9066 Syntax

Book

Chapter 1: What is Syntax?

Introduction
The chapter introduces syntax as one of the core areas of linguistics, focusing on the structure
of sentences. It explains that syntax is different from grammar and explores various types of
grammar. The unit also highlights the importance of studying syntax and discusses syntactic
variations across languages.
1. Definition and Meaning of Syntax
 The word syntax comes from the Greek syntaxis, meaning "arrangement" or "ordering
together."
 Syntax refers to the rules that govern the structure of sentences, focusing on the
arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses.
 Syntax does not primarily deal with meaning but rather with sentence structure. For
example, Noam Chomsky’s famous sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." is
grammatically correct but meaningless.
2. Difference Between Grammar and Syntax
 Grammar is a broad term that includes morphology, phonology, semantics, and syntax.
 Syntax specifically deals with sentence structure and word arrangement.
 Grammar is prescriptive (telling how language should be used), while syntax is
descriptive (studying how language is used).
3. Types of Grammar
 Descriptive Grammar: Describes how native speakers actually use a language. It does not
dictate rules but records language usage.
 Prescriptive Grammar: Specifies rules on how language should be used, often found in
traditional grammar books.
 Mental Grammar: The set of rules stored in a speaker’s mind, enabling them to generate
and understand sentences.
4. Universal Grammar (UG) and Mental Grammar
 Noam Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar (UG) states that humans are born with an
innate ability to acquire language.
  UG consists of principles (rules common to all languages) and parameters (language-
specific variations).
 Example: Word order varies across languages—English follows SVO (Subject-Verb-
Object), while Urdu follows SOV (Subject-Object-Verb).
5. Importance of Studying Syntax
 Syntax helps in forming clear and grammatically correct sentences.
 It is crucial for linguistic studies as it explains how words, phrases, and clauses function
together.
 Understanding syntax enhances communication skills and allows for deeper analysis of
language structure.
6. Syntactic Variations Across Languages
 Different languages have different grammatical structures, which contribute to syntactic
diversity.
 Example: In English, the noun phrase structure is “The king of England”, while in Urdu, it
is “Englistan ka Badshah” (with the noun at the end).

Chapter 2: Traditional Grammar

Introduction
This chapter introduces traditional grammar, also known as prescriptive grammar, and
compares it with modern grammar. It explores the main features of traditional grammar, including
parts of speech, sentence structures, transformations, and composition-based activities. The
chapter also explains key syntactic terminology such as words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Key Topics Covered
1. What is Traditional Grammar?
 Traditional grammar, also called prescriptive grammar, dates back to ancient times and is
based on Latin grammar.
 It focuses on written language, whereas modern grammar prioritizes spoken language.
 Prescriptive Approach: Traditional grammar sets rules about correct and incorrect
language use.
 Descriptive Approach: Modern grammar simply describes how native speakers use
language.
2. Main Features of Traditional Grammar
Traditional grammar has several key characteristics:
1. Parts of Speech (PoS)
Words are classified into eight categories:
 Nouns (Aslam, player, teacher)
 Verbs (run, read, write)
 Adjectives (strong, golden)
 Adverbs (carefully, slowly)
 Pronouns (he, she, it)
 Prepositions (on, at, over)
 Conjunctions (and, but, or)
 Interjections (hurrah, oh, ouch)
Some grammars also include articles (a, an, the) as a separate category.
2. Open and Closed Classes of Words
Open Class Words: New words can be added (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs).
Closed Class Words: Limited new additions (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners,
auxiliaries).
3. Sentence Structure Analysis
A sentence must have a subject, verb, and object to be complete. For example:
 He eats an apple.
 Subject: He
 Verb: eats
 Object: an apple
3. Composition-Based Activities in Traditional Grammar
1. Sentence Analysis
 Sentences are broken down into subject-predicate or noun phrase-verb phrase structures.
 Parsing and tree diagrams are used to show relationships.
2. Transformation of Sentences
Changing sentence forms:
  Active to Passive:
 The people will make him a leader. → He will be made a leader by the people.

