CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION

Agricultural soil health plays a crucial role in protecting sustainable crop production,as it precisely
influences the availability of essential nutrients and water for plants. The Physiochemical qualities
of soil,which include parameters such a texture,pH, organic content,electricity conductivity and
nutrient composition,are the key criteria of soil fertility and health.
These qualities affect microbial activity,nutrient preservation and overall soil layout,which
impacts agricultural productivity and longevity.

Modern research have highlighted the relevance of assessing these qualities to enhance
agricultural practices and validate long-term soil fertility. Specifically, a study by Zhang et al.,
(2022) examined the outcome of long-term farming practices on soil qualities and microbial
variety on china, revealing that soil organic matter and microbial affluence are virtually
connected to soil management practices (Zhang et al.,2022). Moreover, the review of soil fertility
through Physiochemical qualities has been displayed to guide proper fertilizer management
techniques, helping to reduce environmental degradation while enhancing crop yields(Hassan et
al..,2023).

Likewise, Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy(DRS) has manifested as a optimistic tool for

preserving soil analysis, offering a prompt and well-organized way to categorize soil factors such
as texture, nutrient content, and pH(Deng et al..,2018). These developments in soil analysis have
the ability to improve the accuracy and longevity of agricultural techniques, validating better
assets management and improved crop efficiency.

As the international demand for food continued to increase, awareness and regulating the
Physiochemical qualities of agricultural souls is steadily paramount.
Research like those by Koffi et al.(2022) and Wang et al.(2023) have revealed how aimed soil
management procedures based on complete Physiochemical analysis can lead to optimized soil
health and intensified agricultural offers, supporting to food safety(Koffi et al.,2022;Wang et
al.,2023).

1.2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Soil resilience is the backbone of cultivation efficiency, and its oversight is vital to attaining
durable food production framework. The Physiochemical qualities of soil, such as pH, electrical
conductivity, organic matter content, soil texture, and nutrient levels, explicitly effect crop
increase and supply. These qualities differ highly across various cultivation environments,
depending on elements like climate, layout, and human interactions (Zhang et al.,2022).
As a result, awareness of the soil’s Physiochemical structure is mandatory for productive land
management and improving cultivation practices.

Soil productivity, defined as the soil’s capacity to stitch necessary nutrients to plants in sufficient
amounts, is decided by its biochemical qualities. Soil pH, for instance, affects nutrient supply and
fermentation process. Soils that are either too acidic or too alkaline can minimum plants increase
by decreasing the supply of key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (Hassan
et al.,2023). Soil richness, which enhanced water storage, nutrient exchange, and microbial
biodiversity, also performs important role in sustaining soil productivity and ecosystem
balance(Hussain et al.,2022).
Survey into soil nutrient material and layout has become steadily vital as demanding farming
practices and addition on manufactured fertilizers damage soil health overtime. Specifically,
excessive use of chemical fertilizers has been displayed to interrupt the natural balance of
nutrients in soil, leading to decreased soil organic matter and biodiversity liss(Deng et al.,2018).
Accordingly, there has been a growing concentration on understanding the engagement between
soil Physiochemical qualities and durable farming techniques.

Creative tools such as Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (DRS) and modern laboratory analysis
techniques have substantially improved the capacity to measure soil qualities correctly and
productivity(Koffi et al.,2022). These innovations not only lowered the cost and time connected
with soil examination but also allow for the specific observing of soil health, allowing better-
informed findings concerning fertilizer use, irrigation and crop selection.(Wang et al.,2023).

1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Cocoa(Theobroma cocao) is a crucial cash crop that flourishes in exotic area, playing a important
role in the economy of many developing countries. On the other hand, the efficiency and
preservation of cocoa farming are profusely impacted by soil vitality, specifically the
Physiochemical qualities of the soul in which cocoa plants are nurtured. As cocoa is a highly
delicate crop, soul fertility and nutrient supply promptly impact its growth, generate and disease
obstruction.
Realization of the Physiochemical qualities of cocoa soils is vital for improving farming practices,
improving cocoa effectiveness, and ensuring environmental preservation.

