment.

Conventional power supplies dissipate heat into small on-board heatsinks or onto a chassis. The
basic construction is shown in below. Most of the heat is dissipated within the enclosure in which the
power supply is used. Such units typically have to be derated from 50°C, delivering 50% of their full
rated power at 70°C. The derating specification is a general guide based on individual components
within the power supply not exceeding their maximum operating temperatures.

Power transistor
& heatsink Inductor Power transistor

PCB

Construction of typical industrial AC-DC power supply

The successful design of a power supply for use within sealed enclosures relies on creating a path
with low thermal resistance through which conducted heat can be passed from heat- generating
components to the outside world.

79
Thermal Management

The components that generate the most heat in a power supply are distributed throughout the
design, from input to output. They include EMC filter inductions the power FET diode used in an
active PFC circuit, the PFC inductor, power transformers, rectifiers, and power switches. Heat can be
removed from these components by mounting them directly onto a substantial baseplate that in turn
can be affixed to a heatsink, rather than on to the PCB. The heatsink is then located outside of the
enclosure.

Power transistor Baseplate of power supply

Inductor
PCB

External heatsink Ambient

Basic construction of baseplate cooled PSU with all of the major heat-generating
components fixed directly to the baseplate

This construction does demand accurate pre-forming of the leads of the components mounted on
the baseplate, and accurate positioning of the PCB with respect to the baseplate increasing
manufacturing complexity and cost.

With the appropriate heatsink, removal of heat can be so effective that there is no need to derate
the unit until the ambient temperature reaches +70°C. This eliminates the need to over-engineer
the power supply for the application.

Dissipating the Heat: Heatsink Calculations

Three basic mechanisms contribute to heat dissipation: conduction, radiation and convection. All
mechanisms are active to some degree but once heat is transferred from the baseplate to the
heatsink by conduction, free convection is the dominant one.

Effective conduction between the baseplate and heatsink demands flat surfaces in order to achieve
low thermal resistance. Heat transfer can be maximized by the use of a thermal compound that fills
any irregularities on the surfaces. System designers should aim to keep thermal resistance between
baseplate and heatsink to below 0.1°C/W. This is the performance offered by most commonly used
thermal compounds when applied in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions.

Radiation accounts for less than 10% of heat dissipation and precise calculations are complex. In
any case, it is good practice to consider this 10% to be a safety margin.

The degree of convection cooling depends on the heatsink size and type. Heatsink selection involves
the following steps:

1.Calculate the power dissipated as waste heat from the power supply. The efficiency and worst
case load figures are used to determine this using the formula:

( (
Waste Heat =
1 - Eff% (
x Pout or
1 (
-1 x Pout
Eff% Eff%

80
 Thermal Management

2. Estimate the resistance of the thermal interface between the power supply baseplate and the
heatsink. This is typically 0.1°C/W when using a thermal compound.

3. Calculate the maximum allowable temperature rise on the baseplate. The allowable temperature
rise is simply:

TB– TA where TA is the maximum ambient temperature outside of the cabinet

and TB is the maximum allowable baseplate temperature.

4. The required heatsink is defined by its thermal impedance using the formula:

θH = TB – TA
-0.1
Waste Power
5. The final choice is then based on the best physical design of heatsink for the application that can
deliver the required thermal impedance. The system’s construction will determine the maximum
available area for contact with the baseplate of the power supply and the available space outside of
the enclosure will then determine the size, number and arrangement of cooling fins on the heatsink
to meet the dissipation requirement.

Conclusion

The reliability of remotely-sited electronic equipment is fundamentally dependent upon power supply
reliability. The most cost-effective approach to power system design is to use power supplies
designed for the application, which conduct heat via flat baseplates to heatsinks that can be
mounted outside of the enclosure.

• Electrolytic Capacitor Lifetime

Electrolytic capacitor lifetime is a key parameter in power supplies which defines the lifetime of the
product as the only component wear out mechanism. This may well define the service life of the
end product or the service interval required for maintained equipment. The other major wear out
mechanism is the power supply or system cooling fan, where fitted.

As power density requirements become more demanding capacitor lifetime needs careful
consideration and it is important to understand the shortest lifetime part which, depending on factors
such as topology, local heating effects due to layout and the design life of the specific part, may vary
from product to product. It is not unusual for the external heating effects to outweigh the self heating
effects. The key factors affecting capacitor lifetime are discussed below.

Design Lifetime At Rated Temperature

Manufacturers of electrolytic capacitors specify the design lifetime at the maximum ambient
temperature, usually 105°C. This can vary from as little as one or two thousand hours to ten thousand
hours or more. The higher the design lifetime the longer the component will last in a given application
and ambient temperature.

81
 Thermal Management

Ambient Temperature And Local Heating Effects

There are a number of lifetime calculations published by different manufacturers. All of these are
based on the Arrhenius Equation for temperature dependence of reaction rates and determines that
the reaction rate doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. Put another way the reaction rate halves
for every 10°C reduction in temperature. This means that a capacitor rated at five thousand hours at
105°C would have a lifetime of ten thousand hours at 95 °C and twenty thousand hours at 85°C.

The basic equation is given below and the curve shows this translated to a pictorial view of capacitor
lifetime. L : Esmated life (hr)

( Tmax -Ta L 0 : Life at rated temperature (hr)

(
10 Tmax : Rated Temperature (°C)
L= L 0x 2
L : Ta : Ambient
Esmated lifeTemperature
(hr) (°C)

( Tmax -Ta L 0 : Life at rated temperature (hr)

(
10 Tmax : Rated Temperature (°C)
L=L0 x2
Ta : Ambient Temperature (°C)

185000
165000
145000
125000
Lifeme (hrs)

185000 105000
165000 85000
65000
145000
45000
125000
Lifeme (hrs)

25000
105000 5000
105 95 85 75 65 55
85000
C23 Temperature (°C)
65000
45000
Magnitude And Frequency Of Ripple Current Applied
25000
5000 to the ambient temperature and local heating effects, the application of ripple current
In addition
105 95 85 75 65 55
will further heat the capacitor. Ripple currents are generated by the rectification process on both the
input and output stages of the power supply. The power dissipated in the capacitor is determined by
C23 Temperature (°C)

the RMS ripple current and it’s Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR), where P=I2R. The temperature rise
of the specific component is determined by the power dissipated, the radiation factor of the capacitor
and the temperature difference factor or temperature slope from the core to the case. The radiation
factor and temperature difference factors are specified by the capacitor manufacturer.

Manufacturers specify the maximum ripple current at maximum rated ambient temperature.
Multiplication factors can be applied depending on the ambient temperature and the frequency of
the applied ripple current as the ESR reduces as the frequency increases. Typically the ripple current
rating can increase by a factor of 1.7 times when the temperature is reduced from 105°C to 85°C
and by a factor of 1.4-1.5 when the ripple current is applied at 100kHz opposed to 100/120Hz.

82
 Thermal Management

Power Supply Lifetime

All of the above factors are taken in consideration during the design of a power supply and
manufacturers will apply de-rating rules to ensure that the product lifetime is adequate. However,
once the product is manufactured and installed in the end equipment the mission profile, applied load,
local environment, mounting orientation, positioning, surrounding space and any system cooling must
also be taken into consideration.

Measurement of ripple current is typically not practical in this situation but a very good indication of
the lifetime of each electrolytic capacitor can be determined by measuring the case temperature and
applying the Arrhenius equation to the base specified component lifetime.

The table below shows the indicated lifetime of a capacitor rated at two thousand hours compared to
a capacitor rated at five thousand hours at various temperatures assuming operation is 24hrs per day,
7 days per week. If the lifetime is calculated or indicated to be in excess of fifteen years then it should
be assumed as fifteen years.

Temperature 2000 Hour Rated 5000 Hour Rated

105°C 2000hrs (0.23 years) 5000hrs (0.57 years)
95°C 4000hrs (0.46 years) 10000hrs (1.14 years)
85°C 8000hrs (0.91 years) 20000hrs (2.28 years)
75°C 16000hrs (1.82 years) 40000hrs (4.56 years)
65°C 32000hrs (3.65 years) 80000hrs (9.31 years)
55°C 64000hrs (7.30 years) 160000hrs (18.2 years)*

*Lifetime calculations above 15 years should be considered as 15 years maximum

83
Thermal Management

Reliability
• Terminology
Failure Rate λ

Failure rate is defined as the percentage of units failing per unit time. This varies throughout the
life of the equipment and if λ is plotted against time, a characteristic bathtub curve (below) is obtained
for most electronic equipment.to a capacitor rated at five thousand hours at various temperatures
assuming operation is 24hrs per day, 7 days per week. If the lifetime is calculated or indicated to be in
excess of fifteen years then it should be assumed as fifteen years.

A B C
Failure Rate

Time

The curve has three regions, A - Infant mortality, B - Useful life, C - Wear out.

In region A, poor workmanship and substandard components cause failures. This period is usually over
within the first few tens of hours and burn-in is normally employed to prevent these failures occurring
in the field. Burn-in does not entirely stop the failures occurring but is designed to ensure that they
happen within the manufacturing location rather than at the customer’s premises or in the field.

In region B the failure rate is approximately constant and it is only for this region that the following
analysis applies.

In region C, components begin to fail through reaching end of life rather than by random failures.
Electrolytic capacitors dry out, fan bearings seize up, switch mechanisms wear out and so on.
Well implemented preventative maintenance can delay the onset of this region.

Reliability

Reliability is defined as the probability that a piece of equipment operating under specified conditions
will perform satisfactorily for a given period of time. Probability is involved since it is impossible to
predict the behavior with absolute certainty. The criterion for satisfactory performance must be
defined as well as the operating conditions such as input, output, temperature, load etc.

MTBF – Mean Time Between Failures

MTTF – Mean Time To Failure

MTBF applies to equipment that is going to be repaired and returned to service, MTTF to parts that
will be thrown away on failing. MTBF is the inverse of the failure rate and is often misunderstood. It is
often assumed that the MTBF figure indicates a minimum guaranteed time between failures. This
assumption is incorrect, and for this reason the use of failure rate rather than MTBF is recommended.

84
 Thermal Management

The mathematics are expressed as follows:

m=1
λ
Where R (t) = reliability
R (t) = e - λt = e - (t/m)
e = exponential (2.178)
t
m= λ = failure rate

log (n)
( ) 1
R (t)
m
t
= mtbf
= time

This shows that for a constant failure rate, plotting reliability ‘R(t)’ against time ‘t’ gives a negative
exponential curve. When t/m = 1, i.e. after a time ‘t’, numerically equal to the MTBF figure ‘m’, then

R(t) = e-1 = 0.37

1.0
This equation can be interpreted in a
number of ways:
.75
a) If a large number of units are
Reliability: R(t)

considered, only 37% of them will

survive for as long as the MTBF figure. .50

b) For a single unit, the probability that it

will work for as long as its MTBF figure .25
is 37%.

c) The unit will work for as long as its MTBF

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
figure with a 37% Confidence Level.
Time

To put these numbers into context, consider a power supply with an MTBF of 500,000hrs (or a failure
rate of 0.002 failures per 1000hrs), Using the above equation, R(t) for 26,280hrs (three years) is
approximately 0.95 and if such a unit is used 24hrs a day for three years the probability of it surviving
is 95%. The same calculation for a ten year period will give an R(t) of 84%. If 700 units are used, on
average 0.2%/1000hrs will fail, or approximately one per month.

Transatlantic
Service Life
Cable
There is no direct connection or correlation
100 Human
between service life and failure rate. It is
perfectly possible to design a very reliable
Service Life (Years)

Car PSU
product with a short life.
10
A typical example is a missile, which has
to be very very reliable (MTBF of several
Toaster
1.0 million hours), but its service life is only
around 4 minutes (0.06hrs). 25-year-old
humans have an MTBF of about 800 years,
0.1 Missile
(failure rate of 0.1% per year), but not a
comparable service life. If something has a
long MTBF, it does not necessarily have a
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
MBTF long service life.

85
Thermal Management

• Factors Affecting Reliability

The most important factor is good, careful design based on sound experience, resulting in known
safety margins. Unfortunately, this does not show up in any predictions, since they assume a
perfect design.

Many field failures of electronic equipment are not due to the classical random failure pattern
discussed here, but to shortcomings in the design and in the application of the components, as well
as external factors such as occasional voltage surges. These may be outside of the specification but
no one will ever know as all that will be seen is a failed unit. Making the units rugged through careful
design and controlled overstress testing is a very important part of making the product reliable.

The failure rate of the equipment depends on these three factors.

Complexity Keep things simple, because what isn’t there can’t fail but, conversely, what isn’t
there can cause a failure. A complicated or difficult specification will invariably
result in reduced reliability. This is not due to the shortcomings of the design
staff, but to the resultant component count. Every component used will
contribute to the equipment’s unreliability.

Stress For electronic equipment, the most prominent stresses are temperature, voltage,
vibration and temperature rise due to current. The effect of each of these
stresses on each of the components must be considered. In order to achieve
good reliability, various derating factors have to be applied to these stress levels.
The derating has to be traded off against cost and size implications. Great care
and attention to detail is necessary to reduce thermal stresses as far as possible.
The layout has to be such that heat-generating components are kept away from
other components and are adequately cooled. Thermal barriers are used where
necessary and adequate ventilation needs to be provided.

The importance of these provisions cannot be overstressed since the failure rate
of the components will increase with temperature. Decreasing the size of a unit
without increasing its efficiency will make it hotter, and therefore less reliable.

Generic Generic reliability (also known as inherent reliability) refers to the fact that, for
example, film capacitors are more reliable than electrolytic capacitors, wirewrap
|connections more reliable than soldered ones, fixed resistors more reliable than
potentiometers. Components have to be carefully selected to avoid the types
with high generic failure rates. Quite often there is a cost trade-off, as more
reliable components can be more expensive.

Assessment This is the most useful and accurate way of predicting the failure rate.
A number of units are put on life test, at an elevated temperature, and so the
stresses and the environment are controlled.

86
 Thermal Management

Estimating the Failure Rate

The failure rate should be estimated and measured throughout the life of the equipment. During the
design, it is predicted. During the manufacture, it is assessed. During the service life, it is observed.

The failure rate is predicted by evaluating each of the factors affecting reliability for each component
and then summing these to obtain the failure rate of the whole equipment. It is essential that the
database used is defined and used consistently. There are two databases in common use:
MIL-HDBK-217F for the defence industry and Telcordia for telecommuncation and commercial
products.

In general, predictions assume that the design is perfect, the stresses known, everything is within
ratings at all times, so that only random failures occur; every failure of every part will cause the
equipment to fail and that the database is valid. These assumptions are incorrect. The design is less
than perfect, not every failure of every part will cause the equipment to fail, and the database is likely
to be out of date. However, none of this matters as long as the predictions are used
to compare different topologies or approaches rather than to establish an absolute figure for reliability.
This is what predictions should be used for.

Prediction

Parts stress method In this method, each factor affecting reliability for each component is
evaluated. Since the average power supply has over 100 components
and each component about seven factors (stress ratio, generic,
temperature, quality, environment, construction and complexity), this
method requires considerable effort and time. Predictions are usually
made in order to compare different approaches of topologies, i.e.
when detailed design information is not available and the design itself
is still in a fluid state. Under such circumstances it is hardly worthwhile
to expend this effort and the much simpler and quicker Parts count
method is used.

Parts count method In this method, all like components are grouped together, and average
factors allocated for the group. So, for example, instead of working
out all the factors for each of the 15 electrolytic capacitors used there
is only one entry of capacitor with a quantity of 15. Usually only two
factors are allocated, generic and quality. The other factors, including
stress levels, are assumed to be at some realistic level and allowed for
in the calculation. For this reason, the factors are not interchangeable
between the two methods. In general, for power supplies, Telcordia
gives the most favourable result, with
MIL-217 the least favorable. This depends on the mix of components
in the particular equipment, since one database is ‘unfair’ on ICs, and
another on FETs. Hence the importance of comparing results from like
databases only.

87
Thermal Management

During life tests and reliability demonstration tests it is usual to apply greater stresses than normal, so
that the desired result is obtained more quickly. Great care has to be applied to ensure that the
effects of the extra stress are known and proven to be calculable and that no hidden additional
failure mechanisms are activated by the extra stress. The usual extra stress is an increase of
temperature and its effect can be calculated as long as the maximum ratings of the device are
not exceeded.

Prototype Testing

With all the sophisticated computer analysis available, there is still no substitute for thoroughly testing
products or components. One way of doing this would be to perform HALT testing. HALT (Highly
Accelerated Life Test) is used to test as many different conditions as possible and cycling the
temperature, input and load independently.

Manufacturing Methods

Suppliers must be strictly controlled and deliver consistently good product with prior warning of any
changes to processes. Because of the supply chain JIT and QA practices this can be achieved by
dealing with a small number of trusted suppliers.

Manual assembly is prone to errors and to some random, unintentional abuse of the components by
operators, such as ESD. This causes defects, which will show themselves later.