 Interrogative to Assertive:
 Was he a good teacher? → He was a good teacher.
 Affirmative to Negative:
 He was a good teacher. → He was not a good teacher.

 Exclamatory to Assertive:
 What a happy moment this is! → This is a happy moment.

 Simple to Compound and Complex Sentences

3. Synthesis of Sentences
Combining two or more sentences into a single sentence. For example:
 He will be late. This is certain. → He will certainly be late.
4. Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct Speech: Reports the actual words of the speaker.
 Example: He said, “I am unwell.”
Indirect Speech: Reports speech without quoting exactly.
 Example: He said that he was unwell.
5. Correct Usage of Grammar
Traditional grammar emphasizes proper usage of:
 Verb-subject agreement (The quality of the peaches was not good.)
 Idioms and phrases (Break a leg, under the weather)

 Punctuation and spelling rules

6. Sentence Structures
Different sentence patterns are analyzed:
 Simple Sentence: Birds fly.
 Subject + Verb + Object: I know his village.
 Subject + Verb + Direct + Indirect Object: I lent her my pen.
7. Question Tags and Short Answers
Question Tags:
 It’s very cold, isn’t it?
Short Answers:
 Are you going to college? → Yes, I am.
8. Written Composition Activities
Includes:
 Paragraph Writing
 Story Writing
 Letter Writing
 Comprehension and Summary Writing
 Essay Writing
 Dialogue Writing
4. Important Terminology in Syntax
 Word: The smallest syntactic unit. Example: Pakistan, snow
 Phrase: A group of words without a subject-verb pair. Example: The black dog
 Clause: A group of words with a subject and a verb. Example: She runs every morning.
 Sentence: A complete grammatical unit that conveys a meaning.

Chapter 3: Words
Introduction
This chapter explores the fundamental role of words in syntax, describing them as the
building blocks of sentences. It categorizes words into lexical (content) and functional (structure)
categories, explaining their syntactic and morphological characteristics. The chapter aims to help
students understand how words function in sentence formation and how they are classified in
syntax.
Key Topics Covered
1. Word as a Syntactic Unit
 Syntax studies the rules that help generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.
 Words combine to form phrases, which then form clauses and sentences.
 Words are not all the same—they serve different functions and are divided into two broad
categories:
1. Lexical Categories (content words)
 2. Functional Categories (structure words)
2. Lexical Categories
These are content words that carry meaning in a sentence. There are four main types:
1. Nouns
o Refer to people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., car, teacher, honesty).
o Can function as subjects or objects in a sentence.
o Can be singular or plural (boy → boys).
o Can be modified by adjectives (beautiful house).
2. Pronouns
o Replace nouns (he, she, it, they).
o Types: Personal, Possessive, Reflexive, Demonstrative, etc.
3. Verbs
o Express actions or states of being (run, think, exist).
o Can be transitive (needs an object) or intransitive (no object needed).
4. Adjectives
o Describe nouns (happy, large, intelligent).
o Can show degree of comparison (tall → taller → tallest).
5. Adverbs
o Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (quickly, very, too).
o Indicate manner, place, time, frequency (She speaks softly. He left yesterday.).
3. Functional Categories
These words do not carry meaning alone but provide grammatical structure in a sentence.

 Determiners
o Articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your).
 Auxiliaries (Helping Verbs)
o Primary auxiliaries (be, have, do).
o Modal auxiliaries (can, must, shall).
 Conjunctions
 o Coordinating: (and, but, or).
o Subordinating: (because, although, if).

 Complementizers
o Introduce subordinate clauses (that, whether, if).

 Prepositions
o Indicate relationships between words (in, on, at, under).

 Particles
o Used in phrasal verbs (put on, take off, break down).
4. Differences between Lexical and Functional Categories

Lexical Categories Functional Categories

Include determiners, auxiliaries, conjunctions,

Include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
complementizers, prepositions, particles.

Carry the main content of a sentence. Provide structure to the sentence.

Can change form (e.g., pluralization, verb Do not change form (e.g., and, the, if remain
conjugation). the same).

Open class – new words can be added. Closed class – few new words can be added.