1.4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. TO EVALUATE THE SOIL PH AND ITS IMPACT ON COCOA PRODUCTION: Soil pH performs a
crucial role in nutrient supply for cocoa plants. By reviewing the pH levels in various cocoa farms,
this research will discover the maximum pH scope for cocoa breeding and the outcome of soil
acidity/alkalinity on cocoa enhancement(Osei-Bonsu et al.,2021).
2. To ESTABLISH THE ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT AND ITS IMPACT ON SOIL FERTILITY: Organic
matter is important for upgrading soil layout, moisture maintenance, and nutrient cycling, which
immediately affect cocoa products.
3. To discover the physiochemical characteristics of agricultural soils in exclusive area(Smith et
al.,2019).
4. To examine the bond between soil texture, water supply, and nutrient touring, and how
these affect cocoa growth and efficiency(Khan,s.,&Riaz,M.2020).
5. To evaluate the impact of soil pH on nutrient supply and its effect on the increase and
result(Lindsay,W.L.2019).
6. To review the soil’s cation exchange capacity(CEC) and its capacity in upholding essential
nutrients for plant absorption(Lindsay,W.L.2019).
7. To inspect the soil’s phosphorus content and determine its readiness to cocoa, especially in
affinity to different pH levels and organic matter content(Khan,s.,&Riaz,M.2020).
8. To scale the quantities of macronutrients(nitrogen, phosphorus,potassium) and
micronutrients(iron,zinc,copper) in soil samples from agricultural pastures.
In essence, soil nutrients analysis is a vital aspect of any soil study, and it should definitely be part
of the aims and objectives of the goal is to assess soil fertility, improve cocoa production, and
develop effective soil management practices.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

Soil is a layered biosphere that gives required ecosystem facilities, including carbon isolation,
water separation, and biodiversity conservation(Lal,2020). However, soil breakdown and erosion
are major obstacles to universal food security and conservation(Ipcc,2019).

Modern research have emphasized the importance of Soil Organic Matter(SOM) in conserving
soil fertility and alleviating climate change(Powlson et Al.,2020). SOM plays a critical role in soil
carbon sequestration, with evaluations recommending that soils can isolate up to 3.3 gigatons of
carbon dioxide equal per year(Minasny et al.,2020).

Soil microorganisms also performs a key responsibility in soil ecosystem acting, with present
review emphasizing the significant of fungal-bacterial interactions in soil carbon cycling(Zhou et
al.,2020). Furthermore, research have revealed that conservation agricultural practices, naming
no-till and cover cropping, can advance soil vitality and minimize erosion(Pittelkow et al.,2020).

Summarily, the relevance of soil preservation and eco-friendly management practices cannot be
magnified. Additionally, analysis is required to expand valuable techniques for retaining soil
vitality and easing the outcome of temperature change.

2.1. PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

• SOIL pH
Soil pH is one of the most crucial properties, as it influences all other soil characteristics (Smith et
al., 2022).
Due to its impact on various soil processes, pH is regarded as a key parameter in soil analysis
(Johnson & Lee, 2021).
A pH level below 6 categorizes the soil as acidic, while a pH range between 6 and 8.5 indicates
neutral soil. When pH exceeds 8.5, the soil is classified as alkaline (Garcia et al., 2020).

• SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture serves as a classification tool used in both field and laboratory settings to categorize
agricultural soils based on their physical properties (Martinez et al., 2022).
Variations in soil texture across different regions primarily result from differences in particle size
(Kumar et al., 2023).
Texture plays a vital role in determining soil aeration and root penetration (Wang et al., 2020).
Additionally, soil texture has a significant influence on soil nutrient availability (Chen et al., 2021).
Moreover, studies have shown that soil texture is linked to electrical conductivity (Lee et al.,
2021).