Changing settings produces inconsistency and side effects. A good motto is ‘if it works leave it
alone, if it does not, find the root cause.’ There must be a reason for the deviation and this must be
found and eliminated, rather than masked by an adjustment.

The results from the HALT test can be used to set test limits for production screening. Highly
Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) uses the same equipment as for HALT tests but knowing the
operating and destruct (where possible) limits can be used to screen HALT tested products in
production. This process differs from conventional stress screening in that the climatic and
mechanical stimuli are much higher and consequently the test times are much shorter. HASS can be
summed up as a process used in manufacturing to allow discovery of process changes and prevent
products with latent defects from getting into the field.

• System Reliability
There are two further methods of increasing system reliability.

More reliable components MIL standard or other components of assessed quality could be
used but in industrial and commercial equipment this expense is not
normally justified.

Redundancy In a system where one unit can support the load and two units are
used in parallel, the system is much more reliable since the system
will still work if one unit fails. The probability of both units failing
simultaneously is much lower than that of one unit failing.

Redundancy has a size and cost penalty so normally an n+1 system is used, where n units can support
the load, but n+1 units are used in parallel, 2+1 or 3+1 being the usual combinations. Supposing
the reliability of each unit under the particular conditions is 0.9826, the system reliability for an n+1
system where n=2 would be 0.9991, an improvement of 20 times. (Nearly 60 times in a 1+1 system).

88
 Thermal Management

There are downsides to this approach. More units, higher cost and the need for faulty units to be
brought to the operator’s attention so that they can be replaced, changing units must not make the
system fail (hot swap). The extra circuitry required to monitor all aspects and ensure reliability in
itself increases the failure rate and cost of the system (see page 61 for more details on
redundant operation).

Comparing Reliability

When comparing reliability figures, the following points must be satisfied.

• The database must be stated and must be identical. Comparing a MIL-HDBK-217F prediction with
a MIL-HDBK-217E prediction or a Telcordia prediction is meaningless as there is no correlation.

• The database must be used consistently and exclusively. The result is meaningless if a different
database is used for some components.

• The external stresses and environment must be stated and be identical. (input, load, temperature
etc). The result is meaningless if all the environmental details are not stated or are different.

• The units must be form-fit function interchangeable. If, for example, the ratings are identical, but
one needs an external filter and the other does not then there is no comparison (although you
could work out the failure rate of the filter and add it to the failure rate of the unit).

There is no magic; if one manufacturer predicts 200,000hrs and another states 3,000,000hrs
for a comparable product, then they must have used a different database, a different stress level
or a different environment.

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Legislation

Legislation
• Power Supply Safety
Electrical equipment must be designed to reduce the risk of injury or damage due to electric shock,
fire, radiation, energy related hazards, heat related hazards and chemical hazards.

A safe power supply or DC-DC converter is an essential part of any electronic or electrical product
and must comply with the relevant safety standards. There are a number of standards which are
applicable, depending on the intended application of the end equipment.

There is an international product specific IEC standard for power supplies used to demonstrate
compliance with safety requirements. This comes from the IEC61204 range of standards which covers
both stand alone, or external power supplies, and component power supplies and DC-DC converters
for building in to end equipment. However, most power supplies and DC-DC converters use one or
more of the following standards to demonstrate compliance for safety:

IEC/EN/UL62368-1 - Audiovisual and information technology equipment

IEC/EN/UL60355-1 - Household and similar electrical appliances
IEC/EN/ES60601-1 - Medical electrical equipment
IEC/EN/UL61010-1 - Measurement, control & laboratory equipment
UL508 - Industrial control equipment, often used for DIN rail power supplies

Approvals are separately granted by a number of national test laboratories depending on the target
markets. UL (Underwriters Laboratories) is commonly used for approvals in North America, CSA
(Canadian Standards Association) for Canada and there are a number of European test laboratories
which grant approvals for Europe wide use to the European Norm. UL & CSA also operate a scheme
to grant approvals for both North American markets.

National approvals are generally granted under the CB scheme, the international system for
mutual acceptance of test reports and certificates relating to the safety of electronic and electrical
equipment. The CB scheme is based upon the use of IEC international standards with national
deviations where appropriate.

In the major Asian markets other approvals are commonly required. The requirements are essentially
as laid out in the IEC standards with some additional testing or labelling required.

CCC (China Compulsory Certification) China

CCC safety approval requires a CB report with the appropriate national deviations but also requires
additional EMC testing from a CQC (China Quality Certification Center) accredited test house. CCC is
compulsory for external power supplies sold into China and can also be applied to component power
supplies to be used in end equipment destined for the Chinese market. Unlike other approval bodies,
CCC does not recognize approvals for altitudes between 2000m and 5000m. Products approved for
more than 2000m but less than 5000m can only be approved for 2000m and must be labelled to
indicate that they are not approved for higher altitude.

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 Legislation

PSE (Product Safety Electric Appliance & Materials) Japan

PSE safety approval requires a CB report with the appropriate national deviations along with
compliance to J55032 conducted and radiated emissions. Japan’s Electrical Appliance and Material
Law (DENAN) requires a conformity assessment body to issue a DENAN certificate for type
classification. PSE also requires that the name of the importer into Japan is included on the product
label. The importer takes responsibility for ensuring that the product is compliant and must be
resident in Japan.

KETI (Korean Electrical Testing Institute) Korea

KETI safety approval requires a CB report with the appropriate national deviations, compliance
to KN32 conducted and radiated emissions, KN54 immunity standards and minimum energy
performance standards (MEPS) for external power supplies. KETI also requires that the name of the
manufacturer and country of manufacture is included on the product label along with the telephone
number of the importer who must be resident in Korea.

BSMI (Bureau of Standards, Metrology & Materials) Taiwan

BSMI safety approval requires a CB report with appropriate national deviations and additional EMC
testing. Labelling must include importer information who must be resident in Taiwan and the license is
issued to the importer.

These are just a few examples. There are many other national approval bodies globally with slightly
varying requirements which may need to be considered depending on the target markets of the end
equipment.

Electrical Safety

An electrically safe system relies on the use of safety earthing, the insulation of hazardous voltages
and the control of leakage currents.

Insulation

The five different types of insulation grades are listed below.

Operational/functional insulation Insulation that is necessary only for the correct functioning
of the equipment and does not provide any protection
against electric shock.

Basic insulation Insulation applied to live parts to provide basic protection

against electric shock.

Supplementary insulation Independent insulation applied in addition to basic

insulation in order to provide protection against electric
shock in the event of a failure of basic insulation.

Double insulation Insulation comprising both basic insulation and

supplementary insulation.

Reinforced insulation Single insulation system applied to live parts which provides
a degree of protection against electric shock equivalent to
double insulation.

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Legislation

Creepage and clearance spacing specified in the safety standard must also be met. The requirement
depends on the insulation type, working voltage and pollution degree. The insulation barriers must
then undergo a high voltage test.

Clearance is the distance between Creepage is the distance between

two points through air two points over the surface

Earthing/Grounding

The two types of earth are listed below:

Functional earth This does not provide any safety function, for example the screen on
an external power supply output lead.
Protective earth This provides protection against electric shock in a class I system and must meet
certain performance criteria, such as resistance.

Earth Leakage Current

Current that flows down the earth conductor is defined as earth leakage current. To prevent the risk
of electric shock in the event of the earth becoming disconnected, the maximum value is defined in
the specific safety standard. Within the power supply the main contributors to the earth leakage
current are the EMC filter Y capacitors.

L
Primary
N

PE Y Capacitors

Earth Leakage
Current
Class I Systems

Class I systems rely on earthing and insulation to provide a means of protection. In the event of the
basic insulation between live and earth failing the protective earth provides a path for the fault
current to flow, causing a fuse or circuit breaker to trip. The diagram below shows the insulation
diagram of a class I power supply.

Double or Reinforced
Insulaon

L
Primary Secondary
N

PE Basic Insulaon

PE

92

Double or Reinforced
 Primary Secondary
N
Legislation
PE Basic Insulaon

Class II Systems
PE
Class II systems rely on insulation only to protect against electric shock. The diagram below shows
the insulation diagram of a class II power supply.

Double or Reinforced
Insulaon

L
Primary Secondary
N

Double or Reinforced
Insulaon

• Medical Safety PE

Designing in safety is essential for medical devices and IEC60601-1 is the cornerstone standard
addressing the risks and requirements for medical device safety. The standard covers equipment,
provided with not more than one connection to a particular mains supply and intended to diagnose,
treat, or monitor patients or for compensation, alleviation of disease, injury, or disability. It also covers
applied parts, the part of the medical device which, in order for the medical device to perform its
function, deliberately comes into direct contact with a patient or has parts which are likely to come
into contact with the patient during normal use.

Applied Parts

The 60601-1 suite of standards defines Applied Parts according to the type of patient contact and
the type or nature of the medical device. The current version of 60601-1 is the 3rd edition which was
first published in December 2005 has been adopted in all major countries and regions of the world as
the following latest versions:

IEC 60601-1: Edition 3.1, 2012-08

Europe : EN 60601-1: 2006 + CORR: 2010+A1 (2013)
USA: ANSI/AAMI ES60601-1 (2005 + C1:09 + A2:10+A1(R2012))
Canada CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 60601-1 (2008)+A1 (2014)

Each classification within the standard has requirements for protection against electric shock. The
three classifications are detailed below, in order of the least stringent to the most stringent:

Type B (Body)

Type B classification is given to applied parts with are generally not conductive and may be connected
to Earth.

Type BF (Body Floating)

Type BF classification is given to applied parts which are electrically connected to the patient and
must be floating and separated from Earth. This classification does not include applied parts which are
in direct contact to the heart.

Type CF (Cardiac Floating)

Type CF classification is given to applied parts suitable for direct cardiac connection. This means
connection to the heart of the patient including intravenous connection such as dialysis. These
applied parts must be floating and separated from Earth.
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Legislation

Isolation Requirements

Patient connected medical devices are required to provide two Means Of Protection (MOP) to
prevent applied parts and other accessible parts from exceeding the limitations of voltage, current or
energy. A compliant protective earth connection provides 1 x MOP, basic isolation also provides
1 x MOP & Reinforced isolation provides 2 x MOP. Means of protection can be categorized as Means
of Operator Protection (MOOP) or Means of Patient Protection (MOPP). In devices intended for
patient connection 2 x MOPP are required. Power architectures for use in medical devices with type
BF & CF classification are required to provide 2 x MOPP from primary to secondary,
1 x MOPP from primary to earth and additional safety isolation from the secondary output of the
power system to earth also rated at 1 x MOPP, all at the (highest rated) incoming AC line voltage.

Once the type of medical device has been defined an isolation diagram can be constructed identifying
the main primary circuits, secondary circuits and applied parts allowing different concepts to be
analyzed to achieve the required means of protection. Following is a typical isolation diagram for a
power system meeting the requirements for a BF & CF applied part. Isolation barrier 1 is contained
within a standard, medically approved, 230VAC to 12VDC power supply. Isolation barrier 2 is
contained within a 12VDC to 48VDC medically approved DC-DC converter.

Signal Ports

AP: Applied Part

B(xx): Basic insulation
Live (working voltage)
MP LP AP D: Double insulation
Neutral (230) (12) (48) LP: Live part
MP: Mains part
OP: Operational insulation
B (230) D/R (230) D/R (60) D/R (48)
OP B(230) B(230) R: Reinforced insulation
(working voltage)
Paent

PE Isolaon Isolaon
Barrier 1 Barrier 2

Typical medical device with patient connection

The table below outlines the creepage & clearance distances required for both MOOP and MOPP and
the test voltages to be applied based on 250VAC working voltage.

MOOP MOPP
Insulation Air Creepage Air Creepage Test
Test Voltage
Clearance Distance Clearance Distance Voltage
Basic (1 x MOP) 2.0mm 3.2mm 1500VAC 2.5mm 4.0mm 1500VAC
Double or
4.0mm 6.4mm 3000VAC 5.0mm 8.0mm 4000VAC
Reinforced ( 2 x MOP)

Insulation test voltages based on 250VAC working voltage

KEY: MOP: Means of Protection, MOOP: Means of Operation Protection, MOPP: Means of Patient Protection

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 Legislation

Leakage Currents

Additionally, the power system must be designed to limit the touch current, patient auxiliary current
and patient leakage current. For example, in BF applications the maximum allowable values for the
touch current are 100μA in normal conditions and 500μA in a Single Fault Condition (SFC), which
effectively limits the system earth leakage current to 500μA in normal operation. The maximum
allowable patient auxiliary current and patient leakage currents are defined in the table below.

Type B Type BF Type C

Insulation Description Applied Part Applied Part Applied Part
NC SFC NC SFC NC SFC
Patient Auxilliary d.c. 10 50 10 50 10 50
Current a.c. 100 500 100 500 10 500

From PATIENT d.c. 10 50 10 50 10 50

connection to earth a.c. 100 500 100 500 10 500
Patient Leakage
Current Caused by an d.c. 10 50 10 50 10 50
external voltage
on a SIP/SOP a.c. 100 500 100 500 10 500

With the same types d.c. 50 100 50 100 50 100

of APPLIED PART
Total Patient connected together a.c. 500 1000 500 1000 50 1000
Leakage Current*
Caused by an d.c. 50 100 50 100 50 100
external voltage
on a SIP/SOP a.c. 500 1000 500 1000 50 1000

Current in µA KEY: NC: Normal condition, SFC: Single Fault Condition

* Total PATIENT LEAKAGE CURRENT values are only applicable to equipment having multiple APPLIED PARTS.
The individual APPLIED PARTS shall comply with the PATIENT LEAKAGE CURRENT values.

The use of approved AC-DC power supplies and approved DC-DC converters, which provide the
necessary isolation combined with low isolation capacitance and leakage currents, provide an easy to
integrate, low risk power system architecture for medical equipment.

Safety for Home Healthcare and Non-Hospital Environments

For medical devices to be used in home healthcare and non-hospital environments there are
additional requirements for the power system.

The AC input voltage operating range is extended down to 85VAC or 80VAC, depending on the
criticality of the device, and the insulation system must be class II due to the uncertainty of the
integrity of the earth or ground connection at the point of use.

Medical devices designed for use in the home or non-hospital environments often employ external
power supplies which are required to comply with a minimum ingress protection rating of IP21 in
addition to the AC voltage and insulation system requirements above.

Plug top and desktop external power supplies with safety agency approval to IEC/EN/ES 60601-1-
11 (requirements for medical electrical equipment and medical electrical systems used in the home
healthcare environment) are readily available, simplifying the safety approval process for home
healthcare medical devices.

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Legislation

• Safety for Household and Similar Electrical Appliances

Scope

IEC 60335 Part 1 is a safety standard for household and similar electrical appliances that defines how
products in this category can meet the overall requirements of the Low Voltage Directive and others
such as the Machinery Directive or the Construction Products Directive, as relevant, in recognition of
a typical household having electrical equipment intended for many different uses.

Because products vary in type and use the standard includes over 100 Part 2 standards which relate
to the requirements of specific products. The relevant Part 2 document must be consulted and
takes precedence over the general requirements of Part 1. IEC 60664-1, Insulation coordination for
equipment within low-voltage systems, principles, requirements, and tests is also often referenced.
A modern kitchen might have professional grade appliances which are covered by the standard.
Equally, commercial premises have equipment intended for the domestic market; examples would be
hotels, restaurants, shops, offices and anywhere with a house-keeping function such as care homes.
The standard covers all these areas with the increasingly blurred distinction between office, home
and medical. IEC 60335 covers rated input voltage not more than 250VAC single-phase and 480VAC
3-phase as well as battery operated equipment but some specific household products such as power
tools are covered by their own separate standards. The standard specifically does not apply to audio,
video and similar electronic apparatus, appliances for medical purposes, hand-held motor-operated
electric tools, personal computers and similar equipment or transportable motor-operated electric
tools.

Implications For Power Supply Design

IEC 62368 is the common standard applied to information technology and audiovisual equipment. IEC
60601 is the equivalent for medical. Power products meeting these standards would not necessarily
meet the requirements of IEC 60335 though in some areas it is less stringent. Attention must be paid
to creepage & clearance distances which are related to switching frequency in IEC60664, in addition
to working voltage, as shown below for a pollution degree 1 environment. The values are multiplied by
1.2 and 1.4 for pollution degree 2 and 3 respectively

1.2

1
Peak working voltage (kV)

0.8

30kHz < f < 100kHz

0.6
100kHz < f < 200kHz
200kHz < f < 400kHz
0.4
Minimum creepage distances for high
0.2 frequency working voltages IEC60664

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Creepage (mm)

Creepage distances depend on frequency, not just voltage

96
 Legislation

Attention must also be paid to Protective Electronic Circuits (PECs) and the standard requires two
bridging capacitors rather than the one required for information technology.