Chapter 4: Phrases
Introduction
This chapter introduces the concept of phrases as meaningful groups of words and explains
how they differ from ungrammatical word strings. It discusses phrase structure rules (PS rules),
developed under Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar theory, to illustrate how phrases are
formed systematically. The chapter also introduces different types of phrases (NP, VP, AP, AdvP,
PP, CP), their hierarchical structure, recursion, coordination, particle movement, and
structural ambiguity.
Key Topics Covered
1. What is a Phrase?
 A phrase is a group of words that function as a single unit in a sentence.
 Example of a phrase: a big house (grammatical).
 Example of an ungrammatical word string: big in for (incorrect).
  Phrases are rule-governed; native speakers learn these rules as part of their mental
grammar.
2. Noam Chomsky’s Generative Grammar and Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules)
 Chomsky introduced generative grammar, which suggests that speakers have a finite set
of rules to generate infinite grammatical phrases and sentences.
 These rules are called Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules).
 PS rules specify what constituents belong to a phrase and in what order.
3. Types of Phrases and Their Structure
3.1 Noun Phrase (NP)
 Contains a noun (N) as the head and may include determiners (Det), adjectives (A),
prepositional phrases (PP), or sentences (S).
 Example:
o The tall boy from Lahore (NP) → Det + A + N + PP.
 PS Rule:
o NP → (Det) (A) N (PP/S).
3.2 Verb Phrase (VP)
 Contains a verb (V) as the head and may include objects, adverbs, prepositional
phrases, or sentences.
 Examples:
o The boy ran. (VP: ran)
o The boy writes a letter hurriedly. (VP: writes a letter hurriedly)
 PS Rule:
o VP → V (NP) (PP/S/AdvP).
3.3 Adjective Phrase (AP)
 Contains an adjective (A) as the head and may include a prepositional phrase or a
sentence.
 Example:
o The boy is proud of his achievement. (AP: proud of his achievement)
 PS Rule:
o AP → A (PP/S).
3.4 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
 Contains an adverb (Adv) as the head and may include other adverbs.
 Example:
o Very happily (AdvP: very happily).
 PS Rule:
o AdvP → (AdvP) Adv.
3.5 Prepositional Phrase (PP)
 Contains a preposition (P) as the head, followed by a noun phrase (NP).
 Example:
o On the table (PP: on the table).
 PS Rule:
o PP → P NP.
3.6 Complementizer Phrase (CP)
 A phrase with a complementizer (C) as the head, introducing a subordinate clause (S).
 Example:
o Ahmed wondered if his boss liked his work. (CP: if his boss liked his work).
 PS Rule:
o CP → C S.
4. Sentence Structure and Hierarchical Representation
 A sentence (S) consists of an NP (subject) followed by a VP (predicate).
 PS Rule for Sentences:
o S → NP VP.
 Sentences have a hierarchical structure, meaning phrases nest within each other.
5. Recursion in Syntax
 Recursion allows sentences to be infinitely expandable by embedding phrases within
phrases.
 Example:
o I know [that you believe [that he said [that they will come.]]] (CP within CP within
CP).
  Recursion makes language flexible and expressive.
6. Coordination and Particle Movement
6.1 Coordination
 Two like phrases (NPs, VPs, APs) can be joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, but,
or).
 Example:
o Ali and his friend (NP + NP).
 PS Rule:
o XP → XP Conj XP.
6.2 Particle Movement
 Particles in phrasal verbs (turn on, put off, take away) can move within the sentence.
 Example:
o He turned on the light. (V + Part + NP)
o He turned the light on. (V + NP + Part)
 PS Rules:
o VP → V Part NP
o VP → V NP Part.
7. Ambiguity in Phrase Structure
 Lexical Ambiguity: A word has multiple meanings (bank = riverbank vs. financial bank).
 Structural Ambiguity: A phrase has multiple interpretations.
 Example:
o Little boys and girls
 (Little boys) and (girls) → Two groups
 Little (boys and girls) → Both are little
 Tree diagrams help disambiguate sentences.