• SOIL MOISTURE
Soil moisture, also known as water content, refers to the amount of water present in the soil
(Singh et al., 2022).
It is a fundamental property that plays a critical role in soil functionality (Patel et al., 2021).
The ability of soil to absorb and retain nutrients depends largely on its moisture content (Garcia
et al., 2022).
Furthermore, the level of moisture within the soil has a direct impact on its texture (Zhang et al.,
2020).

• SOIL TEMPERATURE
Soil temperature is determined by the balance between absorbed and lost energy (Martinez et
al., 2023).
Typically, soil temperatures can range from –20 °C to 60 °C (Hernandez et al., 2021).
This property is crucial, as it regulates various chemical, physical, and biological processes that
influence plant growth (Chen et al., 2022).
Additionally, soil temperature is affected by seasonal changes, time of day, and local climatic
conditions (Lee et al., 2022).

• ELECTRICITY CONDUCTIVITY
Soil electrical conductivity is an essential indicator used to evaluate soil quality (Wang et al.,
2023).
It represents the concentration of ions dissolved in the soil solution (Kumar et al., 2022).
An increase in ion concentration leads to higher electrical conductivity in the soil (Garcia et al.,
2021).
This property provides a fast, cost-effective, and simple method for assessing soil health (Patel et
al., 2020).
By quantifying the number of dissolved ions, electrical conductivity measurements offer insights
into soil conditions, as conductivity rises with increasing ion concentration (Singh et al., 2021;
Zhang et al., 2020).

2.2. IMPORTANCE OF SOIL NUTRIENT

Soil nutrients are vital for cocoa growth and development, playing a key role in crop health and
productivity (Liu et al., 2021). Essential elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
zinc are absorbed by plant roots and utilized to support strong and healthy plant structures,
ultimately leading to higher yields (Wang et al., 2020). This article highlights the significance of
soil nutrients in plant development and their overall role in agricultural productivity.

2.3. NUTRIENT ANALYSIS OF AGRICULTURAL SOIL

Analyzing soil nutrients is essential for enhancing crop productivity and promoting sustainable
land use (Adebayo et al., 2020). This process provides valuable information about the availability
of key nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are fundamental for plant
development (Chukwu et al., 2021).

Advanced soil testing techniques utilize sophisticated instruments like Inductively Coupled
Plasma (ICP) spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to ensure precise and efficient nutrient
assessment (Okafor et al., 2022). Soil samples are typically collected from multiple locations
within a field to account for variations in soil composition and obtain accurate results (Eze et al.,
2020).

The analysis involves evaluating several soil properties, including pH levels, organic matter
content, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and moisture content, all of which contribute to soil
fertility (Oluwaseun et al., 2019). Determining macronutrient concentrations—such as nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S)—enables the
formulation of precise fertilization plans (Ibrahim et al., 2021). Additionally, micronutrients like
iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) are analyzed, as they play essential roles in
enzyme activity and plant metabolic functions (Nwankwo et al., 2022).

Regular soil nutrient assessments help identify deficiencies and excesses while tracking soil
health changes over time (Amadi et al., 2020). The data obtained from these analyses allow
agronomists and farmers to implement precise fertilization strategies, ultimately improving crop
yields and minimizing environmental harm (Ifeanyi et al., 2021).

In conclusion, nutrient analysis of agricultural soil is a fundamental component of modern

farming practices, contributing to sustainable agriculture and food security (Bello et al., 2022).

• KEY SOIL ANALZED

Soil analysis typically examines both macronutrients and micronutrients.
* MACRONUTRIENTS: These are essential in larger quantities for plant growth and
include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S)
(Brown et al., 2022).
* MICRONUTRIENTS: Even though they are required in smaller amounts, elements such
as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and boron (B) are vital for proper plant
metabolism (Lee & Park, 2021).

• SOIL TESTING METHODS

Various techniques are employed to assess soil nutrient levels, including:
 * CHEMICAL EXTRACTION: This method involves using specific reagents to extract
nutrients from the soil, helping determine their availability for plant uptake (Martinez et al.,
2020).
* SPECTROSCOPY ANALYSIS: Techniques such as atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS)
and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) enable precise measurement of nutrient concentrations in
soil samples (Singh et al., 2021).
* SOIL pH AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: These tests assess soil acidity and salinity,
which influence nutrient solubility and cocoa accessibility (Wilson & Green, 2019).