In the latest edition, the 60335 standard embraces the realities of modern household equipment. It
is likely to be smart, have electronic controls and may be internet connected. The electronics may be
part of the safety provisions of the equipment, for example many ON/OFF controls are now digital
inputs to a processor putting the product into a ‘standby’ mode. If the electronics is monitoring
temperature and relies on that ON/OFF control to disconnect the device, the electronics is part of
safety. The standard therefore considers failures in the electronics in conjunction with another single
fault elsewhere, effectively two faults. This contrasts with the IT and medical safety standards which
look for safe operation only after imposed single faults.

EMC

IT & medical equipment must meet the provisions of the EMC directive which mandates compliance
with the appropriate standard defining severity in the EN 61000-4 series. The product is categorised
as to whether it continues to function, interrupts, or fails. However, failing in a way that compromises
other safety protection features in the equipment is not evaluated. In IEC 60335 this is considered
in recognition that the environment is not well controlled, and equipment may not be routinely
maintained. Consequently, a failure is imposed in any PECs and then the EMC tests conducted to
check for safety hazards. The severity levels of susceptibility are typically set high and significantly,
surge arrestors on mains power supply inputs are disconnected during the tests. The rationale for
this is that these components can have wear-out mechanisms and cannot be assumed to be effective
after periods in service. Consequently, there are three abnormal conditions, a failed PEC, a worn-out
surge arrestor and an EMI surge or transient.

Integral power supply products have to be designed to withstand these stress levels without surge
arrestors and not fail or induce failures in a hazardous way. They must not respond to the stimulus
and PEC failure by switching into an operating condition from a safe standby or off condition set by
the first PEC failure.

Software and Firmware

A specific requirement in household equipment is that any software or firmware control of the
product should be robust under single fault conditions and with external EMC stimulus applied.
The software should not have any systematic bugs and is subject to a program of verification and
validation during development to ensure that safety is not compromised. The hardware comprising
the program electronics needs to be evaluated with Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA). All this
with an existing first fault and electromagnetic interference and at any identified critical point in the
program execution. For comprehensive protection, redundant hardware may need to be added or
effective self-test and reporting schemes. Power supplies may include digital signal processing and
control via firmware which is affected by these requirements.

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Legislation

• High Voltage Safety Testing

AC input power supplies are subjected to high voltage or hi-pot testing to verify the integrity of the
insulation system employed. There are a number of types or classes of insulation required depending
on the working voltage and the insulation class of the product, which are well defined in the various
safety standards. To test finished products requires care, particularly with class I insulation systems
where a protective earth is employed. Where class II insulation systems are employed the user may
test to the specified primary to secondary isolation voltage.

Insulation Types

The diagram below shows a typical class I AC mains input power supply insulation system.
Between primary (AC input) and secondary (DC output) reinforced insulation is implemented.
Between primary and earth basic insulation is implemented.
Between secondary and earth operational insulation or basic insulation may be implemented
depending on the target application.
Remove Re
Class I AC Power Supply Insulation System

C1 R C3 C1 R C3
R - Reinforced insulation

Primary Secondary
B - Basic insulation
Primary

O - Operational insulation
C2 C4 C2 C4

Earthed Chassis Earthed Chassis

B O/B B Remove O/B

Test requirements for the power supply are categorized into two groups; type testing or design
verification and production test. Type tests are performed by the safety agency and are intended to
prove that the construction of the power supply meets the requirements dictated by the relevant
safety standard. For single phase input IT/Industrial products and medical products the type test
requirements are as follows:

IT/Industrial Primary to secondary 3000VAC, or the equivalent DC voltage

Primary to earth 1500VAC, or the equivalent DC voltage
Secondary to earth No requirement provided the secondary voltage is less than
42.4VAC or 60VDC for operational insulation
1500VAC or the DC equivalent for basic insulation

Medical Primary to secondary 4000VAC, or the equivalent DC voltage

Primary to earth 1500VAC, or the equivalent DC voltage
Secondary to earth No requirement provided the secondary voltage is less than
42.4VAC or 60VDC for operational insulation
1500VAC or the DC equivalent for basic insulation

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 Legislation

Production tests are performed during the manufacturing process and are intended to ensure
integrity of safety critical insulation. Production line testing is conducted on both reinforced and basic
insulation.

Reinforced insulation cannot be tested without over-stressing basic insulation on the end product.
Safety agencies therefore allow manufacturers to test reinforced insulation separately during the
manufacturing process meaning that transformers and other primary to secondary isolation barriers
are tested prior to their incorporation into the product. Only primary to earth or basic insulation is
tested on the final assembly prior to shipping each product.

Should a user or safety agency engineer require verification of the type tests on a complete power
supply precautions must be taken to ensure that a correct result is achieved and the insulation is not
damaged. Where basic insulation is to be verified no special considerations need to be taken and
1500VAC can be applied from primary or secondary to earth. If the primary to secondary insulation is
to be verified consideration must be made to how the test is performed.

For products employing operational insulation between output and earth, basic insulation exists
between primary and earth and operational insulation exists between secondary and earth. Applying
3000VAC directly from primary to secondary on the finished product will over stress the primary to
earth and secondary to earth insulation which may result in an apparent failure.

For products employing basic insulation from output to earth a different problem can occur where the
input common mode capacitance is much lower volume than the output common mode capacitance.
This also results in overstressing of the primary to earth isolation being overstressed as these
two capacitance act as a potential divider dropping more of the applied voltage across the lower
capacitance which has higher impedance.

To test the reinforced insulation barrier the power supply needs to be removed from any earthed
chassis and all paths to earth should be removed to ensure that basic and operational insulation
barriers are not over stressed during the test. This entails removal of Y-capacitors and gas discharge
tubes where used.

On many products not all potential paths can be Remove Remove Chassis
removed. PCB’s may utilize earth traces between
primary and secondary while complying with
creepage and clearance requirements. In some
instances
C1
a breakdown
R
or arcing may be observed
C3 C1 R C3
which can lead to component failure and render the
power supply inoperable. This does not indicate a
Primary failure of the reinforced insulation between primary
Secondary Primary Secondary

and secondary that is the focus of the test.

Type testing
C2
on C4
a finished power supply may result C2 C4

in failure. It is difficult to isolate the test to the

individual components and isolation barriers in
question and this extends to testing performed
Earthed Chassis Earthed Chassis
once theB product is installed
O/B in the end application. B Remove O/B
Over stressing components during these tests
Power supply disassembly may be required for
cannot always be avoided and if tests are performed
type testing
incorrectly reliability may be affected.

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Legislation

• Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

EMC describes how items of electrical and electronic equipment interact with each other when they
act as either sources or receivers of noise. These two types of interaction are described as emissions
and immunity.

Emissions

Emissions are electrical noise generated by the power supply or DC-DC converter or its electronic
load and transmitted along the input and output cables as conducted noise or from the outer casing &
cables as radiated noise. Electrical noise is generated at the switching frequency and harmonics of the
switching frequency. Higher frequency noise is generated at frequencies associated with the rise and
fall times of the switching edges and their harmonics. If left unchecked electrical noise could interfere
with the correct and safe operation of nearby electrical equipment and it is therefore a requirement
to restrict the amount of noise generated. In particularly sensitive applications careful cable routing,
screened cables and external filtering may need to be employed.

The European Union 2014/30/EU EMC directive imposes limits on the amount of noise that
equipment can emit. In the USA, the limits are set by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission).
In Asia the CISPR and FCC standards are widely accepted by the various approval bodies.

Conducted Noise

Conducted noise is that which travels along physical routes between pieces of equipment. We
usually think of these paths as being the mains cables which can transmit noise generated by one
piece of equipment along the mains supply (within an installation, a single building or even separate
buildings) and which can then affect other pieces of equipment connected to the same mains
system, or as the cables which directly connect one piece of equipment to another, such as DC
cables or signal and control wires.

The noise takes one of two forms according to whether it is common to the ground system or exists
between differing parts of the electrical circuit.

Common mode noise exists within different parts of the circuit and is common to the ground plane.
On the mains input to a piece of electrical equipment it can be measured between the line conductor
and the earth conductor, or between the neutral conductor and the earth conductor. Differential
mode noise exists between parts of the circuit with different potentials. On the mains input to
electrical equipment it can be measured between the line conductor and the neutral conductor.

Line

Common Differenal
mode noise mode noise

Neutral

Common
mode noise

Earth

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 Legislation

Differential Mode Noise

Differential mode noise is primarily generated by rapid

changes in current. Within a switch mode power supply, the
primary circuit is opened and closed by means of a switching
device such as a MOSFET. The current flowing through
the circuit goes through a continuous cycle of changing
from a maximum value to zero and vice versa as the switch
opens and closes. The rate of current change is very fast,
perhaps in the order of 50ns, and if the primary current was
in the order of 1A, the change would be 1A in 50ns or put I
I
another way, 20 million A/s. The impedance of the printed
circuit traces will be significant at current changes of this
magnitude and unwanted voltages will be generated along
the traces in the form of noise.

Common Mode Noise

Common mode noise is primarily generated by changes in

voltage. The same switching device which is breaking the
current in the primary circuit is also switching a voltage. The
voltage could be as high as 600V and this may be being
interrupted in the order of 50ns meaning that there could be
a voltage change rate of 12V/ns or 12,000 million volts per
second.

The unwanted capacitance found around the switching V

element, for example between its case and the heatsink V
Parasic
to which it is attached will be significant at these levels of Parasic
capacitance
voltage change and significant voltages in the form of noise capacitance
will be generated.

Radiated Noise

Electrical noise can radiate from the enclosure or casing of the equipment and from its connecting
cables. It will escape through the seams, ventilation slots, display areas and so on and travel in any
direction through the air. In order to successfully propagate through air, the wavelength will be
shorter than for conducted emissions meaning that frequencies will be higher. While conducted
emissions are measured up to a frequency of 30MHz, radiated emissions are typically measured up to
1GHz.

Standards

In the US, EMC standards are written and enforced by the FCC covering both radiated and conducted
emissions for all commercial and non milatary sources. The FCC standard is harmonized with CISPR
standards, and these are sometimes used instead to show compliance.

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In Europe, the EMC directive does not define what the required levels are which need to be met so
we rely on international standards. There are three different types published. Product-specific
standards define the allowable EMC performance of particular types of product. If a product-specific
standard exists, then it must be used. Where a type of equipment doesn’t have an associated
product standard, generic standards can be used. As the term generic suggests, they contain
requirements which cover many types of equipment and therefore some of the tests listed are not
relevant or adhered to. The product specific and generic standards refer to basic standards.
These are the ones which define the exact test set up as well as the limits allowed. In Asia the CISPR
and FCC standards are widely accepted.

CISPR Conducted Emission Limits

Class A limits (dBµV) Class B limits (dBµV)

CISPR Limit CISPR Limit
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Quasi-peak Average Quasi-peak Average

0.15-0.5 79 66 0.15-0.5 66-56* 56-46*

0.5-30 73 60 0.5-5 56 46

0.5-30 60 50

*Limit reduces with log frequency

Class A limits (dBµV) Class B limits (dBµV)

CISPR Limit CISPR Limit

Frequency Frequency
(MHz) 3m 10m (MHz) 3m 10m

30 - 230 50.5 Quasi Peak 40 Quasi Peak 30 - 230 40.5 Quasi Peak 30 Quasi Peak
230 - 1000 57.5 Quasi Peak 47 Quasi Peak 230 - 1000 47.5 Quasi Peak 37 Quasi Peak

76 Peak 70 Peak
1000 - 3000 1000 - 3000
56 Average 50 Average

80 Peak 74 Peak
3000 - 6000 3000 - 6000
60 Average 54 Average

For power supplies, the product-specific standard, IEC61204-3, takes precedence over the generic
standards. For emissions, it defines the following basic standards:

CISPR32 for conducted emissions (maximum of level B)

CISPR32 for radiated emissions (maximum of level A)
IEC61000-3-2 for harmonic currents
IEC61000-3-3 for voltage flicker

Sometimes there are other basic standards which need to be applied. For example, EN55014 is
applicable to motor operated household equipment, CISPR11 is applicable to industrial, scientific
and medical equipment. These basic standards will be called into use by product family standards
applicable to end user equipment.

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Conducted Noise

Conducted noise values are dependent upon the local impedance of the mains system at the location
at which the measurement is being done. Mains impedances vary throughout a network and they
could be vastly different throughout the world. A Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN),
also known as an Artificial Mains Network (AMN) is used to give a defined mains impedance to the
measurement system of 50Ω In the case of CISPR32, the noise is measured from 150kHz to 30MHz
and two readings must be taken. These are a quasi peak measurement and an average measurement.
Both must be under their respective limit lines in order for the equipment to pass.

Radiated Noise

The services of a dedicated test house is normally required to measure radiated noise. The test should
be performed on a large area known as an Open Area Test Site (OATS), using the 10m limits which
is free from reflecting surfaces and calibrated so that the influence of any reflections from far away
is known. The reflections will either add to the original signal, or detract from it depending upon the
phase shift of the reflection. The emissions from all sides of the equipment must be taken and for
each face the antenna will be moved between heights of one and four meters to obtain the worst
case reading. In addition, the antenna will be positioned with its elements alternately horizontal and
vertical, again to obtain the worst case reading. Measurements can also be made in a callibrated
screened room, usually using the 3m limits.

EMC Filtering

Power supplies and DC-DC converters typically incorporate an in-built input filter to reduce the
conducted emissions. High density DC-DC and AC-DC power modules may not include a filter and
require it to be integrated into the end application, using data provided by the manufacturer. In either
case, it will have two parts; one to attenuate the common mode noise, the other to attenuate the
differential mode noise. Common mode noise can be attenuated by use of Y capacitors between line
or positive and ground and between neutral or negative and ground in conjunction with a common
mode inductor.
L

L Y

N Y

N
Differential mode noise is attenuated by use of an X capacitor between the line or positive and the
neutral or negative in conjunction with a differential mode inductor. Sometimes the differential mode
inductor is formed from the leakage inductance of the common mode inductor so that there is only
one visible wound component. L

X X

X X

L 103

L Y
 N
Legislation

When combined the resulting filter may look like this:

X X

Sometimes the built-in filter attenuation is not adequate for application. This may be because the
power supply is designed to meet the lesser requirements of an industrial environment but is being
used in the more stringent light industrial or residential environment. Perhaps several power supplies
are being used in a single piece of equipment and the resulting emissions must be reduced, or
perhaps noise from the load itself is being coupled into the input of the power supply. In all these
instances an external filter is required.

Filter Selection

There are some basic steps to follow when choosing a filter.

Mechanical format Is the filter going to be mounted within the equipment where it can be fixed
to a panel or should it also provide the extra functions of being the mains
input connector and perhaps contain an on/off switch? If it is the former, a
chassis mount filter can be used. These will generally have faston terminals
for easy connection but may also come with flying leads. IEC inlet filters
can have built-in on/off switches and fuse holders. They can be mounted
by either screw fixings or by use of self locking lugs. Generally, for metal
chassis equipment, the screw fixing variety will provide a lower impedance
earth path for the circulating noise down to ground.

Input current The filter should be able to pass the maximum working current of the
equipment so as not to overheat but generally the lower the current
capacity within a filter series, the higher its attenuation.

Attenuation required A filter will be required to reduce the noise at certain frequencies. By how
much and at which frequencies is information which will not readily be
known without having first performed a conducted noise measurement.
Filters have differing attenuation and, for a given current rating, the higher
the attenuation the larger the filter. Higher levels of attenuation will require
the use of multi-stage filters.

Immunity

Immunity is concerned with how a piece of equipment behaves when subjected to external electrical
or magnetic influences, either conducted or radiated noise from natural sources such as lightning,
electrostatic build up or solar radiation or may be from man made sources such as radio or mobile
phone transmissions, commutation noise from electrical motors or emissions from power supplies and
other switching devices.

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Conducted Immunity Phenomena

A power supply or piece of electrical equipment is subject to conducted noise via the mains
connection, a DC output or via the signal and control lines. The noise could take various forms from
brown-outs of the mains, to single short duration but high voltage spikes, to RF frequency noise
coupled into the cables and conducted into the equipment.

Radiated Immunity Phenomena

Noise can also directly enter a system via the air in the form of electrical or magnetic fields. The field
is picked up by the cables attached to a piece of equipment or by the internal PCBs themselves and
can be in the form of electromagnetic fields generated by a mobile phone or the magnetic field
generated from a nearby transformer.

Standards

The product standard for power supplies, EN61204-3, lists all of the basic immunity standards
that are applicable to a power supply. These are listed below. For each type of test there are two
important factors: the test severity level and the performance criteria which defines how the
equipment operates while the test is being carried out.

Performance criteria A There is no change in operating status of the equipment. For a power
supply this means that it will continue to operate and no signals will
change state.

Performance criteria B There is a loss of function while the test is being applied, but when
the test stops, the operating parameters automatically return to
normal. For a power supply, this means that the output may go out of
regulation and signals may change state but only during the test.

Performance criteria C There is a loss of function while the test is being applied and a manual
reset or intervention is required to restore the original operating
parameters.

While the standard allows criteria C for some of the immunity phenomena, products are designed to
comply with criteria A or criteria B as user intervention is undesierable and may be impractical. The
test severity levels applied are determined by the end application product or product family standard,
e.g. multimedia equipment, household appliances, medical devices. Where there is no relevant
product specific standard the generic standards are used, e.g. industrial environments/non industrial
environments.