Summary of Chapter 4: Phrases

Introduction
 This chapter introduces phrases as fundamental components of sentence structure in
syntax. A phrase is defined as a group of words that function as a single unit within a sentence.
The chapter explains phrase structure rules (PS rules), different types of phrases, recursion,
coordination, particle movement, and ambiguity. It follows the generative grammar approach
proposed by Noam Chomsky.
1. What is a Phrase?
 A phrase consists of words grouped together in a specific order to perform a grammatical
function.
 Unlike clauses, phrases do not contain a subject-verb combination.
 Example: a beautiful house (Noun Phrase - NP).
2. Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules) and Generative Grammar
 Phrase structure rules (PS rules) define how words combine to form phrases and how
phrases combine to form sentences.
 Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar explains that syntax follows a finite set of rules
to create infinite sentences.
 Sentence Structure Rule:
o S → NP VP (A sentence consists of a Noun Phrase followed by a Verb Phrase).
3. Types of Phrases and Their Structure
3.1 Noun Phrase (NP)
 Head: Noun (N)
 Modifiers: Determiners (Det), Adjectives (A), Prepositional Phrases (PP), Clauses (S).
 Examples:
o The young boy with blue eyes (Det + A + N + PP).
 PS Rule:
o NP → (Det) (A) N (PP/S).
3.2 Verb Phrase (VP)
 Head: Verb (V)
 Modifiers: Objects, Adverbs (AdvP), Prepositional Phrases (PP), Clauses (S).
 Examples:
o She writes novels quickly (VP: writes novels quickly).
 PS Rule:
 o VP → V (NP) (PP/S/AdvP).
3.3 Adjective Phrase (AP)
 Head: Adjective (A)
 Modifiers: Prepositional Phrases (PP), Clauses (S).
 Examples:
o Proud of his success (AP: proud of his success).
 PS Rule:
o AP → A (PP/S).
3.4 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
 Head: Adverb (Adv)
 Modifiers: Other adverbs (AdvP).
 Examples:
o Very happily (AdvP: very happily).
 PS Rule:
o AdvP → (AdvP) Adv.
3.5 Prepositional Phrase (PP)
 Head: Preposition (P)
 Modifiers: Noun Phrase (NP).
 Examples:
o On the table (PP: on the table).
 PS Rule:
o PP → P NP.
3.6 Complementizer Phrase (CP)
 Head: Complementizer (C)
 Introduces subordinate clauses.
 Examples:
o He asked if she was coming. (CP: if she was coming).
 PS Rule:
 o CP → C S.
4. Hierarchical Structure of Phrases
 Phrases are nested inside each other in a hierarchical structure.
 Example:
o The man in the park was jogging. (NP → PP → VP).
5. Recursion in Syntax
 Recursion allows embedding phrases within phrases, making language infinitely
expandable.
 Example:
o I know [that you believe [that she said [that they will come.]]] (CP within CP within
CP).
6. Coordination and Particle Movement
6.1 Coordination
 Similar phrases (NPs, VPs, APs) can be joined by conjunctions (and, but, or).
 Example:
o Ali and his friend (NP + NP).
 PS Rule:
o XP → XP Conj XP.
6.2 Particle Movement
 Phrasal verbs (turn on, take off, break down) allow particles to move within a sentence.
 Example:
o He turned on the light. → He turned the light on.
 PS Rules:
o VP → V Part NP
o VP → V NP Part.
7. Structural Ambiguity
 Lexical Ambiguity: A word has multiple meanings (bank = riverbank vs. financial bank).
 Structural Ambiguity: A phrase can be interpreted in multiple ways.
 Example:
 o Little boys and girls
 (Little boys) and (girls) → Two groups
 Little (boys and girls) → Both are little
 Tree diagrams help clarify ambiguous structures.