ADVANTAGES OF SOIL NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

• Enhances fertilizer efficiency, minimizing costs and nutrient wastage (Chen et al., 2022).
• Promotes healthy crop development by detecting and addressing nutrient imbalances
(Taylor et al., 2020).
• Contributes to environmental protection by preventing nutrient runoff and soil
degradation (Garcia et al., 2021).

CONCLUSION
Regular soil nutrient analysis is crucial for sustainable and efficient farming. By monitoring and
adjusting soil nutrient levels, farmers can improve soil fertility, maximize crop yields, and reduce
environmental harm. The adoption of advanced soil testing techniques continues to refine
precision agriculture and support long-term soil health.

• STANDARD PROCEDURES FOR AGRICULTURAL SOIL NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

Analyzing soil nutrients adheres to well-defined scientific guidelines to accurately evaluate soil
fertility and support optimal crop growth. Implementing standardized methods is essential for
ensuring consistency, reliability, and comparability of soil test results.

1. IMPORTANCE OF STANDARDIZED SOIL NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

Standardized soil nutrient analysis is essential for obtaining precise data on nutrient availability,
which informs effective fertilization strategies and promotes sustainable soil management (ISO
10381-6:2019). Accurate soil testing helps prevent nutrient deficiencies, avoid excessive
fertilization, and mitigate environmental degradation (FAO,2020).

2. KEY SOIL NUTRIENTS AND STANDARD TESTING METHODS

Soil analysis evaluates both macronutrients and micronutrients using internationally recognized
standards established by organizations such as ISO (International Organization for
Standardization), ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), and FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization).

Macronutrients:
• Nitrogen (N): Measured through the Kjeldahl method (ISO 11261:2022) or dry
combustion analysis.
• Phosphorus (P): Extracted using the Olsen method (ISO 11263:2022) or the Bray
method, depending on soil pH levels.
 • Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), and Magnesium (Mg): Assessed via ammonium acetate
extraction (ISO 11260:2018).
• Sulfur (S): Determined using turbidimetric analysis (ISO 11048:2021).

Micronutrients:
• Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), and Boron (B): Analyzed using DTPA
extraction followed by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) or inductively coupled plasma (ICP)
techniques (ISO 20281:2020).

3. STANDARDIZED SOIL TESTING METHODS

SOIL SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION

• Adheres to ISO 10381-6:2019 guidelines to ensure representative sampling.
• Samples are air-dried and passed through a 2-mm sieve (ASTM D6913-04) before
testing.

CHEMICAL EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES:

• PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY:Assessed using Mehlich-3 and Olsen extraction methods.
• EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS (K, Ca, Mg): Evaluated through ammonium acetate extraction (ISO
11260:2018).

SOIL pH AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

• pH MEASUREMENT: Conducted using a 1:2.5 soil-to-water ratio (ISO 10390:2021).
• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC): Determined using the saturated paste extract method (ISO
11265:2020).

ORGANIC MATTER AND CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)

• Analyzed using the Walkley-Black method (ISO 10694:2018).
• CEC Assessment: Measured through ammonium acetate saturation (ISO 23470:2019).

ADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZED SOIL NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

• Provides precise fertilizer recommendations, minimizing waste and lowering environmental
impact (FAO, 2022).
• Enhances crop yields by efficiently identifying and correcting nutrient deficiencies (ISO
23470:2019).
• Promotes sustainable land management through continuous soil health monitoring
(ASTM D4972-19).

Adhering to globally accepted standards in soil nutrient analysis is crucial for sustaining
agricultural productivity and protecting the environment. The use of standardized methods
guarantees consistent, accurate results, enabling informed decision-making in soil fertility
management.
2.4. COCOA PRODUCTION AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS
Cocoa cultivation depends on specific soil traits and climate conditions to achieve high yields and
ensure the healthy development of cocoa trees. The soils optimal for cocoa must exhibit a
combination of physical, chemical, and biological properties that support vigorous root growth
and efficient nutrient uptake.