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Legislation

Electrostatic Discharge: IEC61000-4-2

There are three types of test specified in the standard; contact discharge, air discharge and
discharge onto a coupling plane. The test is to simulate the effect of a person charging themselves
up (to many kV) and then touching either the equipment directly or adjacent equipment which could
in turn affect the equipment’s behavior.

RF Electromagnetic Field: IEC61000-4-3

This test simulates the fields given off by mobile phones. The field is generated by
a sweeping signal generator with a 1kHz modulation function. The signal is amplified and radiated
using an antenna. The field strengths are high enough and in the frequency band to prevent local radio
and TV stations and more importantly emergency services communications from working so the test
must be performed in a screened chamber.

Electrical Fast Transients: IEC61000-4-4

This test is to simulate switching transients generated by motor or solenoid activation or perhaps
from fluorescent lighting. The pulse is very short, only 50ns with a 5ns rise time and is applied
between the two lines and the earth. Generally, the test is only applied to the AC input as the DC
lines and the signal and control lines on a power supply are normally too short.

Voltage Surge: IEC61000-4-5

This test is to simulate the effects of a near lightning strike. The duration and energy content of the
pulse are much greater than for the electrical fast transients test with the duration being 50µs with a
1.2µs rise time. The pulse is applied between each line and earth and also between lines themselves.

RF Conducted: IEC61000-4-6

This test is similar to the RF radiated electromagnetic field test and must be applied under similar
conditions within a screened chamber.

Power Frequency Magnetic Field: IEC61000-4-8

This test represents magnetic disturbances at the power frequencies of 50Hz and 60Hz.

Voltage Dips and Interruptions: IEC61000-4-11

A voltage dip represents the brown-out conditions experienced from time to time on the power grid,
while a voltage interruption represents a complete black out condition.

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 Legislation

CE Marking

CE marking within Europe is a means of identifying a product as meeting all the relevant European
directives. These directives have been introduced as a way of allowing free trade within the EU
member states as individual members are no longer allowed to prevent trade on technical grounds.
By displaying the CE mark, the product is identified to customs and border controls as complying with
the necessary directives.

For component power supplies only the Low Voltage Directive (LVD) and restriction of hazardous
substances (RoHS) are applicable. For external power supplies the EMC directive and the Energy
Related Products (ErP) directive also apply.

Low Voltage Directive (LVD) 2014/35/EU

The LVD is applicable to equipment designed for use with a voltage rating of between 50 and
1000VAC and between 75 and 1500VDC. The directive itself does not define how to comply with it
but by conforming to one of the relevant standards, such as EN62368-1 compliance is demonstrated.

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Directive 2014/30/EU

This directive is applicable to apparatus liable to cause electromagnetic disturbance or the

performance of which is liable to be affected by such disturbance. Again, the directive does not
state how compliance should be achieved, but there are two routes to compliance. The first is the
standards route whereby the product is tested against either product specific or generic standards.
The second is the technical construction file route. This would be chosen where a piece of equipment
may be too large to undergo testing, or it may be that some of the tests are just not relevant.
The arguments for this would be laid down in the TCF which would be assessed and signed by a
competent body.

Energy Related Products Directive (ErP) 2009/125/EC

The ErP (formerly known as EuP) Directive provides a framework for setting eco-design requirements
for energy related products. Commission regulation No 209/1782 implements the directive for
external power supplies with regard to no load power consumption and active efficiency.

Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) 2011/65/EU and Amending Directive 2015/863

The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive 2011/65/EU entered into force in July 2011
and became a CE marking directive at the same time. This directive restricts the use of hazardous
materials in electronic and electrical equipment. It is closely linked with the Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) 2012/19/EU which sets collection, recycling and recovery
targets for electrical goods.

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Legislation

Declaration of Conformity (DofC)

The CE mark must be accompanied by a declaration of conformity. This will include:

• Product identification number

• The name and address of the manufacturer or authorised representative
• Sole responsibility declaration
• Description of the merchant or equipment
• Reference to harmonized product standards used
• Date of issue
• Name of signatory and position

The LVD and RoHS directives relate to open frame, U channel, chassis mount and component
embedded products. The LVD, RoHS, EMC and ErP directives relate to external plug top and desktop
products.

UKCA Marking

Since the UK left the EU customs union, the CE mark is no longer valid for products sold in the UK to
denote conformity with the required legislation. An alternative mark has been introduced to take its
place, the UKCA mark. Products intended to be sold into both Europe and the UK bear both marks.

The UKCA mark is applied to a product on a self-declaration basis in the same way as the CE mark. A
UK self-declaration of conformity (UK DofC) is required for each product to identify the UK legislation
the product conforms to. The legislation follows the EU requirements meaning that for each European
Directive there is a corresponding piece of UK legislation. For power supplies and DC-DC converters
the equivalent legislation is as follows: -

European Directive UK Legislation

Low Voltage Directive

The Electrical Equipement (Safety) Regulation 2016, SI 2016 No.1101
2014/35/EU

EMC Directive 2014/30/EU Electromagnetic Compatibility Regulations 2016, SI 2016 No.1091

RoHS Directive 2011/65/EU The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and
as amended by 2015 Electronic Equipment Regulations 2012, SI 2012 No.3032

Ecodesign Directive
2009/125/EC and amending
The Ecodesign for Energy-Related Products and Energy Information
Directives implemented by
(Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019, SI 2019 No.539
Comission Regulations (EU)
2019/1782

Conformity to the UK regulations is demonstrated by meeting the same existing international or

EN standards that are used for EU conformity. Although the UK does not recognise the EU Official
Journal (OJ), it is expected that a UK equivalent will be published in time. In line with the CE
marking requirements, the Electrical Equipment (Safety) Regulations 2016, SI 2016 No. 1101, and
the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Regulations 2012, SI 2012 No. 3032 apply to open frame, u-channel, chassis mount and component
embedded products.

The Electromagnetic Compatibility Regulations 2016, SI 2016 No1091 an the Ecodesign for Energy-
Related Products and Energy Information Regulations 2019, SI 2019 apply to external plug top and
desktop products in addition.
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 Legislation

• Energy Efficiency Legislation for External Power Supplies (EPS)

With the global concerns over carbon emissions, most countries have introduced legislation to
regulate the energy efficiency of external power supplies (EPS), so that as little as possible of our
natural resource is wasted. This legislation encourages power supply manufacturers to introduce EPS
models with higher efficiency and lower no-load power consumption and, by gradually tightening the
limits on these figures, governments and regulatory bodies around the world are effectively driving
the power supply industry to produce more energy efficient products.

In the USA there are a number of bodies legislating on energy efficiency; the California Energy
Commission (CEC), US Congress with its Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) and the
United States Department of Energy (DoE). There is also Energy Star that sets limits for electrical and
electronic equipment.

In Europe there is the Energy related Products (ErP) Directive with its latest Commission Regulation
No 2019/1782 and the UK Ecodesign for Energy-Related Products and Energy Information
Regulations 2019, SI 2019 No. 539 which s based on the ErP directive. Other examples are Natural
Resources Canada (NRCan) and Australia’s Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS).
The standards are broadly similar describing levels of energy efficiency in Roman numerals (level I to
VI), where level I means, an EPS doesn’t conform to any standard, and VI means the EPS conforms to
the most stringent standard.

Of the legislation produced by these bodies, the US DoE and EU/UK rules are of primary interest
to power supply manufacturers because they represent the most stringent requirements. Products
designed for global markets are designed to comply with the most stringent requirements in mind,
since it’s more straightforward to produce one product for all markets than to continue producing
older designs that can only be sold in one particular territory.

Energy Efficiency Limits

The legislation focuses on two things: the average active mode efficiency, and the no-load power
consumption. The average active mode efficiency is calculated by taking the efficiency of the
EPS at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of full load and averaging the four figures. The no-load power
consumption is simply defined as any power the EPS consumes when it is plugged in to the mains but
disconnected from the equipment it is powering.

The legislation applies to EPS for household and office equipment and the ErP limits the legislation to
250W while the DoE level VI has no maximum power rating. The scope of the legislation in both the
USA and Europe has been extended to include multiple output EPS.

The limits for energy efficiency level VI are broadly the same and are given in the table overleaf for
single output EPS, which are by far the most common. For multiple out EPS the efficiency limits are
lower, and the maximum no load power consumption limit is increased to 0.3W.

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Legislation

No load power limits Active mode efficiency, OP <6V

No load
Rated power Rated power Average efficiency
consumption
0W to ≤1W ≤0.1W 0W to ≤1W ≥0.517 x Pout + 0.087
>1W to ≤49W ≤0.1W >1W to ≤49W ≥0.0834 x Ln (Pout) - 0.0014 x Pout + 0.609
>49W to ≤250W ≤0.21W >49W to ≤250W ≥0.87
>250W ≤0.5W >250W ≥0.875

Active mode efficiency, OP>= 6V

Rated power Average efficiency
0W to ≤1W ≥0.5 x Pout + 0.16
>1W to ≤49W ≥[0.071 x Ln (Pout) - 0.0014 x Pout] + 0.67
>49W to ≤250W ≥0.88
>250W ≥0.875

Effects on the Industry

The effects of this new legislation have been to encourage power supply manufacturers to develop
new EPS products with better energy efficiency, aided by developments in control ICs and power
semiconductors. This new generation of higher quality EPS products comes at a cost but this is
outweighed by reduced emissions and savings for consumers using less energy. As energy tariffs
continue to significantly increase year on year, this saving becomes more pronounced. Combined with
energy awareness initiatives, it means consumers and business buyers alike have energy efficiency as
a primary selection criterion.

• Energy Efficiency of Component Power Supplies

There is no current legislation for energy efficiency in component power supplies, though end equipment
using these supplies may well need to comply with product specific energy efficiency standards. The latest
component power supply designs minimize no load power consumption and maximize active efficiency by
employing the green mode techniques outlined on pages 12-15 of this guide.

The size or power density of a power supply are key criteria when selecting the optimum product for
the end application. In convection cooled applications, where fans are not desirable due to audible
noise, ingress, reliability or service concerns, conversion efficiency becomes a primary concern.

Power supplies with efficiencies in the 90-95% range are commonly available and, by considering
efficiency as a key criterion, designers can affect the overall system design in a positive way by:

• Eliminating or reducing the need for system fan cooling

• Reducing audible noise
• Reducing the weight and size of the system
• Reducing system internal temperatures and improving reliability
• Reducing overall energy usage and end user operating costs

Component power supply designs minimize no load power consumption and maximize active
efficiency by utilizing green mode control and resonant topologies combined with the latest
component innovations to provide OEMs with the best possible starting point and enabling the
design and manufacture of Energy Efficiency compliant products.

110
• Integrating Power Converters

Understanding Efficiency

Overview

Efficiency is a key consideration when selecting the best power converter for an end application.
Pressure to provide greater functionality in ever decreasing form factors has a direct impact on the
power supply resulting in a need for more power from a smaller footprint. This increase in power
density, coupled with more demanding environmental legislation and the desire to minimize or
eliminate fan cooling in critical applications, drives equipment designers to look for ever more efficient
power supplies.

Higher efficiency results in less power dissipation, less waste heat and lower temperatures in a
given form factor. Increasing efficiency has a direct impact on the lifetime and reliability of both the
power supply and the end equipment as less heat is generated, reducing the temperature inside
the equipment enclosure. Higher efficiency allows the equipment to be designed with significantly
reduced fan cooling, or may allow the removal of cooling fans altogether, reducing or eliminating
audible noise and pollution Ingress.

Miniaturization of power converters requires increased switching frequency to reduce the size
of transformers, inductors, and capacitors. Increasing the switching frequency has the effect of
decreasing efficiency due to increased switching losses in semiconductors and magnetic materials and
reducing the available surface area for dissipation significantly increasing temperatures.

These increased losses can be mitigated by topology and controller advancements, material
improvements and component innovation. The introduction of affordable controllers to support
resonant LLC converters to reduce switching losses, improved magnetic materials with lower losses
at higher frequencies, higher speed micro controllers and more recently Wide Band Gap (WBG)
semiconductors (SiC & GaN) are all enabling technologies for more compact, higher power density,
power converters with a trade-off of increased cost. Switching power converters use a switching
element which is traditionally a silicon-based semiconductor. WBG GaN semiconductor switches allow
operation at higher voltages, higher temperatures and higher frequencies while reducing on resistance
by up to 10 times and reducing reverse recovery time and recovery current. These benefits mean
significantly reduced power losses and allow switching frequencies to increase by 2 to 3 times resulting
in volume reduction of up to 50% for a given power level. GaN devices are significantly more expensive
than traditional silicon-based devices due to the small wafer size and lower yields though this cost is
likely to decrease over time

Power Converter Selection

Having determined that higher efficiency is a desirable feature for the equipment power system, the
equipment designer turns to the power supply manufacturer’s website and datasheets to compare the
key parameters between products.

The headline efficiency presented in marketing material or power supply data sheets is likely to be
the efficiency of the product under favorable input voltage and load conditions. The efficiency under
the conditions required for the end equipment may be quite different. If, as is commonly the case, the
equipment is to be supplied to the world-wide market the low line efficiency is crucial. The system
design must be based around the worst efficiency not the headline efficiency. The headline efficiency
at high line (230VAC) will be different from the efficiency at low line (100VAC), “universal input” does
not mean that the efficiency is maintained across the input range.

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Integrating Power Converters

EPL25PS12 12 V 225 W
Finding the worst case efficiency requires some investigation into the real data for the selected power
product. While some manufacturers make this clear in their product datasheets this is not always the
case. Selecting a product with good headline efficiency, perhaps with an attractive price, may result
in problems later in the development when it becomes clear that the solution is not viable under the
required operating conditions. Incorrect selection at the start of the program may be costly later on.
100%

Efficiency
95%in an AC-DC power supply is calculated as the output power (Vout x Iout) divided by the
input power (Vin x In x PF) and is usually expressed as a percentage The difference between the input
85Vac input
90%
power and the output power is dissipated as waste heat. 90Vac input
Efficiency

85% 115Vac input

Input Voltage Convecon-cooled Forced-cooled 230Vac input

80% 264Vac input

As the input voltage decreases the input current increases for the same output power. This results in
75%
increased losses in the primary of the power converter. The losses in diodes increase in proportion
with the input current but the losses in inductors, transformers and MOSFETs increase in proportion
70%
to the square of10the input
20 current
30 which40 results
50 in more60 than
704 times
80 the losses
90 for
100a 50% reduction
in input voltage, the reason for low input voltage derating in lower cost products.
Load (%)

Comparing the efficiency of what may appear to be comparable products, gives an insight into the
efficiency that can be expected over the operating range specified in the data sheet. The graph below
shows the relative efficiency of a typical power supply with changes in input voltage and load. The
example power
EPL25PS12 supply
24 V 225 W is rated at 150W.

100%

95%
85Vac input
90%
90Vac input
Efficiency

115Vac input
85%
230Vac input

80% 264Vac input

75%

70%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Load (%)

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 Integrating Power Converters

At high line and maximum load, the efficiency is 95% meaning that the power dissipated is
approximately 8W. Changing the input to 90VAC under the same load condition results in a drop in
efficiency to 91% which means that the power dissipated increases to 15W or put another way the
power dissipated increases by 87%. This additional power dissipation means that both the power
supply and the end equipment will be subjected to additional thermal stresses, reducing reliability and
lifetime, in low AC line areas.

Output

The actual load drawn by the application is also a consideration. Power supply efficiency typically
peaks at around 80 - 90% of full load as can be seen from the curves on the previous page. The
power supply has an element of fixed power losses which do not change as the load increases or
decreases.

Green mode topologies compensate for reduced efficiency by reducing the switching frequency as
the load falls to reduce switching losses and comply with environmental legislation requirements
for active mode efficiency. While this drop in efficiency is not problematic at lower loads as the
power dissipation overall is lower, it may mean that the efficiency in the equipment is not as high as
expected.

Summary

When selecting the power supply, it is important to understand whether it will perform safely and
reliably over the expected lifetime of the equipment. The best efficiency specified by the power
supply manufacturer is not important. The worst case efficiency is the important performance
parameter and the thermal performance of the equipment must be evaluated under the worst case
conditions to ensure service life as well as safe and reliable performance.

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Integrating Power Converters

• Installation of Open Frame and U channel AC-DC Power Supplies

AC-DC power supplies are commonly supplied in what is known by the industry as an open frame
format. Open frame generally describes a product which is a PCB only construction, component
power supply designed to be installed into an end equipment application which provides the
enclosure for the entire product.

Another common format for power supplies for integration into end equipment is the U channel
where the power supply PCB is installed in a U shaped, usually aluminium, chassis which is used as a
part of the thermal management of power semiconductors as well as providing multiple fixing options
for the equipment manufacturer to install the supply into the final assembly.

There are several considerations when installing open frame and U channel power supplies, principally
these are related to safety, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and thermal management and these
areas of concern are discussed here.