Chapter 5: Tense, Aspect, and Mood (TAM)

Introduction
This chapter explores Tense-Aspect-Mood (TAM) as essential grammatical features of
verb phrases. TAM helps express time, continuity, completion, attitude, and modality of actions
or states. The chapter explains how different languages mark TAM morphologically or
syntactically.
1. Tense
 Tense locates an event in time (past, present, or future).
 Some languages mark absolute tense (fixed reference to the present) or relative tense
(time relative to another event).
 Examples:
o They are playing cricket. (Present)
o They played cricket. (Past)
o They will play cricket. (Future)
1.1 Absolute vs. Relative Tense
 Absolute Tense: Expresses time directly (She left yesterday).
 Relative Tense: Depends on another time (She said she had left).
1.2 Tense in English
 Past vs. Non-Past: English morphologically distinguishes past (played) from non-past
(plays).
 Future is expressed using auxiliaries (will, shall) rather than verb inflections.
2. Aspect
 Aspect describes how an event unfolds over time (instantaneous, ongoing, completed,
or habitual).
 English has four aspects:
 1. Simple Aspect: General facts or repeated actions (I eat, I ate).
2. Progressive Aspect: Ongoing actions (I am eating).
3. Perfect Aspect: Completed actions with relevance (I have eaten).
4. Perfect Progressive Aspect: Ongoing past actions affecting the present (I have
been eating).
2.1 Perfect vs. Perfective
 Perfect: Past events linked to present (I have finished).
 Perfective: Completed action without relevance to the present (I finished).
2.2 Lexical Aspect
 States: love, know, believe (unchanging).
 Activities: run, walk (continuous, without a clear endpoint).
 Accomplishments: build a house, draw a picture (goal-oriented, completed).
 Achievements: win, recognize (instantaneous events).
3. Mood and Modality
 Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude or intent (fact, command, question, condition, or
wish).
 Types of Mood:
o Indicative: States facts (He is coming).
o Imperative: Commands (Come here!)
o Subjunctive: Wishes or hypotheticals (If I were a king...).
o Interrogative: Questions (Is he coming?).
3.1 Modality
 Modality conveys the degree of certainty, possibility, obligation, or necessity using
modal verbs (can, must, may, should).
 Examples:
o He must be home by now. (certainty)
o She may come later. (possibility)
o You should study more. (obligation)
Summary of Chapter 6: Clauses
Introduction
This chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of clauses as grammatical units,
differentiating them from phrases and sentences. It explains types of clauses (main and
subordinate), their role in sentence formation, and types of sentences (simple, compound, and
complex). Additionally, it explores subordinate clauses (complement, relative, and adverbial), how
to identify them, and distinguishes between finite and non-finite clauses.
1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences
 Phrase: A group of words without a subject-verb pair (in the morning).
 Clause: A group of words with a subject and a verb (when he felt hungry).
 Sentence: A clause that expresses a complete thought (The baby cried when he felt hungry
in the morning).
Unlike phrases, clauses can function as complete sentences or as part of a larger sentence.
2. Types of Clauses
2.1 Independent (Main) Clause
 Expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence.
 Example:
o Ali solved the sums.
o Ahmed played cricket.
2.2 Dependent (Subordinate) Clause
 Does not express a complete thought and depends on a main clause.
 Introduced by a subordinating conjunction (while, because, if, although, that).
 Example:
o While Ahmed played cricket (incomplete thought).
o Ali solved the sums while Ahmed played cricket. (complete thought).
3. Types of Sentences
Sentences are classified based on the number and types of clauses they contain:
3.1 Simple Sentence
 Contains only one main clause.
 Example: Bilal waited for the train.
3.2 Compound Sentence
 Contains two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or).
 Example:
o Bilal waited for the train, but the train was late.
o Ali likes football, and Ahmed likes cricket.
3.3 Complex Sentence
 Contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
 Example:
o Ahmed missed his morning train because he woke up late.
o Salma wondered if she could become a space scientist..
4. Types of Subordinate Clauses
4.1 Complement Clause
 Acts as the direct object of a verb.
 Introduced by complementizers: that, if, whether, for.
 Example:
o Aslam doubts if he can do this task.
o Nida knew that she would pass the exam.
 Also called "noun clauses" because they replace noun phrases.
4.2 Relative Clause
 Modifies a noun (also called an adjective clause).
 Introduced by relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that.
 Example:
o The story which Mrs. Majeed told was very interesting.
o The boy who helped the old lady was Ahmed.
 The relative pronoun can sometimes be omitted (The book Amna borrowed was very
informative.).
4.3 Adverbial Clause
 Modifies the entire main clause (expresses reason, time, manner, condition, or
concession).
  Example:
o Amna could not chew because she had a severe toothache. (Reason)
o The dogs barked when they saw the stranger. (Time)
o Although Aslam gave his best, he could not win the match. (Concession).
5. Identifying Subordinate Clauses
 If a clause modifies the entire main clause, it is an adverbial clause. (Although she was
sick, she attended class.)
 If it modifies a verb, it is a complement clause. (His father suggested that he should visit
a dentist.)
 If it modifies a noun, it is either a relative clause or a complement clause.
6. Finite vs. Non-Finite Clauses
6.1 Finite Clauses
 Contain a verb that marks tense (past/present).
 Example:
o The children were happy when their mother bought them chocolates.
o Both main clause (The children were happy) and subordinate clause (when their
mother bought chocolates) are finite.
6.2 Non-Finite Clauses
 Contain verbs in infinitive, gerund, or participle form.
 Example:
o The father wants his son to become a doctor.
o Aslam hopes to become a successful businessman.
o Uzma wants to buy new dresses.
 Non-finite clauses lack tense marking and often have covert subjects.
o Bilal wants to be a mountaineer. (Bilal is understood as the subject of to be).
7. Summary Points
 Phrase = Meaningful group of words without a subject-verb pair.
 Clause = Meaningful group of phrases with a subject-verb pair.
 Sentence = A clause that expresses a complete thought.
  Main Clause = Can stand alone.
 Subordinate Clause = Depends on a main clause.
 Types of Sentences = Simple, Compound, Complex.
 Types of Subordinate Clauses = Complement, Relative, Adverbial.
 Finite Clauses = Contain tense-marked verbs.
 Non-Finite Clauses = Contain verbs in infinitive/participle form.