SOIL PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• DEPTH AND DRAINAGE : Cocoa trees thrive in deep soils—ideally at least 1.5 meters—
to sustain their extensive root systems and promote effective drainage. Sufficient soil depth
minimizes waterlogging and allows roots to access a broader soil volume for nutrients (Ibrahim et
al., 2020).
• SOIL TEXTURE: The preferred soil texture for cocoa production is sandy clay loam to clay
loam. These textures strike a balance between retaining moisture and providing aeration,
ensuring adequate water supply without causing saturation (Smith et al., 2021).
• ORGANIC MATTER: A high level of organic matter (at least 3% in the topsoil) is essential,
as it boosts soil fertility, encourages microbial activity, and enhances nutrient cycling—all critical
for sustainable cocoa farming (Chen et al., 2022).

SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

• pH LEVELS: For optimal cocoa growth, soil pH should range between 5.0 and 7.5. Within
this interval, essential nutrients remain available to plants, while soils that are too acidic (below
pH 4.5) or too alkaline (above pH 8.0) can impede nutrient uptake and hinder tree development
(Wang et al., 2020).
• NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY: Cocoa plants need sufficient amounts of both macronutrients
(like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and micronutrients (such as zinc and magnesium) for
optimal development. Regular soil testing is recommended to monitor these nutrient levels and
to guide precise fertilizer applications (Adebola et al., 2021).

CLIMATE CONDITIONS
Beyond soil properties, favorable climate is also crucial for cocoa production. Cocoa prospers in
tropical climates characterized by:
• TEMPERATURE: An annual temperature range of approximately 18–32°C, which
supports efficient metabolic processes in cocoa trees (Jones et al., 2020).
• RAINFALL: Consistent and well-distributed annual rainfall between 1,500 and 2,000 mm
is necessary to maintain adequate soil moisture while preventing waterlogging.
• HUMUDITY: High humidity levels are vital, particularly during flowering and fruiting, to
support the overall health of the trees (Jones et al., 2020).

In conclusion, successful cocoa production relies on soils that are deep, well-drained, and rich in
organic matter, with balanced pH levels and sufficient nutrients. When combined with suitable
climatic conditions, these soil attributes are key to maximizing the health of cocoa trees,
achieving high yields, and ensuring long-term sustainability in cocoa farming (Adebola et al.,
2021; Ibrahim et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2021).
2.5. FACTORS THAT AFFECTS SOIL NUTRIENT AND SOIL QUALITY
Soil nutrient availability and overall soil quality are influenced by a complex interplay of factors,
which are critical for sustainable crop production (Smith et al., 2021).

• PHYSICAL FACTORS
Soil texture, defined by the proportions of sand, silt, and clay, directly affects water retention and
nutrient-holding capacity, with finer textures generally retaining more nutrients (Brown et al.,
2022).
Soil structure, referring to the aggregation of soil particles, influences porosity and aeration,
which in turn affect microbial activity and nutrient cycling (Lee & Park, 2021).

• CHEMICAL FACTORS
Soil pH is a crucial chemical property that regulates nutrient solubility and availability; extreme
pH values can lead to deficiencies or toxicities (Chen et al., 2021).
High organic matter content enhances soil fertility by improving nutrient retention, water-holding
capacity, and providing energy for soil microorganisms (Taylor et al., 2019).
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil, which reflects its ability to retain essential nutrients, is
influenced by both organic matter and clay content (Wang et al., 2020).

• BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Soil microbial communities play
The diversity and activity of soil fauna, including earthworms and insects, contribute to soil
structure formation and the breakdown of organic residues, further enhancing nutrient
availability (Kumar et al., 2022).