Another important consideration is the detailed specification of the power supply, especially with
regard to temperature and input voltage de-rating, when compared to the data sheet headline power
rating. The best products maintain the rated power to 50⁰C ambient temperature and down to
90VAC input, while some products advertise a headline power rating with derating of up to 20% at
low line and de-rate the available power at ambient temperatures as low as 40⁰C, which may make
these products unsuitable for the end application.

Safety

When mounting an open frame power supply into the equipment enclosure, it is necessary to
observe the required creepage and clearance distances to the equipment enclosure to all faces of the
supply. In a class I system this will usually mean ensuring 3 or 4mm between any earthed metal part
and any primary part of the power supply, depending on whether the end application is industrial or
medical, which may necessitate the use of insulators around the power supply assembly.

Where a class I power supply is employed the safety ground connection to the power supply is an
integral part of the electrical safety system and must be securely connected to the equipment safety
ground. This connection is generally made available via one of the mounting holes, via the AC input
connector or via a faston style tab on the power supply PCB. There is likely to be more than one
earth connection to the assembly required which affects the electrical emissions and susceptibility
performance and is discussed later.

Where a class II power supply is employed the creepage and clearance distances may be required to
be larger in metal enclosures though often the equipment enclosure is non-conductive where these
units are employed.

Open frame power supply

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 Integrating Power Converters

U channel construction eases the issues surrounding safety as the U channel chassis is connected
to the supply’s safety ground and can be bonded directly to the equipment enclosure along with the
power supply safety ground connection. The requirements for safety clearances between the PCB
and the surrounding U channel are catered for in the design. However, the ends of the U channel and
the top face of the assembly are usually still open, and care must be taken in these areas to ensure
adequate creepage and clearances distances are maintained.

U channel power supply with and without cover

U channel construction has the additional benefits of ease of handling and ease of installation. The U
chassis provides a more rugged construction and incorporates threaded mounting holes for use by the
installer, reducing the mounting hardware to a simple screw fixing. Care must be taken to observe any
maximum screw insertion penetration depth to maintain safety creepage and clearance distances.

Another U channel construction benefit is the potential for additional cooling of the power
components by conduction cooling to the equipment enclosure reducing both the temperature of the
bonded components and consequently the general temperature within the U channel construction.

Both open frame and U channel power supplies include one or sometimes two, in the case of products
designed for medical equipment applications, input fuses which are also integral to the overall product
safety system design and protect against fire hazard in the event of catastrophic failure. This fuse is
usually permanently installed in the power supply and is not designed for replacement as the only
reason for clearing of the fuse is failure of the power supply assembly.

As both constructions require input cabling, the end equipment also requires additional fusing to
protect against potential fire hazard issues created by the incorporation of connectors, indicators,
switches, and the cabling itself.

Output cables must be sized to accommodate the maximum power capability of the power supply
including the maximum tolerances for its overload protection specification to ensure safe operation in
the event of a fault in the equipment itself.

There are also thermal considerations to take into account as some safety critical components have a
maximum temperature rating, this is discussed in more detail later under thermal management.

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Integrating Power Converters

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

Open frame power supplies normally require two and sometimes three mounting points to be
connected to ground. As discussed above, in a class I system usually one of these connections is
required for safety ground and is located on the input side of the assembly, this connection will also
connect the line to ground and neutral to ground common mode filter capacitors, also known as
Y capacitors. These Y capacitors work in conjunction with the common mode inductors within the
power supply assembly to attenuate noise associated with rapid changes in voltage in the supply’s
power stage. The other or others are usually on the secondary side and connect the output common
mode filter capacitor(s) to ground. The differential element of the filter which is designed to attenuate
the noise associated with rapid changes in current is contained within the supply in the line and
neutral connections.

This output common mode capacitor is integral to the EMC performance of the power supply and
must be connected for optimum EMC performance. Where the equipment uses a metal enclosure
this is rarely an issue. In plastic enclosures, either in class I or class II configurations, it is necessary to
make other provision to connect these points together to ensure EMC compliance. The points which
require connection to ground or together are usually identified in the power supply data sheet as in
the following example.

Note: Mounng points A should be connected

together for opmum EMI performance
127.0 (5.0) 37.8
5.72 (0.2) 115.57 (4.55) (1.49)

Q3 10.2
T1
(0.40)
A
+ M3 Screw

+
J1 2
1 - 12.6 (0.5)
76.2

-
(3.0) C6 2
C23 J3
46.7 64.7 Q1
1
44.8
( 1.84) (2.55) C6 J4 1.18 (1.7)
5
3 4
1 2
15.6 (29.8)
A L3 (beneath heatsink) A (0.61)
5.72 (0.22) 3.8 (0.15)
0.25 faston SMD Component height
5.1 (0.20)
ground tab
4 x ø.3.96 (0.156) mounng hole 4.6 M3 screw terminal bus bar
ø7.92 (0.312) clearance top and boom (0.18) Standard on 12/15V models
Oponal on all other models,
add suffix ‘-S’ e.g. GCS350PS24-S

Mechanical drawing of open frame supply showing mounting point ground connections

The optimal way to connect these points is by mounting the open frame supply on a metal plate
which need not be connected to anything else but provides a low impedance path with low parasitic
elements for the filter capacitors to be connected.

Where this type of mounting is impractical then other methods must be employed to connect these
mounting points such as a multi-strand cable.

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 Integrating Power Converters

In a U channel construction, all ground connections are made within the U channel enclosure
simplifying the installation of power supply from an EMC perspective. Good electrical bonding
from the U channel chassis to the equipment enclosure via multiple fixing points is also beneficial,
minimising parasitic elements.

In both cases the input and output cables should be kept well apart and avoid proximity to the open
assembly to avoid potential issues with radiation from the switching components and magnetic
assemblies within the power supply being induced into the system creating potential conducted and
radiated emissions issues for the end equipment.

4 x M3 Mounng Holes, 2.5 (0.1) max screw penetraon

Torque: 6lbs/in (0.7 Nm) max
12.7
(0.5)

58.42
(2.3)

16.5 (0.65) 134.6 (5.3)

2 x M3 Mounng Holes (2 each side), 2.5 (0.1) max screw penetraon

Torque: 6lbs/in (0.7 Nm) max

19.1
(0.75)

6.4 152.4 (6.0)

(0.25)
165.1 (6.5)

5.7 4.4
(0.22) (0.17)
0.25 Faston Ground Tab
Typical mechanical details of a U channel power supply detailing fixings and connections
13.7
3 4
J4
(0.54)
1 2
2 J3

Thermal Management
1

20.9
(0.82)
Airflow + 83.8 +
Open frame power supplies may have a power rating when convection cooled, 15.2 force
(3.3) air cooled or
M4 Screw
2
- (0.60)
both. In the case of U channel supplies there may also be a conduction cooled
J1
1
rating utilizing the - Torque: 13lbs/in
(1.5 Nm) max
equipment enclosure or external heatsinking for further cooling of the assembly.
1.05 27.3
(26.7) (1.07)

The mounting position, orientation, available surrounding space, applied load and surrounding 14.2
parts along with any system air
0.27cooling
(7.0) are unique to each application. It is important to39.4
check the (0.56)
(1.55)
operating temperature of key components within the power supply assembly once installed to ensure
that the safety critical components do not exceed their maximum ratings as specified in the safety
approval reports and that the reliability and service life of the supply are not impaired.

Data sheets for both open frame and U channel power supplies designed for integration into end
equipment, commonly identify the key safety components & their maximum temperature ratings
which vary from one supply to another depending on the class of insulation system employed. They
typically also provide an estimated service life curve based on the temperature of key electrolytic
capacitors, which are the only parts with a wear out mechanism within the power supply.

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Integrating Power Converters

Temperature Measurements

Component Maximum Temperature

T1 Coil
L3 Coil
120°C
Q1 Body
Q3 Body

C6
120000
105°C 70000
C23
100000 60000

50000
Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

80000
120000 70000
40000
60000
100000 60000
30000
50000
40000
80000
20000
40000
20000
60000 10000
30000
0
40000 0
20000
105 95 85 75 65 55 105 9
20000 10000
C6 Temperature (°C)

0 0
105 95 85 75 65 55 105 9

C6 Temperature (°C)

185000 185000
165000 165000
145000 145000
125000
185000
Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

125000
185000

Lifeme (Hrs)Lifeme (Hrs)

105000
165000 105000
165000
85000
145000 85000
145000
65000
125000 65000
125000
45000
105000 45000
105000
25000
85000 25000
85000
5000
65000 5000
105 95 85 75 65 55 65000
45000 105 9
45000
C23 Temperature (°C)
25000 25000
5000 5000
105 95 85 75 65 55 105 9
Table and graphs showing safety limits
C23and estimated
Temperature (°C) service life for 24/7 operation

Service life predictions are based on the electrolytic capacitor design lifetime at its maximum
temperature rating and the average temperature experienced in the end application over its mission
profile. Clearly the maximum temperature rating cannot be exceeded under any circumstances or
extremes of operation.

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 Integrating Power Converters

All electrolytic capacitor lifetime calculations are based on the Arrhenius equation, where the rate of
reaction halves and hence the lifetime doubles for every ten Degree Celsius reduction in temperature,
making this a critical element in the service life or service interval of the entire end application.
Lifetime calculations undertaken by the power supply manufacturer will include elements based on
the applied ripple current but, as this is impractical in the finished power supply assembly, a good
indication of service life can be determined by measurement of the component case temperature and
application of the Arrhenius equation to the to the specified temperature and design lifetime.

Summary

Careful application and attention to safety, EMC and thermal management considerations, when
integrating component power supplies, enables trouble free certification for safety and EMC and, in
combination with the system mission profile, the expected service lifetime and reliability.

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Integration of Power Converters

• System Integration Of Baseplate Cooled Converter Modules or “Bricks”

Baseplate cooled power converter modules, also known as bricks, provide building block power
solutions for integration into end equipment. These high-density power solutions are ideal for sealed
enclosures, transportation, and defence applications, where their rugged construction and conduction
cooled properties are beneficial, and in high density force cooled applications where the benefits of
the compact size can be realised.

They also provide the building blocks for low-risk bespoke power solutions designed either by the
end equipment designer using support and application notes from the manufacturer or by the module
manufacturer itself using the proven, reliable module as a base for low development cost, low risk,
custom solutions with accelerated time to market.

Baseplate cooled converters are component level power solutions rather than drop-in products which
generally require additional design resources and components for correct operation, electrical safety,
thermal management, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). They are designed for both DC and
AC input applications with input ranges designed to cover battery and DC vehicle supplies as well as
higher voltage, rectified or Power Factor Corrected (PFC), AC supplies.

The industry has developed standard sizes for these parts described as ¼ bricks, ½ bricks and full
bricks with standard dimensions. Power ratings up to 600 or 700W can be achieved in a standard 2:1
input full brick though power density reduces as the input range is widened to 4:1, 8:1 or even 12:1
to accommodate multiple nominal battery supplies in a drive to standardize system design for multiple
voltage platforms.

Baseplate cooled converters with AC input are also available either as a more complete solution
providing AC to low voltage DC conversion or as PFC modules with high voltage outputs (usually
around 400VDC) to drive downstream high input voltage DC-DC bricks. Most of these AC input
products also require additional design and components including high voltage electrolytic capacitors
and components for EMC with one or two exceptions such as the ASB series of 75W, 110W and
160W complete AC-DC brick solutions from XP Power, which only require thermal management and
include all other parts.

Thermal Management

Thermal management is a key element in the integration of power bricks which are designed to be
baseplate cooled. The brick is designed so that the power dissipating components, such as the power
semiconductors and power magnetics, are thermally bonded to the baseplate which must then be
maintained below a maximum operating temperature under the worst-case conditions of the end
application. The thermal resistance of the cooling scheme must be matched to the power required by
the load or end equipment and the efficiency of the module, which determines the power dissipated
in the brick converter, and the maximum temperature in which the equipment is expected to operate.

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 Integration of Power Converters

The power dissipated in Watts can be determined from the module efficiency specification under
the worst-case operating conditions though it is important to consider the actual operating load
and lowest input voltage applied rather than the data sheet headline efficiency. An example of the
variation in efficiency with input voltage and load is given below: -

95%

90%

85%

18V
Efficiency

80%
24V
36V
75%

70%

65%

60%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load (%)

Once the efficiency at the worst-case operating point is established the waste power to be dissipated
as heat is calculated as below: -

( (
Waste Heat =
1 - Eff%
x Pout
( Or
1
-1
( x Pout
Eff% Eff%

Having determined the waste heat/power, the simple model below determines the thermal
resistance required for operation with ∆T defined as the difference between the maximum operating
temperature of the equipment and the maximum baseplate temperature of the power brick. The
thermal resistance from the case to heatsink is typically 0.1⁰C/W when using a thermal pad or grease.

• Ta
Ta

95% sa
θsa is thermal resistance
Ts heatsink–to–ambient ˚C/W
90%
• Ts cs
•
θcs is thermal resistance
85%
Tc Tc case–to–heatsink ˚C/W
18V
Efficiency

80%
24V
36V
75%

70%

65%

60%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 121
Load (%)
Integrating Power Converters

Thermal resistance to the flow of heat from the power module to the ambient temperature air
surrounding the package is made up of the thermal resistances of the case to heatsink and heatsink
to ambient interfaces and can be added together to give an overall thermal resistance from power
module to ambient θca.

TC = TA + PD (θca)

where TC = maximum power supply temperature

TA = ambient temperature
PD = power dissipation
θca = case to ambient thermal resistance

The thermal resistance of the heatsink to ambient is heavily dependent on available airflow meaning
that in convection cooled applications it’s physical size will be far greater than in a comparable power
system with forced air or liquid cooling. When utilising multiple bricks connected to a common
heatsink or cold wall the sum of the dissipated power from each brick in the system under worst case
conditions determines the overall thermal resistance required.

Electromagnetic Compatibility

In addition to the thermal management outlined above, baseplate cooled modules require additional
external components for correct operation, reverse polarity protection, control of noise emissions and
for protection against spikes and surges defined in the susceptibility requirements of the application.
This means that a network of capacitors, for both noise mitigation and to reduce source impedance,
inductors and surge suppressing components must be installed within the end application. Fusing
must also be implemented for safety in the event of catastrophic failure presenting a short circuit to
the supply.

The power module data sheet and application notes will specify the values of the components
required though it is up to the design engineer to implement following good design practices for any
creepage & clearance requirements and minimizing parasitics for EMC compliance.

Example: schematic for DC input systems

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 Integrating Power Converters

FS1 provides protection against an input short circuit failure and D1 provides reverse polarity
protection L1, C1 & C2 form a pi filter to mitigate differential noise created by rapid changes in
current in the power switching stage and L2, C4 & C5 form a common mode filter to mitigate noise
created by the rapid changes in voltage in the power stage. C3 presents a low impedance source
for the power converter switching current demand and TVS1 is a bi-directional transient surge
suppressor to protect against spikes & surges. C6 & C7 reduce output common mode noise and an
additional differential filter may be added at the output for applications that require very low noise.

In general, the decoupling capacitors (C4, 5, 6 & 7) should be as close as possible to the pins and
chassis connection to the baseplate to keep the loop as short as possible. The input electrolytic
capacitor (C3) and Transient Voltage Suppressor (TVS1) should be physically close to the input pins
of the module with the loop as small as possible and tracks beneath the power module should be
avoided.

There are a number of application specific filter modules available for the abnormal surges found
in DC input transportation and defense applications. These generally also require a few additional
components for full compliance.

Example: schematic for DC input defense application

In this case the DSF filter module contains all the necessary active surge protection circuits to comply
with the requirements of a 28V nominal military vehicle supply and the filter inductors. C1 completes
the differential filter stage and C3 & C4 the common mode filter stage. C2 provides a low impedance
source for the MTC series DC-DC converter.

When using a PFC module solution for an AC input power systems similar EMC components are
required and additional a high voltage (450VDC) electrolytic bulk capacitor (C6) is also required
as shown. The value of the bulk capacitor is determined by the system hold up, or ride through
requirements.

Example: schematic for AC input systems

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Integrating Power Converters

Some AC input solutions combine the PFC and DC-DC sections into one brick with connections
made available for the bulk capacitor. There are additional requirements for AC input systems
regarding creepage and clearance distances between Line & Neutral and between Line & Neutral
and earth which must be adhered to during the power system implementation. These creepage and
clearance distances are outlined in the relevant safety standard for the end application.

The additional components outlined above also need careful selection and thermal management
to stay within the thermal safety limits for inductors and filter capacitors and to ensure that the
electrolytic capacitors employed have the desired service life over the mission profile of the end
equipment. It is possible to conduct heat away from the inductors to the equipment cold wall using
suitable insulting thermal pads and other components are often mounted on the reverse side of the
PCB and kept away from any higher temperature parts.

Summary

Manufacturers of these high-density base plate cooled brick converters have supporting applications
information and EMC data to support design-in. They also have experienced applications engineers
on hand to support the user during the design & compliance testing phases and offer pre-compliance
testing against common industrial, communications, transportation, and defence EMC standards.