Chapter 7: Grammatical Functions and Semantic Roles

Introduction
This chapter explores two key aspects of syntax: grammatical functions and semantic roles.
It explains how different syntactic units function in a sentence and how participants in an event
are assigned different roles. The purpose of the chapter is to analyze sentence structures based on
grammatical roles and semantic meanings.
1. Modes of Syntactic Description
Syntactic units can be described based on:
1. Form: The grammatical shape of a unit (word, phrase, clause, or sentence).
2. Function: The role a unit plays (subject, object, modifier, complement).
3. Position: Where a unit appears in a sentence (initial, medial, final).
2. Grammatical Functions
2.1 Subject
 The doer of the action in a sentence.
 Typically comes before the verb in English.
 Example: John loves Mary. (John = Subject)
 In passive sentences, the subject may not be the doer (John was bitten by a dog.).
2.2 Direct Object
 Receives the action of the verb.
 Example: She bought a book. (Book = Direct Object).
2.3 Indirect Object
 The recipient or beneficiary of the action.
  Example: She gave Ali a book. (Ali = Indirect Object).
2.4 Predicative Complement
 Provides additional information about the subject.
 Example: She is a doctor. (Doctor = Predicative Complement).
2.5 Oblique Complement
 A prepositional phrase that is necessary for meaning.
 Example: She depends on her friend. (on her friend = Oblique Complement).
2.6 Modifier
 Provides extra information about a noun, verb, or sentence.
 Example: The carefully written letter was impressive. (Carefully = Modifier).
3. Semantic Roles (Thematic Roles)
Semantic roles describe how nouns relate to the verb in an event.
3.1 Agent
 Performs the action in a sentence.
 Example: The boy kicked the ball. (Boy = Agent).
3.2 Patient (Theme)
 Receives the action of the verb.
 Example: The boy kicked the ball. (Ball = Patient/Theme).
3.3 Instrument
 The tool used to perform an action.
 Example: She cut the rope with a knife. (Knife = Instrument).
3.4 Experiencer
 Feels, perceives, or experiences something.
 Example: Ali heard the music. (Ali = Experiencer).
3.5 Benefactive
 The entity benefiting from an action.
 Example: He opened the door for his son. (His son = Benefactive).
3.6 Location
  The place where an action happens.
 Example: She lives in Lahore. (Lahore = Location).
3.7 Source
 Starting point of movement.
 Example: She borrowed a book from the library. (Library = Source).
3.8 Goal
 The destination of an action.
 Example: She sent a letter to her friend. (Friend = Goal).
4. Summary Points
 Grammatical functions define the role of sentence elements (e.g., subject, object,
complement).
 Semantic roles explain how entities participate in an event (e.g., agent, patient, goal).
 Understanding both helps in sentence analysis and translation.