2.6. SOIL NUTRIENT ANALYSIS OF COCOA FARMLAND IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA

• IN THE RESEARCH WORK OF AMIN HAB 2023

TITLED: CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON SOIL PROPERTIES AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

The global climate crisis poses significant and far-reaching challenges for the agricultural sector.
Rising temperatures alter soil structure, while changes in precipitation patterns and extreme
weather events lead to soil erosion and other detrimental effects (IPCC, 2020). The consequences
of climate change on agriculture are multifaceted, ranging from crop yield fluctuations under
climate stress to water management difficulties due to changing climate conditions (Porter et al.,
2020).
To better understand the complex relationships between agriculture and climate change, it is
essential to integrate research findings, present local case studies, and explore potential future
scenarios (Morton, 2020). By adopting this comprehensive approach, stakeholders can develop
effective strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture and ensure food
security for future generations.

• IN THE RESEARCH WORK OF OLUSOLA S. AFOLAYAN 2020

TITLED: SOIL-PLANT NUTRIENT CYCLING IN OLD COCOA FARMS IN A PART OF SOUTH WESTERN
NIGERIA FOREST BELT

Cocoa production in Nigeria, particularly in the southwest region, faces significant challenges due
to soil nutrient degradation. This issue is exacerbated by the aging of farms and annual nutrient
depletion through harvests. Traditionally, cocoa farmers in this region have not used fertilizers,
resulting in reduced average lifespan and productive years of the plantations.
This study aimed to quantify soil nutrient losses through cycling channels in old cocoa farms in
southwestern Nigeria. Specifically, it focused on the nutrient contributions of cocoa beans,
leaves, litters, and pod husks.
Old cocoa farms with an average age of 55 years were selected from Idanre. Nutrient variables
were experimentally evaluated, and composite samples were subjected to laboratory analysis.
Descriptive analysis using averages and percentages was performed on the results revealing that:
Litter falls accounted for approximately 29% of nutrient inputs, Pod husks contributed around
24% of nutrients, Leaves provided about 28% of nutrients, Beans accounted for approximately
13% of nutrients, Soil contributed around 6% of nutrients.
The soil nutrient balance equation indicated an average annual nutrient loss of 1.32%. The order
of nutrient concentrations in the old cocoa ecosystem was found to be: litter > leaves > pod husks
> beans > soil.
Based on the findings, the study recommends: Land evaluation to assess nutrient deficiencies,
annual relocation and seasonal spreading of pod husks across the farm to redistribute nutrients
and complementing nutrient returns through litter fall to minimize nutrient depletion.
By adopting these strategies, cocoa farmers in Nigeria can mitigate soil nutrient degradation,
improve soil fertility, and increase crop productivity.

• IN THE RESEARCH WORK OF AJIBADE,L.T.* AND AFOLAYAN O.S. 2014

TITLED: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOIL NUTRIENT DEGRADATION IN HYBRID AND INDIGENOUS
COCOA-PLANTATIONS IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA

Cocoa production is a vital agro-based economic activity in southwest Nigeria, particularly among
small-scale farmers (Aikpokpodion, 2018). The two main varieties of cocoa are indigenous and
hybrid, with the latter gaining popularity over the past two decades (Oguntunde et al., 2020).
However, there is a lack of research comparing soil nutrient degradation between these two
varieties.
This study aimed to investigate the differences in nutrient concentration in leaves, beans, and
pod husks between hybrid and indigenous cocoa varieties and their impacts on soil nutrient
degradation.
Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the relationships between cocoa outputs and
soil nutrient degradation in old cocoa plantations.
The results showed that cocoa outputs significantly contributed to soil nutrient degradation in
hybrid varieties compared to indigenous varieties (Adeogun et al., 2020), pod husk and cocoa
bean were the primary determinants of soil nutrient degradation in both varieties (Ogunwale et
al., 2020).
The study recommends that seasonal application of chemical or pod husk fertilizers to
complement the impact of litterfall (Oguntunde et al., 2020) and adoption of sustainable cocoa
production practices to reduce soil nutrient depletion (Aikpokpodion, 2018).