The manufacturer will also have utilised the modules in a myriad of application specific custom
designs and gained invaluable experience in their application and compliance with safety and EMC
standards. Using the module manufacturer to design and produce a bespoke brick-based power
system remains a popular choice, negating the need for the additional design & test resources in
house and allowing the OEM to focus on the core system design.

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 Integrating Power Converters

• Power Architectures for Patient Connected Medical Devices

When considering power architectures within medical devices for patient connected applications
there are several key elements to consider; isolation, leakage/touch currents, electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC), number of power outputs required and environment for use.

Applied Parts

The element of the medical device which comes into contact with the patient is known as the applied
part. The applied part is defined as the part of the medical device which, in order for the medical
device to perform its function, deliberately comes into direct contact with a patient or has parts which
are likely to come into contact with the patient during normal use.

The 60601-1 suite of standards defines Applied Parts according to the type of patient contact and
the type or nature of the medical device. The current version of 60601-1 is the 3rd edition which was
first published in December 2005 has been adopted in all major countries and regions of the world as
the following latest versions:

IEC-60601-1: Edition 3.1, 2012-08

Europe : EN 60601-1: 2006 + CORR: 2010+A1 (2013)
USA: ANSI/AAMI ES60601-1 (2005 + C1:09 + A2:10+A1(R2012))
Canada CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 60601-1 (2008)+A1 (2014)

Each classification within the standard has requirements for protection against electric shock. The
three classifications are detailed below, in order of the least stringent to the most stringent.

Type B (Body)

Type B classification is given to applied parts with are generally not conductive and may be connected
to Earth.

Type BF (Body Floating)

Type BF classification is given to applied parts which are electrically connected to the patient and
must be floating and separated from Earth. This classification does not include applied parts which are
in direct contact to the heart.

Type CF (Cardiac Floating)

Type CF classification is given to applied parts suitable for direct cardiac connection. This means
connection to the heart of the patient including intravenous connection such as dialysis. These
applied parts must be floating and separated from Earth.

Isolation Requirements

Patient connected medical devices are required to provide two Means Of Protection (MOP) to prevent
applied parts and other accessible parts from exceeding the limitations of voltage, current or energy. A
compliant protective earth connection provides 1 x MOP, basic isolation also provides
1 x MOP & Reinforced insulation provides 2 x MOP. Means of protection can be categorised as Means
Of Operator Protection (MOOP) or Means Of Patient Protection (MOPP). In devices intended for
patient connection 2 x MOPP are required. Power architectures for use in medical devices with type
BF & CF classification are required to provide 2 x MOPP from primary to secondary, 1 x MOPP from
primary to earth and additional safety isolation from the secondary output of the power system to
earth also rated at 1 x MOPP, all at the (highest rated) incoming AC line voltage.
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Integrating Power Converters

MOOP MOPP
Insulation Creepage
Air Clearance Test Voltage
Distance
Basic (1 x MOP) 2.0mm 3.2mm 1500VAC 2.5mm 4.0mm 1500VAC

Double of Reinforced
4.0mm 6.4mm 3000VAC 5.0mm 8.0mm 4000VAC
(2 x MOP)

Insulation test voltages based on 250VAC working voltage

Key: MOP: Means of Protection

MOOP: Means of Operation Protection
MOPP: Means of Patient Protection

Type BF Type BC
Type B Applied Part
Insulation Description Applied Part Applied Part
NC SFC NC SFC NC SFC

Patient Auxiliary DC 10 50 10 50 10 50
Current AC 100 500 100 500 10 500

From PATIENT DC 10 50 10 50 10 50
connection to earth AC 100 500 100 500 10 500
Patient Leakage
Current DC 10 50 10 50 10 50
Caused by an external
voltage on a SIP/SOP AC 100 500 100 500 10 500
With the same types of DC 50 100 50 100 50 100
APPLIED PART
Total Patient AC 500 1000 500 1000 50 1000
connected together
Leakage
Current* Caused by an external DC 50 100 50 100 50 100
voltage on SIP/SOP AC 500 1000 500 1000 50 1000

Current in µA

Key: NC: Normal Condition

SFC: Single Fault Condition

*Total PATIENT LEAKAGE CURRENT values are only applicable to equipment having multiple
APPLIED PARTS. The individual APPLIED PARTS shall comply with the PATIENT LEAKAGE CURRENT
values.

The challenge for the power system architecture designer in patient contact medical devices, where
an electrical connection is required, is to ensure that the power system provides the required safety
isolation while minimizing the leakage currents under normal operation and protecting under fault
conditions, by isolating the patient from ground.

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 Integrating Power Converters

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

The medical device must also comply with the EMC requirements outlined in 60601-1-2. An updated
version of the medical EMC standard IEC60601-1-2 was published in 2014, widely referred to as the
4th Edition. There are two main aims of the 4th Edition revisions.

The first is to improve immunity of equipment partly due to the proliferation of wireless communication
devices operating within the local proximity of what may essentially be life critical equipment. These
wireless devices may take the form of mobile phones, blue-tooth, WiFi, Tetra, RFID or paging system
products.

The second aim is to introduce an element of risk analysis into deciding which levels of immunity are
suitable for the equipment, its intended operating environment and foreseeable levels of disturbances.
This is due to the inclusion into the standard of equipment intended to operate outside of hospital or
professional healthcare environments in which there is less supervision of equipment and less control
over the electromagnetic phenomena present. Part of the risk approach is that manufacturers must
be clear about the essential operation of their product and mitigate the risk of failure or abnormal or
unexpected operation by choosing the appropriate immunity levels.

The 4th Edition considers three environments: professional health care facility, home health care
and special environments, examples of which could include heavy industry or medical equipment
intentionally generating high power fields. As the required immunity levels now relate to these
environments rather than to the product, the term ‘life supporting equipment’ is no longer used.

Power Solutions

In BF & CF rated medical devices, the power system is a critical factor in complying with isolation,
leakage current and EMC requirements.

For home healthcare environments, it is mandated to select an isolation scheme where there is no
earth required, by implementing a class II isolation system which is naturally floating, but importantly,
must still comply with requirements for enclosure and patient leakage currents to earth. This is a
practical solution up to around 500Watts, above which the EMC requirements become increasingly
difficult to manage.

The majority of standard medically approved AC-DC power supplies are not suitable for direct
connection to the patient for a number of reasons:

1. They do not have the required isolation from output to ground.

2. They do not meet the requirements for patient leakage current.

3. While they may offer the required 2 x MOPP from input to output and 1 x MOPP from input to
ground, most of these units employ operational isolation from output to ground, often rated around
500VAC/VDC, when patient connect applications require a minimum of basic insulation at mains
voltage, where the test voltage required is 1500VAC and the creepage and clearance distances must
be adhered to.

4. The isolation capacitance from input to output is too high, resulting in excessive leakage current
from output to ground.

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Integrating Power Converters

A simple and low-cost solution, for low power patient connected medical devices, is to employ a
second isolation stage in the form of a medically approved DC-DC converter which provides both
basic isolation at AC line voltage and minimises input to output capacitance (20 – 50pF) reducing
the potential patient leakage current to single digit μA. This solution also accounts for potentially low
integrity system input and output signals which may be connected to uncontrolled external equipment
such as a computer or monitor.

Signal Input/Output

2 x MOPP
1 x MOPP
L
Medical Device DC-DC
System & Controls Converter
N
Applied
Part
AC-DC PSU 1 x MOPP

MOPP: Means of Pa­ent Protec­on

Equipment Enclosure OP.: Opera­onal Isola­on

Medical power system with secondary DC-DC.

In the simplified model of the power system below the path for patient leakage current is shown with
C4 & C5 in series. C5 represents the DC-DC converter input to output capacitance which is very small
and presents a high impedance to reduce the leakage current regardless of the typically higher value of
C4.
C3 C5
G1 G2 ILeakage
L

L1 L2

C1 C2 C3

G3

GND

Simplified model for power system with secondary DC-DC isolation.

Medically approved DC-DC converters with output ratings from 1W up to 30W are readily available,
with the required input to output isolation and very low internal capacitance, designed specifically for
these applications at a competitive cost and carrying agency approvals to the 60601 standards. When
used in conjunction with a standard medically approved mains input power supply, patient leakage
current can be reduced to levels as low as 2μA suitable for use in both BF & CF applications. Where
the supply to the DC-DC converter is from a regulated AC-DC power supply and the power required
is less than 2-3W, a fixed input, non-regulated output device can be used resulting in a very cost-
effective solution.
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 Integrating Power Converters

Wide range input DC-DC products, offering a tightly controlled output over a wide DC input and
output load range, with up to 2 x MOPP isolation and equally low internal capacitance are also readily
available for DC input or battery powered portable devices.

XP Power’s medically approved DC-DC converters from 1 Watt to 30 Watts.

Power Solutions For Multiple Outputs

In medical devices requiring multiple outputs for patient contact, the low leakage current provided by
the additional DC-DC converter which may be as low as 2μA provides an easy to implement robust
solution to both patient auxiliary and patient leakage current requirements.

Where multiple outputs are required in the AC-DC stage the complication becomes the earth leakage
current which is limited by the SFC touch current and makes the use of multiple power supplies
impractical. In this instance a multiple output AC-DC supply may be required.

For lower power systems, up to 2-300W, there are multiple output medically approved units available
in open frame or U-channel formats or, alternatively, extra voltage rails may be created using isolated
or non-isolated off the shelf DC-DC converters running from a single output AC-DC power supply.

For higher power applications there are readily available configurable solutions providing high power
multiple output power solutions with medical safety agency approvals as standard, such as the
fleXPower series pictured below.

Medically approved fleXPower series offers from 400 Watts to 2500 Watts with up to 20 outputs

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Integrating Power Converters

Motor Driven Applications

In higher power devices and motor driven applications, such as bone shavers, surgical tools and
electrically powered tables, beds & chairs, it is not desirable to employ an additional isolation stage
due to both the lack of suitably isolated DC-DC devices with higher power ratings and the inherent
inefficiency of dual conversion of the power. In these applications a power supply designed with the
necessary isolation, spacing and patient leakage current is required.

This combination of high isolation and low leakage currents presents its own design challenges in an
AC-DC supply. The internal spacing requirement on the secondary side is greatly increased and must
be implemented with system integration in mind. The requirements for low emissions and low leakage
current are in conflict, requiring a low noise topology and care in minimising differential and common
mode noise throughout the product while minimising the line frequency ripple in primary circuits to
reduce patient leakage current for the same input to output capacitance.

These higher power applications are usually BF rated, rather than CF rated, meaning that the patient
leakage current requirement, while challenging, is less severe at 100μA rather than 10μA and there are
increasing numbers of standard AC-DC power supplies available which suit BF rated applications. XP
Power’s 500W, BF rated, PBR500 series for example, comes with the isolation, leakage current and 4th
edition EMC requirements catered for with the added benefit of a convection cooling rating of up to
400W to eliminate noisy system fans making it ideally suited to motor driven applications.

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 Integrating Power Converters

• Power Systems For Railway Applications

Rail applications demand that equipment is able to withstand the harsh climatic, mechanical and
electrical environments encountered on traction vehicles and rolling stock. Electronic equipment, from
lighting through passenger information and entertainment, to control, safety & engine management
systems require DC-DC power conversion and must perform safely and reliably.

Within Europe, many countries historically developed their own national rail standards such as the
BRB/RIA standards commonly used in the UK and the NF F 01-510 for applications in France. With
the privatization of national rail companies, and the general move to harmonization of national
standards within the European Union, two standards for electronic equipment (EN50155 &
EN50121) have largely replaced the older national standards, though the older national standards are
still occasionally required and cannot be entirely dismissed.

EN50155: 2007

The most frequently cited design specification is the European Norm EN50155 “Electronic Equipment
used on Rolling Stock”. The key elements when considering the selection of DC-DC converters and
power sub-assemblies are:

• Power Supply

- Variation
- Interruptions
- Surges, electrostatic discharge (ESD) and transient burst
- Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

• Environmental Service Conditions

- Ambient temperature
- Relative humidity
- Shock and Vibration

DC-DC converter block schematic for railway applications shown below.

EMC Filter Acve Hold Up

DC Input & Clamp DC Output 1
DC-DC
Surge (if RIA 12)
Protecon

DC-DC DC Output 2

DC-DC DC Output 3

Isolaon Barrier

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Integrating Power Converters

Power Supply

Electronic systems & apparatus used within the railway environment experience a wide variation in
input supply with brownout operation, transients and spikes. They also typically require continuous
operation through supply interruptions up to 10ms that must be catered for in the equipment design.
The UK national standard BRB/RIA12 “General Specification for Protection of Traction and Rolling
Stock from Transients and Surges in DC Control Systems” requires a specific surge withstand of 3.5x
nominal voltage for 20ms that typically results in an additional active clamp filter to be fitted to protect
downstream DC-DC converters.

The table below details, for each of the nominal input voltages used within the industry, the input
ranges, brownouts and transients that must be met to comply with EN50155 and compares this with
the national BRB/RIA12 & NF F 05-510 standards.

Continuous Input Range, Brownout and Transient Requirements

Nominal Input (Vnom)

Standard Specificaion
110 96 72 48 24

Continous range
77.0-137.5V 67.2-120.0V 50.5-90.0V 33.6-60.0V 16.6-30.0V
0.7-1.25 x Vnom
EN50155
Brownout 100ms
66.0 V 57.6 V 43.2V 28.8V 14.4V
0.6 x Vnom
Transient 1s 1.4 x
154.0 V 134.4 V 100.8V 67.2V 33.6V
Vnom
77.0-137.5V 50.0-90.0V 18.0-34.0V Continuous range
NF F 05-5110
Brownout 100ms
55.0V 36.0V 12.0V
0.5 x Vnom
176.0V 115.0V 40.0V Transient 100ms

Continuous range
77.0-137.5V 67.2-120.0V 50.4-90.0V 33.6-60.0V 16.6-30.0V
0.7-1.25 x Vnom
Brownout 100ms
66.0V 57.6V 43.2V 28.8V 14.4V
BRB/RIA12 0.6 x Vnom
Transient 1s
165.0V 144.0V 112.5V 72.0V 36.0V
1.5V x nom
Transient 20ms
385.0V 336.0V 252.0V 168.0V 84.0V
3.5 x Vnom

Surges, ESD, transient burst & EMC are referenced to the EN50121-3-2:2006 “Electromagnetic
compatibility – Rolling stock – Apparatus” standard.

EN50121

EN50121 is a set of standards that specify the limits for electromagnetic emissions of the railways to
the outside world, and the electromagnetic emission and immunity for equipment working within the
railways. EN50121-3-2:2006 defines the electromagnetic compatibility requirements for rolling stock
apparatus. The older national standards have differing requirements from those defined in EN50121
above, which need to be considered separately where these standards are required.

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 Integrating Power Converters

A summary of the conducted emissions & conducted immunity levels are given in the tables below:

Conducted Emissions

Frequency Range Specification

9kHz-150kHz No limit

150kHz-500kHz 99dBuV quasi peak

500kHz-30MHz 93dBuV quasi peak

Continuous Input Range, Brownout and Transient Requirements

Reference Standard
Environmental Phenomenon Specification
Performance Criteria

1.5/50µs
Line to Line
Surges ±1kV 42Ω 0.5µF EN61000-4-5 B
Line to Ground
±2kV 42Ω 0.5µF

5/50ns Tr/Th
Fast Transient Burst 5kHz Repetition EN61000-4-4 A
±2kV freq Peak

0.15MHz-80MHz
Unmodulated
Radio Frequency Common Mode 80% AM, 1kHz EN61000-4-6 A
Carrier
10Vrms

±6kV Contact
Electrostatic Discharge EN61000-4-2 A
±8kV Air

Performance Criteria Definitions

Criteria A: The apparatus shall continue to operate normally during and after the test, no degradation
of performance.

Criteria B: Indicates that normal operation will resume after the test and that their may be a loss of
performance during the test.

DC-DC converters and sub assemblies are normally considered as a component while the standards
apply to the finished product intended for installation on the rolling stock. Products designed for rail
applications are independently evaluated against these requirements though emissions, susceptibility
and ESD must be re-evaluated on the final equipment

Environmental

Four grades of operating temperature are specified within EN50155, which are further divided in to
internal cubicle temperature, cubicle over temperature & ambient PCB temperature as shown in the
table overleaf.

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Integrating Power Converters

Additional cubicle
Air temperature
Ambient temperature Internal cubicle temperature during
Class surrounding the
outside vehicle temperature 10 minutes
PCB assembly
overtemperature
T1 -25°C to +40°C -25°C to +55°C +15°C -25°C to +70°C
T2 -40°C to +35°C -40°C to +55°C +15°C -40°C to +70°C
T3 -25°C to +45°C -25°C to +70°C +15°C -25°C to +85°C
TX -40°C to +50°C -40°C to +70°C +15°C -40°C to +85°C

Relative Humidity

Electrical equipment shall be designed for the relative humidity stress limits over the external enclosure
temperature ranges defined above as follows:

• Yearly average with ≤75% relative humidity

• 30 days per year consecutively with a 95% relative humidity

Mechanical

Equipment used on or close to rolling stock will be subject to a constant vibration of varying frequency
and magnitude. DC-DC converters and sub assemblies are typically robust in their construction but
their mounting in the end apparatus needs careful consideration, as they are likely to be among the
heavier components.