Chapter 8: Transformations
Introduction
This chapter introduces Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG), a theory proposed
by Noam Chomsky. It explains how transformational rules modify phrase structure rules (PS rules)
to generate complex sentence structures. The chapter discusses deep structure vs. surface structure,
the limitations of PS rules, and key transformational rules used to form different sentence types,
such as interrogative sentences, passive sentences, fronted constituents, imperative sentences, and
compound/complex sentences.
1. Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules) and Their Limitations
PS rules generate simple, active, and declarative sentences. However, PS rules cannot explain
complex transformations like questions, passives, orembedded clauses.
 Example of PS Rules:
o S → NP VP (A sentence consists of a noun phrase and a verb phrase).
o NP → (Det) (A) N (PP/S) (A noun phrase may include determiners, adjectives, a
noun, and a prepositional phrase or sentence).
o VP → V (NP) (PP/S/AdvP) (A verb phrase consists of a verb, possibly followed
by an object, prepositional phrase, subordinate clause, or adverb phrase).
These rules create basic sentence structures (deep structures), but cannot handle sentence
transformations.
2. Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure
Deep Structure (D-Structure): The underlying grammatical structure of a sentence before
transformations are applied.
 Surface Structure (S-Structure): The final form of a sentence after transformations.
 Example:
o Deep Structure: You will wash your hands.
o Surface Structure (Imperative Transformation): Wash your hands!
 Transformations modify deep structures to generate different sentence types.
3. Key Transformational Rules
3.1 Interrogative Sentences (Questions)
Formed by moving auxiliary verbs or wh-words to the front of a sentence.
 Transformational Rules:
1. Subject-Auxiliary Inversion: Moves an auxiliary verb before the subject.
 He is sleeping. → Is he sleeping?
2. Do-Support: Adds “do” if there is no auxiliary verb.
 She likes coffee. → Does she like coffee?
3. Wh-Movement: Moves a wh-word (who, what, where, etc.) to the front.
 You locked the door. → Who locked the door?.
3.2 Passive Sentences
Formed by rearranging subject and object positions and adding “be” + past participle.
 Transformational Rules:
1. Move the object of an active sentence to the subject position.
2. Move the subject to a by-phrase (optional).
3. Change the verb to a passive form (be + past participle).
 Example:
o Ali wrote a book. → A book was written by Ali..
3.3 Sentences with Fronted Constituents
Moves elements (adverbs, prepositional phrases) to the beginning for emphasis.
 Example:
o He rushed into the office. → Into the office, he rushed.
o Never before have I seen such a thing. (subject-auxiliary inversion triggered).
3.4 Imperative Sentences
Formed by deleting the subject (you) and auxiliary (will/shall).
 Example:
o You will leave now. → Leave now!
o You must be quiet. → Be quiet!.
3.5 Compound and Complex Sentences
 Compound Sentences: Formed by combining two independent clauses using a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or).
o The sun shone brightly and the birds chirped.
 Complex Sentences: Formed by embedding one clause inside another (using
complementizers like that, which).
o The novel that I borrowed is a classic.
 These transformations involve deletion of repeated elements and insertion of
complementizers.
4. Summary Points
 Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) explains how sentence structures
change.
 Deep Structure → Transformational Rules → Surface Structure.
 Common transformations:
o Interrogatives (questions)
o Passives (object-subject switch)
o Fronted Constituents (adverb/preposition movement)
o Imperatives (subject deletion)
o Compound & Complex Sentences (coordination and subordination)
 These rules expand simple sentence structures into complex expressions.
Chapter 9: Further Developments in Generative Grammar
Introduction
This chapter explores the evolution of Generative Grammar, tracing its development from