EN50155, and the older national standards, specify the levels electrical equipment must comply
with depending on its location within the vehicle. EN50155 references EN61371:2010 to define the
severity of the tests. There are 3 categories within EN61371 as follows.

• Category 1: Body Mounted

-Class A: Cubicles, sub assemblies, equipment and components mouted directly
on or under the car body.
-Class B: Anything mounted inside an equipment case which is in turn mounted
directly on or under the car body.
• Category 2: Bogie Mounted
• Category 3: Axle Mounted

Test levels become more severe from category 1 to category 3 for both shock and vibration.

Power Solutions For Rail Applications

XP Power has a long and successful history of supplying power solutions into the railway industry from
individual DC-DC converter modules to complete power assemblies. We have a clear understanding
of the specification requirements and challenges encountered in developing electrical & electronic
systems for train borne & trackside applications. When comparing EN50155 and the older BRB/RIA &
NF F standards, the input ranges and surge requirements differ. XP Power has developed solutions to
comply with all of these standards over a number of nominal input voltages and successfully deployed
these solutions in partnership with our customers.

Our latest DC-DC module product introductions are fully evaluated and certified to the railway
standards with full EMC reports for integration into end system assemblies or for integration into
complete power system sub-assemblies in our engineered solutions groups around the world to
provide turnkey solutions for system designers.

134
Glossary Breakdown Voltage
The maximum AC or DC voltage which may be
applied across an isolation barrier. See Figure 2.
Abnormal Failure
An artificially induced failure of a component,
usually as a result of ‘abnormal’ testing for
regulatory agency safety compliance. RECTIFIER
INPUT FILTER & OUTPUT
REGULATOR
Ambient Temperature
The still-air temperature in the immediate
vicinity of a power supply. BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

Apparent Power Figure 2

A value of power for AC circuits which is Bridge Rectifier
calculated as the product of RMS current times A full wave rectifier circuit employing four
RMS voltage, without taking the power factor diodes in a bridge configuration.
into account.
Brown-out
Autoranging Input Condition during peak usage periods when
An input voltage sensing circuit in the power electric utilities reduce their nominal line voltage
supply which automatically switches to the by 10% to 15%.
appropriate input voltage range (90-132VAC or
180-264VAC). BSMI
Bureau of Standards Metrology & Inspection.
Balun Certification body for Taiwan.
A transformer which presents a high impedance
to common-mode signals and a low impedance Burn-in
to differential-mode signals. It is commonly used Operating a newly manufactured power supply,
on the input of switching power supplies to usually at rated load and elevated temperature,
suppress common-mode noise. See figure 1. for a period of time in order to force component
infant mortality failures or other latent defects
before the unit is delivered to a customer.
IN SWITCHING OUT
SUPPLY CAN Bus
Controller Area Network Bus is a 2 wire system
used for data communication ideally suited to
harsh, electrically noisy environments
Figure 1

Bandwidth CANopen
A range of frequencies over which a certain CANopen is a communication protocol and
phenomenon is to be considered. device profile specification largely used in
automation applications. It uses the Controller
Basic Insulation Area Network Bus (CANBus) serial bus designed
According to international safety standards for industrial environments
(e.g. IEC62368-1) basic insulation provides
basic protection against electric shock i.e. one Capacitive Coupling
level of protection, and the test voltage used is Coupling of a signal between two circuits, due
1500VAC for 300VAC working voltage. to discrete or parasitic capacitance between
the circuits.
Bode Plot
A graphic plot of gain and phase versus CE Mark
frequency for a control loop, typically used to A means of identifying a product as meeting all
verify control loop stability, including gain and of the relevant European directives developed
phase margins. to allow free trade between member states.

135
Glossary

CCC Creepage Distance

China Compulsary Certification. Certification The shortest distance between two conducting
scheme for China for product safety and EMC, parts measured along the surface or joints of the
issued by China Quality Control (CQC). insulating material between them.

Center Tap Crest Factor

An electrical connection made at the center of a In an AC circuit, crest factor is the mathematical
transformer or inductor winding, usually so as to ratio of the peak to RMS values of a waveform.
result in an equal number of turns on either side
of the connection. Cross Regulation
In a multiple output power supply, the
Centering percentage voltage change at one output caused
The act of setting the output voltage of a power by the load change on another output.
supply under specified load conditions,.
Crowbar
CISPR An overvoltage protection circuit which rapidly
Comité International Spécial des Perturbations places a low resistance shunt across the power
Radio électriques. (International Special supply output terminals if a predetermined
Committee on Radio Interference) voltage is exceeded. See Figure 3.

Clearance Distance +5V

The shortest distance (through air) separating

SCR Vz = 6.2 V
two conductors or circuit components.

Common-mode Noise TO POWER

OUTPUT
SUPPLY
The component of noise that is common to both OUTPUT

the live and neutral conductors with respect R

to ground, also the component of noise that is
common to both the DC output and return lines
with respect to input ground. COM

Conducted Immunity Figure 3

The immunity of a product to bursts of short
duration, fast rise time transients that may be CSA
generated by the switching of inductive loads, Canadian Standards Association. An
contactors etc. independent Canadian organization concerned
with testing for public safety.
Configurable
See Modular Current Limiting
See Output Current Limiting.
Constant Current Limiting Circuit
Current-limiting circuit which holds output Current Limiting Circuit
current at some maximum value whenever an A circuit designed to prevent overload of a
overload of any magnitude is experienced. constant-voltage power supply. It can take the
form of constant, foldback or cycle-by-cycle
Constant Current Power Supply current limiting.
A power supply which regulates its output
current, within specified limits, against changes Current Share
in line, load, ambient temperature and time. The accuracy with which two or more power
supplies share a load current. An active share
Constant Voltage Power Supply control connection is sometimes employed
A power supply designed to regulate the output which may be described as a current share or
voltage for changes in line, load, ambient power share connection.
temperature and drift resulting from time.
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 Glossary

Derating Dropout
The specified reduction in an operating The lower limit of the AC input voltage
parameter to improve reliability. Generally for where the power supply begins to experience
power converters it is the reduction in output insufficient input voltage to maintain regulation.
power at elevated temperatures or low input
voltages. Dynamic Current Allocation
A system for dual positive outputs such as
DeviceNet 5V & 3.3V where the full amount of current
DeviceNet is an open network protocol, may be taken from either output in whichever
managed by ODVA, used for data exchange combination is required. For instance, in a 6A
between interconnected industrial devices on a system any value of current from 0A to 6A
Controller Area Network (CAN). may be taken from the 3.3V output and the
remainder from the 5V or vice versa.
Differential Mode Noise
The component of noise measured between Dynamic Load Regulation
the live and neutral conductors, and also the See Transient Response.
component of noise measured between the DC
output and output return. See Ripple and Noise. Earth Leakage Current
The current that flows through the earth
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) conductor of a piece of equipment under normal
The mathematical manipulation and processing conditions. This is limited by legislation. Limits
of a signal in real time using a digital algorithm. depend upon the application.
Used to control digital power supplies and
DC-DC converters. Efficiency
The ratio of output power to input power. It is
Dips and Interruptions generally measured at full-load and nominal line
Short input interruptions to simulate the utility conditions. In multiple output switching power
supply under various conditions. supplies, efficiency is a function of total output
power.
Double Insulation
Insulation comprising both basic insulation EFT/Burst
and supplementary insulation. Double See Conducted Immunity.
insulation provides two levels of protection
and the test voltage is 3000VAC for ITE and Eighth Brick
industrial equipment, and 4000VAC for medical An industry standard package size and pin-out
equipment for 300VAC working voltage. for DC-DC converters. The package size is
2.3” x 0.9” with the pins on a 2.0” spacing. The
Distributed Power Architecture (DPA) height is typically 0.3”.
This is a power distribution system where the
conversion to lower voltages is effected locally, Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
near the load. An interim DC voltage is provided Discharge of static electricity built up when two
from the AC mains or DC bus by a converter. insulating materials are rubbed together.
This is then distributed to smaller DC-DC
converters. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Also called radio frequency interference (RFI),
Drift EMI is unwanted high frequency energy. EMI
The change in output voltage of a power supply can be conducted through the input or output
over a specified period of time, following lines or radiated through space.
a warmup period, with all other operating
parameters such as line, load, and ambient Enable
temperature held constant. Power supply interface signal which commands
the power supply to start up one or all outputs.

137
Glossary

Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) Foldback Current Limiting Circuit

The amount of resistance in series with an Current limiting circuit that gradually decreases
ideal capacitor which exactly duplicates the the output current under overload conditions
performance of a real capacitor. until some minimum current level is reached
under a direct short circuit. See Figure 5.
EtherCAT
EtherCAT (Ethernet for Control Automation
Technology) is an ethernet based fieldbus
protocol.

FCC Vout
The FCC (Federal Communications Commission)
is an independent United States government
agency, directly responsible to Congress
and charged with regulating interstate and
international communications by television,
radio, wire, satellite and cable.
Iout 100%
load
Filter
Figure 5
A frequency-sensitive network that attenuates
unwanted noise and ripple components. Forward Converter
Similar to a fly-back converter but the forward
Floating Output converter stores energy in the output inductor
An output of a power supply that is not instead of the transformer. See page 3.
connected or referenced to any other output.
They generally can be used as either positive or Front End
negative outputs. Non-floating outputs share A particular type of AC-DC converter (usually
a common return line and so are referenced to high power) used in distributed power
one another. architecture (DPA) and Intermediate Bus
Architecture (IBA) systems which provides the
Fly-back Converter DC voltage that is bussed around the system.
The fly-back converter is the simplest type
of switching power supply. In most cases, it Full Brick
uses one switch and only needs one magnetic An industry standard package size and pin out
element - the transformer. Practical output for DC-DC converters. The package size is
power from flyback converters is limited to less 2.4” x 4.6” with the pins on a 4.2” spacing. The
than 150W. See Figure 4. height is typically 0.5” without a heatsink. Four
mounting holes are provided for the attachment
D of heatsinks and to the customer’s board.
Vc

Np Ns LOAD Full Bridge Converter

A power switching circuit in which 4 transistors
are connected in a bridge configuration to drive
S1
a transformer primary. See page 6.

Galvanic Isolation
FEEDBACK
& DRIVE
Two circuits which have no significant ohmic
connection are considered to be “galvanically
Figure 4 isolated” from each other. Galvanic isolation
(separation) is achieved by using a transformer,
opto-coupler, etc.

138
 Glossary

Graphical User Interface (GUI) Hi-Pot Test

A user interface that enables interaction with High potential test. A test to determine if the
digitally enabled electronic devices, such as breakdown voltage of a transformer or power
a power supply or DC-DC converter, using a supply exceeds the minimum requirement. It is
computer. performed by applying a high voltage between
the two isolated test points.
Green Mode Power Supplies
Power supplies designed to minimize no load Hold-up Time
power consumption and maximize efficiency The time during which a power supply’s output
across the load range. Often used in external voltage remains within specification following
power supplies to meet environmental the loss of input power.
legislation and in component power supplies to
enable end equipment to comply with similar Hot Swap
legislation. Redundant units which may be removed and
replaced without the need to power down
Ground equipment.
An electrical connection to earth or some
other conductor that is connected to earth. I²C Bus
Sometimes the term “ground” is used in place of Inter Integrated Circuit BUS is a serial BUS
“common”, but such usage is not correct unless widely used in power management systems.
the connection is also made to earth.
IEC
Ground Loop International Electrotechnical Commission.
An unwanted feedback condition caused by two
or more circuits sharing a common electrical Induced Noise
ground line. Noise generated in a circuit by a varying
magnetic field produced by another circuit.
Half Brick
An industry standard package size and pin-out Inhibit
for DC-DC converters. The package size is 2.40” Power supply interface signal which commands
x 2.28” with the pins on a 1.90” spacing. The the power supply to shut down one or all
height is typically 0.50” without a heatsink. Four outputs.
mounting holes are provided for the attachment
of heatsinks and to the customer’s board. Input Line Filter
A low-pass or band-reject filter at the input of
Half Bridge Converter a power supply which reduces line noise fed
A power switching circuit similar to the full to the supply. This filter may be external to the
bridge converter except that only two transistors power supply.
(or diodes) are used, with the other two replaced
by capacitors. See page 5. Input Voltage Range
The high and low input voltage limits within
Harmonic Currents which a power supply or DC-DC converter
Current distortion generated by non-linear meets its specifications.
loads such as the input to a switch mode power
supply. Inrush Current
The peak instantaneous input current drawn by
Heatsink a power supply or DC-DC converters at turn-on.
Device used to conduct away and disperse the
heat generated by electronic components.

Hiccup Mode
See Trip & Restart Current Limiting

139
Glossary

Inverter Load Regulation

A power converter which changes DC input Variation of the output voltage due to a change
power into AC output power. in the output load, with all other factors held
constant. It is expressed as a percentage of the
Isolation nominal DC output voltage.
The electrical separation between input and
output of a power supply or DC-DC converters Local Sensing
by means of the power transformer. The Using the output terminals of the power
isolation resistance (normally in mega ohms) converter as sense points for voltage regulation.
and the isolation capacitance (normally in pico
farads) are generally specified and are a function Logic Enable
of materials and spacings employed throughout The ability to turn a power supply or DC-DC
the power converter. converters on and off with signal level control.

Isolation Voltage Long Term Stability

The maximum AC or DC voltage that may be Power supply output voltage change due to
applied for a short, defined duration from input time with all other factors held constant. This
to output and/or chassis of a power supply. is expressed in percent and is a function of
component ageing.
KETI
Korean Electrical Testing Institute. Certification Magnetic Amplifier
body for safety and EMC in Korea. A magnetic device used to improve the cross
regulation of multiple output AC-DC converters.
Line Frequency Regulation
The variation of an output voltage caused by Margining
a change in line input frequency, with all other Adjusting a power supply output voltage up
factors held constant. This effect is negligible in or down from its nominal setting in order to
switching and linear power supplies. verify system performance. This is usually done
electrically by a system-generated control signal.
Line Regulation
The variation of an output voltage due to a Minimum Load
change in the input voltage, with all other The minimum load current/power that must be
factors held constant. Line regulation is drawn from the power supply in order for the
expressed as the maximum percentage change supply to meet its performance specifications.
in output voltage as the input voltage is varied
over its specified range. Modbus
Modbus is an open data communication
Linear Regulator protocol used for connecting industrial
A common voltage-stabilization technique in electronic devices transmitted over a serial bus,
which the control device is placed in series or such as RS485 or RS232 which define the signal
parallel with the power source to regulate the levels employed.
voltage across the load. The term ‘linear’ is used
because the voltage drop across the control Modular
device is varied continuously to dissipate unused A physically descriptive term used to describe a
power. power supply made up of a number of separate
subsections, such as an input module, power
LLC Half Bridge Converter module, or filter module.
A resonant, zero voltage switching power
converter enabling the design of high efficiency
power supplies. See page 8.

140
 Glossary

MOSFET Output Current Limiting

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect An output protection feature which limits the
Transistor. The device of choice for the main output current to a predetermined value in
switch in many switch mode power converters. order to prevent damage to the power supply or
the load under overload conditions. The supply
MTBF is automatically restored to normal operation
Mean Time Between Failures. The failure following removal of the overload.
rate of a system or component, expressed
in hours, established by the actual operation Output Good
(demonstrated MTBF) or calculated from a A power supply status signal which indicates
known standard such as MIL-HDBK-217F. that the output voltage is within a certain
tolerance. An output that is either too high or
Noise too low will deactivate the output good signal.
Noise is the aperiodic, random component of
undesired deviations in output voltage. Usually Output Impedance
specified in combination with ripple. See PARD The ratio of change in output voltage to change
and Ripple. in load current.

Nominal Value Output Noise

The stated or objective value for a quantity, The AC component which may be present on
such as output voltage, which may not be the the DC output of a power converter. Switch-
actual value measured. mode power converter output noise has
two major components; a lower frequency
Off-line Power Supply component at the switching frequency of the
A power supply which operates off the AC line converter and a high frequency component
directly, without using a power transformer prior due to fast edges of the converter switching
to rectification and filtering. transitions. Noise should always be measured
directly at the output terminals with a probe
Open Frame having an extremely short grounding lead. See
A power supply with no external metal page 53.
chassis; the power supply is provided to the
end user essentially as a printed circuit board Output Voltage
which provides mechanical support as well The nominal value of the DC voltage at the
as supporting the components and making output terminals of a power converter.
electrical connections.
Output Voltage Accuracy
Operational Insulation For a fixed output supply, the tolerance in
Operational insulation is needed for the correct percent of the output voltage with respect to its
operation of the equipment, but does not nominal value under all minimum or maximum
protect against electric shock. Operational conditions.
insulation provides no levels of protection and
typically the test voltage is ≤500VDC. Output Voltage Trim
The adjustment range of a power supply or
Operating Temperature Range DC-DC converter via a potentiometer or
See Temperature Range, Operating. external programming of voltage, current or
resistance.
Operational Power Supply
A power supply with a high open loop gain Overload Protection
regulator which acts like an operational An output protection feature that limits the
amplifier and can be programmed with passive output current of a power supply under
components. overload conditions so that it will not be
damaged.

141
Glossary

Overshoot SWITCHING POWER SUPPLY

A transient change in output voltage, in excess

of specified output accuracy limits, which can

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
occur when a power supply is turned on or off
or when there is a step change in line or load. LINEAR POWER SUPPLY

See Figure 6.
TRANSIENT (TIME NOT TO SCALE)
RECOVERY
TIME OVERSHOOT
TIME

Figure 7

UNDERSHOOT Peak Power

LOAD CHANGE
OUTPUT
ACCURACY
The absolute maximum output power
LIMITS that a power supply can produce without
immediate damage. Peak power capability is
typically well beyond the continuous reliable
output power capability and should only be used
TIME within the defined specification.
Figure 6
Pi Filter (π filter)
Over Temperature Protection (OTP) A commonly-used filter at the input of a
A protection system for converters or power switching supply or DC-DC converter to reduce
supplies where the converter shuts down if the π The filter usually
reflected ripple current.
ambient temperature exceeds the converter’s consists of two parallel capacitors and a series
ratings. OTP is intended to save the converter inductor and is generally built into the supply.
and any downstream equipment in the event of See Figure 8.
a failure of a fan or such. OTP usually measures
a temperature within the converter rather than
ambient temperature.
L

Over Voltage Protection (OVP)

INPUT OUTPUT
A power supply feature which shuts down the C1 C2
supply, or crowbars or clamps the output, when
its voltage exceeds a preset level. See Crowbar.

Parallel Operation
The connection of the outputs of two or more
Figure 8
power supplies of the same output voltage to
obtain a higher output current than from either PM Bus
supply alone. This requires power supplies Power Management Bus is an open power
specifically designed to share the load. system standard used to provide communication
between power supplies & converters and other
PARD devices utilized in a power system.
Periodic And Random Deviation. A term used
for the sum of all ripple and noise components Post Regulation
measured over a specified bandwidth and stated A linear regulator used on the output of a
in either peak-to-peak or RMS values. See switching power supply to improve line and load
Figure 7. regulation and reduce output ripple voltage. See
Linear Regulator.

Power Density
The ratio of output power per unit volume.
Typically specified in W/In³.

142
 Glossary

Secondary Supplementary Insulation

The output section of an isolated power supply Independent insulation applied in addition to
which is isolated from the AC mains and basic insulation in order to provide protection
specially designed for safety of personnel who against electric shock in the event of a failure
might be working with power on the system. of basic insulation. Supplementary insulation
provides one level of protection and has a
Sequencing test voltage of 1500VAC for 300VAC working
The desired order of activation of the outputs of voltage.
a multiple output power supply.
Surface Mount Technology (SMT)
Shock and Vibration A space-saving technique whereby special lead-
A specification requirement for which a power less components are soldered onto the surface
supply is designed or tested to withstand, of a PCB rather than into holes in a PCB. The
such as 20g shock for 11 milliseconds and 10g parts are smaller than their leaded versions and
random vibration for 2 hours over a 2-2000Hz PCB area is saved.
bandwidth.
Surge
Short Circuit Protection Part of the conducted immunity suite of tests,
A feature which limits the output current of a designed to simulate a nearby lightning strike.
power supply under short circuit conditions so
that the supply will not be damaged. Switching Frequency
The switching rate at which the power stage(s)
Signals of a power supply or DC-DC converter
Output interface of various operational operates.
conditions such as power fail and DC OK.
Synchronous Rectifiers or Rectification
Sixteenth Brick A circuit arrangement where the output rectifier
An industry standard package size and pin-out diodes of a power supply are replaced with
for DC-DC converters. The package size is 1.3” active switches such as MOSFETs. The switches
x 0.9” with the pins on a 1.1” pitch. The height is are turned on and off under control and act
typically less than 0.4”. as rectifiers. This results in considerably lower
losses in the output stage and subsequently
Soft Start much higher efficiency. They are particularly
A technique for gradually activating a power useful with low voltage outputs.
converter circuit when the power supply is first
turned on. This technique is generally used Temperature Coefficient
to provide a gradual rise in output voltage or The average percent change in output voltage
current, and to limit inrush current. per degree centigrade change in ambient
temperature over a specified temperature range.
Standby Current
The input current drawn by a power supply Temperature Derating
when shut down by a control input (remote Reducing the output power of a power supply
inhibit) or under no load. with increasing temperature to maintain reliable
operation.
Start-up Rise Time
The time between the output voltage starting to Temperature Range, Operating
rise and reaching the desired level. The range of ambient or case temperatures
within which a power supply may be safely
Start-up Time (Start-up Delay) operated and meet its specifications.
Time between the application of input voltage
and the output voltage being within regulation.

145
 Glossary

Power Factor Push-Pull Converter

The ratio of true power to apparent power in A power switching circuit which uses a center
an AC circuit. In power conversion technology, tapped transformer and two power switches
power factor is used in conjunction with which are driven on and off alternately. See
describing the AC input current to the power page 7.
supply. See page 37.
Quarter Brick
Power Factor Correction (PFC) An industry standard package size and pin-out
Standard AC/DC converters draw line current in for DC/DC converters. The package size is
pulses around the peaks in line voltage. This may 1.45” x 2.28” with the pins on a 2.0” pitch. The
be undesirable for several reasons. PFC circuits height is typically 0.50” without a heatsink. Four
ensure that the line current is drawn sinusoidally mounting holes are provided for the attachment
and in phase with the sinusoidal line voltage. of heatsinks and to the customer’s board.
See page 36.
Radiated Electromagnetic Interference
Power Fail Detection Also called radio frequency interference (RFI),
A power supply signal which monitors the input EMI is unwanted high-frequency energy. The
voltage and provides an isolated logic output portion that is radiated through space is known
signal when there is loss of line voltage. as radiated EMI.

Power Foldback Radiated Immunity

A power supply feature whereby the input The immunity of a product to electromagnetic
power is reduced to a low value under output fields.
overload conditions.
Rated Output Current
Power Sharing The maximum load current which a power
See Current Share. supply was designed to provide at a specified
ambient temperature and input voltage.
Pre-load
A small amount of current drawn from a power Redundancy (N+M)
supply to stabilize its operation. A bleed resistor Power supplies connected in parallel
usually provides a pre-load. See also Minimum operation so that if one fails, the others will
Load. continue delivering enough current to supply
the maximum load. This method is used in
PSE applications where power failure cannot be
Product Safety Electric Appliances and Materials. tolerated. See page 61.
Certification for Safety and EMC in Japan.
Reference
Primary The stable voltage from which the output
The input section of an isolated power supply voltage/current of a regulated supply is
that is connected to the AC mains and hence controlled.
has dangerous voltage levels present.
Reflected Ripple Current
Programmable Power Supply The AC current generated at the input of a
A power supply with an output controlled by power supply or DC-DC converter by the
an external resistor, voltage, current or digital switching operation of the converter, stated as
interface. peak-to-peak or RMS.

Pulse Width Modulation

A method of voltage regulation used in
switching supplies whereby the output is
controlled by varying the width of a train of
pulses that drive a power switch.

143
Glossary

Reinforced Insulation Return

Single insulation system applied to live parts The name for the common terminal of the
which provide a degree of protection against output of a power supply; it carries the return
electric shock equivalent to double insulation. current for the outputs.
Reinforced insulation provides two levels
of protection and the test voltage used is Reverse Voltage Protection
3000VAC for ITE and industrial equipment, A feature which protects a power supply or
and 4000VAC for medical equipment for DC-DC converter against a reverse voltage
300VAC working voltage. applied at the input or output terminals.

Regulation RFI
The ability of a power supply to maintain an See Radiated Electromagnetic Interference.
output voltage within a specified tolerance as
referenced to changing conditions of input Ripple and Noise
voltage and/or load. The magnitude of AC voltage on the output of
a power supply, expressed in millivolts peak-to-
Reliability peak or RMS, at a specified bandwidth. This is
The ability of a system or component to perform the result of feed through of the rectified line
its required functions under stated conditions frequency, internal switching transients and
for a specified amount of time. other random noise. See also PARD & Noise.

Remote Enable Rise Time

The ability to turn on electrically the output of a The time required for the voltage in a switching
power supply via a logic level signal. electronic circuit to rise from 10% to 90% of its
nominal final value.
Remote Inhibit
The ability to electrically turn off the output of a RoHS
power supply via a logic level signal. EU directive restricting the use of certain
hazardous materials in electrical and electronic
Remote ON/OFF equipment
One or other of remote enable or remote inhibit,
or a combination of both. Safety Approvals
Third party or agency approvals to
Remote Sensing internationally recognized safety standards.
A technique of regulating the output voltage of
a power supply at the load by means of sensing Safety Ground
leads which go from the load back to the A conductive path to earth that is designed
regulator. This compensates for voltage drops in to protect persons from electrical shock by
the load leads. derating any dangerous currents that might
occur due to malfunction or accident.
Resolution
For an adjustable supply, the smallest change in SCPI
output voltage that can be realized by the Standard Commands for Programmable
adjustment. Instruments (SCPI) is designed for controlling
test and measurement instruments and
Resonant Converter devices and can be used with RS232 & RS485
A class of power converter topology which serial communication buses. It is used for
reduces the level of switching losses by forcing programmable electronic test equipment and
either zero voltage across, or zero current automated test equipment.
through, the switching device when it is turned
on or off.

144
Glossary

Temperature Range, Storage Undershoot

The range of ambient temperatures within which A transient change in output voltage, below
a non-operating power supply may be safely output accuracy limits, which can occur when a
stored with no degradation of its subsequent power supply is turned on or off, or when there
operation. is a step change in line or load. See Overshoot.

Thermal Protection Universal Input

See Over Temperature Protection. A power supply’s ability to accept a wide input
voltage range without the selection of input
Topology range, either manually or electronically (as in
The design type of a converter, indicative of the auto-ranging input).
configuration of switching transistors, utilization
of the transformer, and type of filtering. Under Voltage Lock Out (UVLO)
Examples of topologies are fly-back, forward, A protection system for power converters
half-bridge, full-bridge, and resonant. where the converter is deliberately shut down
or prevented from starting if the input voltage
Tracking drops below a pre-defined level. Some hysteresis
A characteristic of a dual or other multiple is used to prevent the converter oscillating on
output power supply whereby one or more and off. UVLO is usually needed with battery
outputs follow another output with changes systems where the voltage decreases gradually
in line, load and temperature, so that each with time rather than turning off quickly.
maintains the same proportional output voltage.
Voltage Balance
Transient Response The percentage difference in magnitude
The time required for the output voltage of a between the two output voltages of a dual
power supply to settle within specified output output power supply where the voltages have
accuracy limits following a step change in output equal nominal values with opposite polarities.
load current or a step change in input voltage.
Warm-up Drift
Trip & Restart Current Limiting The initial change in output voltage of a power
Current limiting circuit which switches off the supply from turn-on until it reaches thermal
output when an overload condition is reached. equilibrium at nominal line, full load, 25°C
The unit will then try to restart periodically until ambient temperature.
the overload is removed.
Warm-up Time
TÜV The time required, after initial turn-on, for
TÜV Rheinland Product Safety Group. An a power supply to meet its performance
independent German organization which tests specifications.
products for safety.
Zero Current Switching (ZCS)
UKCA Mark See Resonant Converter.
The CE mark is no longer valid for products
sold in the UK to denote conformity with the Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS)
required legislation. An alternative mark has See Resonant Converter.
been introduced to take its place, the UKCA
mark.

UL
Underwriter’s Laboratories Incorporated. An
independent, U.S. organization which tests
products for safety.

146
Index
Term Page Term Page

AC Motor Load 39 Electrical Safety 91

AC OK 65 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) 100
AC Power Sources 21 Electrolytic Capacitor Lifetime 81
AC Resistive Load 40 EMC Filtering 103
Active Power Factor Correction (PFC) 36 Emissions 100
Active Power Sharing 61 Enable 66
Audible Noise in Green 15 Energy Efficiency 109
Mode Power Supplies EtherCAT 70
Apparent Power 38 Factors Affecting Reliability 86
Baseplate Cooling 79/121 Failure Rate 87
Batteries 24 Filter Selection 104
Battery Charging 24-26 Fold-back Current Limit 57
Boost Converter 10 Forced Cooling 74
Buck Converter 9 Forward Converter 3
CANopen 69 Full Bridge Converter 6
CE Marking 107 Fuse Characteristics 29/58
Circuit Breakers 30/58 Glossary 135
Class I Systems 92 Green Mode 12
Class II Systems 93 Green Mode Off Line Flyback 12
Common Mode Noise 101 Ground Resistivity 43
Common Topologies 2 Half Bridge & Full Bridge Converters 5
Conducted Emissions 100 Harmonic Distortion 34
Conducted Immunity Phenomena 105 Harmonics effect on Power Factor 40
Conducted Noise 100 Heatsink Calculations 80
Constant Current Limit 57 Hiccup Mode 55
Constant Power Limit 56 Household Appliance Safety 96
Convection Cooling 74 Immunity 104
Cooling Power Modules 77 Inhibit 66
Cooling Power Supplies 74 Initial Set Accuracy 45
Cross Regulation 45 Input Current Protection 27
Crow-bar 59 Input Voltage Derating 63
Current Programming 66 Input Voltage Protection 31
Current Share 67 Inrush Current 28
DC OK 65 Insulation 91
DC Power Sources 24 Insulation Types 91
Declaration of Conformity (DofC) 108 Isolated Fly-back Converter 2
Delta Connection 22 Isolated Signal Output 69
DeviceNet 70 Leakage Current 92/95
Differential Mode Noise 101 Legislation 90
Digital Communication Interfaces 69 Line Regulation 45
Digital Power Supplies 16 Linear Power Supplies 11
Earth Leakage Current 92 LLC Half Bridge Converter 8
Earthing / Grounding 42 Load Regulation 45
Earthing for Safety 43 Low System Power Factor 41
Efficiency 111 Manufacturing Methods 88

147
Index

Index
Term Page Term Page
Medical Device Power Architectures 125 Radiated Noise 101
Medical Safety 93/125 Reactive Power 38
Modbus 69 Real and Apparent Power 37
MTBF 84 Real Power 37
N+M Redundancy 62 Redundant Operation 61
Nickel Cadmium and 25 Relay Signal Output 69
Nickel Metal Hydride Reliability 84
No Load Power Consumption 12 Remote On/Off 66
Open Collector Signals 68 Remote Sense 46
Open Drain Signals 68 Reverse Polarity Protection 33
Opto-coupler Signal Output 69 Restriction of Hazardous Substances 107
Output Protection 55 (RoHS)
Output Regulation 45 Ripple and Noise 53
Output Ripple & Noise 53 SCPI 70
Overload Protection 55 Series Operation 59
Over Voltage Protection (OVP) 58 Service Life 85
Parallel Operation 59 Single-phase AC 21
Passive Power Factor Correction (PFC) 35 Single-phase Voltages & Frequency 23
Peak Load Applications 47 Single Wire Parallel 67
PFC Boost Converter 11 Sizing of Fuses & Circuit Breakers 29
Power Fail (PF) 65 Star or Wye Connection 22
Power Good 65 Status Signals and Controls 64
Powering Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s) 51 System Cooling Fan Selection 71
Power Management (PM) Bus 69 System Reliability 88
Power Module Installation 120 Temperature Coefficient 45
Power Share 67 Temperature Derating 63
Power Sources 21 Three-phase AC 21
Power Supply Derating 62 Three-phase Voltage & Frequency 23
Power Supply Efficiency 111 Topologies (Signals) 68
Power Supply Installation 114 Transient Load Response 46
Power Supply Lifetime 83 Trip and Restart Mode 55
Power Supply Safety 90 Two Transistor Forward Converter 4
Power Systems for Railway 131 UKCA Marking 108
Applications Valve Regulated Lead Acid 24
Push-Pull Converter 7 Voltage Adjust 67
Radiated Immunity Phenomena 105 Voltage Programming 66

148
Your Essential Guide to

Power Supplies
This easy reference guide provides an invaluable resource
for system designers when choosing and integrating power
supplies and DC-DC converters.

Your Essential Guide to Power Supplies covers subjects such

as safety, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), thermal
management, lifetime, and reliability of power converters.
Also considered are energy efficiency, analog and digital
control interfaces, the increasing benefits of digital control
and intelligent power and much more.

Whether you are experienced or new to designing-in power

supplies or DC-DC converters this book offers a wealth of
information in one easy reference guide.