Standard Theory (1965) to the Minimalist Program (1993). It highlights how linguistic theories
have refined syntactic analysis over time while maintaining the core principle that language is
governed by innate rules.
1. Generative Grammar
 Proposed by Noam Chomsky, Generative Grammar is a cognitive approach that views
grammar as a set of mental rules hardwired into the human brain.
 The theory rejects behaviorist views, arguing that language is not merely learned but
follows innate principles.
 It emphasizes deep structure vs. surface structure and the role of transformations in
sentence generation.
2. The Standard Theory (1965)
 Outlined in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, this model introduced Deep Structure and
Surface Structure.
 Deep Structure: Underlying grammatical relationships.
 Surface Structure: The final form after applying transformational rules.
 Example:
o Deep Structure: John saw Mary → Surface Structure: Mary was seen by John
(passive transformation).
 Key Idea: Grammatical meaning is encoded at the deep structure level.
3. Extended Standard Theory (EST) – 1970s
 Expands Standard Theory by adding semantic interpretation rules.
 Unlike Standard Theory, EST does not rely entirely on deep structure to determine
meaning.
 Introduces the concept of Revised Extended Standard Theory (REST), which
distinguishes between:
o Deep Structure
o Shallow Structure
o Surface Structure.
4. X-Bar Theory (Late 1970s)
  A new model of phrase structure that refines NP, VP, AP, and PP structures.
 Key Features:
o Introduces intermediate levels (X') between **words (X) and phrases (XP)*.
o Head-Complement Structure: Phrases have a head (core element) and complements
(additional modifiers).
 Example (NP structure):
o Old Theory: NP → Det + N
o X-Bar Theory: NP → (Spec) X’ → X (Comp)
 X-Bar Theory helps explain why sentence structures remain consistent across
languages.
5. Government and Binding (GB) Theory – 1980s
 Introduced by Chomsky (1981), this theory replaces transformational rules with a
modular structure.
 Defines three main levels of structure:
1. D-Structure (Deep Structure)
2. S-Structure (Surface Structure)
3. Logical Form (LF) (Final meaning representation).
 Move Alpha (α) Rule: A general transformation that replaces multiple transformational
rules.
 Key Sub-Theories:
o Theta Theory: Assigns roles (Agent, Patient, Goal).
o Case Theory: Determines noun phrase positions.
o Binding Theory: Explains pronoun/reference relationships.
6. Universal Grammar (UG)
 UG aims to identify common structures in all human languages.
 It distinguishes between:
o Principles: Universal rules (e.g., all sentences must have a subject).
o Parameters: Language-specific variations (e.g., Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) in English
vs. Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) in Urdu).
 Evidence for UG:
 o Children learn languages effortlessly.
o All languages have a similar core structure.
o Certain rules (e.g., word order constraints) apply across languages.
7. The Minimalist Program (1993 – Present)
 Chomsky's latest model, aimed at simplifying syntax while maintaining UG principles.
 Core Principles:
o Economy of Derivation: Sentences should be generated with minimal
transformations.
o Economy of Representation: Structures should be as simple as possible.
 Minimalism emphasizes that:
o Grammar is innate and follows universal rules.
o Complex sentence structures emerge from simple operations.
 Impact:
o Influenced AI and cognitive science research.
o Shifted focus from rules to language processing efficiency.
8. Summary Points
 Generative Grammar views language as an innate cognitive system.
 Standard Theory (1965): Introduced Deep and Surface Structure.
 Extended Standard Theory (EST): Included semantic interpretation.
 X-Bar Theory: Refined phrase structure.
 Government and Binding (GB) Theory: Introduced modular syntax analysis.
 Universal Grammar (UG): Explains common linguistic principles.
 Minimalist Program (1993): Aims for maximum efficiency with minimal rules.