• IN THE RESEARCH WORK OF RUTH OLUWAKEMI ADEGBENRO 2023

TITLED: CHARACTERIZATION AND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT OF THE SOILS
OF IWO SERIES FOR COCOA PRODUCTION IN RAINFOREST AREA SOUTHWESTERN,NIGERIA

Soil characterization and suitability assessment are essential tools for understanding soil nature
and status, ensuring food security and sustainable environment (FAO, 2015). This study evaluated
the suitability of Iwo series soils for sustainable cocoa production in Nigeria.
The study was conducted in 2022 at the Teaching and Research Farm, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Nigeria. Three soil profile pits were established, described, and sampled following
FAO/UNESCO guidelines. Soil samples were analyzed for particle size distribution, pH, total
nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable bases, and organic matter using standard methods.
The results showed thatt soils were well-drained and deep, with textures ranging from sandy
loam to sandy clay loam (Ogunkunle, 2020), soil reaction ranged from highly acidic to slightly
acidic, with low to moderate organic matter and available nitrogen (Adeogun et al., 2020) and
available phosphorus varied significantly, with highest values at surface soil horizons, indicating
significant contributions from soil organic matter (Ogunwale et al., 2020).
The results showed that soils of mapping units A and B were presently not suitable for cocoa
production, while mapping unit C was marginally suitable (Oguntunde et al., 2020) with
appropriate fertility management, soils of mapping unit A were classified as marginally suitable,
and while soils of mapping units B were classified as moderately suitable for cocoa production
(Adeogun et al., 2020).
The study identified low soil fertility as the main limiting factor for cocoa production. To optimize
productivity, combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers is recommended.

METHOD OF SOIL NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

• STANDARD PRATICES
• SAMPLE COLLECTION

1. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING: Collect soil samples from representative areas of the field
(Galbraith et al., 2020).
2. SAMPLING DEPTH: Collect samples from the top 6-8 inches of soil (Sawyer et al., 2022).
3. SAMPLING TIMING: Collect samples during the growing season or after harvest (López-
Granados et al., 2021).

SAMPLE PREPARATION
1. DRYING: Air-dry or oven-dry samples to remove excess moisture (Hendershot et al., 2020).
2. GRINDING: Grind samples to a uniform texture (Burt et al., 2022).
3. MIXING: Mix samples thoroughly to ensure homogeneity (Pierzynski et al., 2020).

NUTRIENT ANALYSIS
1. pH ANALYSIS: Measure soil pH using standardized methods (Thomas et al., 2022).
2. MACRONUTRIENT ANALYSIS: Analyze nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) using established methods (Sawyer et al., 2022).
3. MICRONUTRIENT ANALYSIS: Analyze iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and
boron (B) using established methods (López-Granados et al., 2021).

QUALITY CONTROL
1. CALIBRATION: Calibrate equipment regularly to ensure accuracy (Galbraith et al., 2020).
2. CERTIFIED REFERENCE MATERIALS: Use certified reference materials to verify analysis results
(Pierzynski et al., 2020).
3. PROFICIENCY TESTING: Participate in proficiency testing programs to ensure laboratory
competence (Hendershot et al., 2020).

CHAPTER THREE:
3.0 . MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE COLLECTION SITE

 • SAMPLE COLLECTION SITE
The study was conducted at a cocoa farm situated in Oloruntumo, Apata, Ibadan, Nigeria, with
sampling taking place at approximately 6:00 pm. The farm's location within a tropical region,
characterized by a humid climate and substantial rainfall (averaging 1200 mm annually),
significantly impacted the soil's physical and chemical composition.

• SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Soil samples were randomly collected from 10 diverse locations within the cassava farm using a
soil auger. The selected sampling sites captured a range of farm conditions, including variations in
vegetation cover, soil moisture levels, and topographical features, ensuring a representative
sample of the farm's soil characteristics.

• SAMPLING METHOD
Using a soil auger, a soil core was carefully extracted from a depth of 0-20 cm, following the
protocol outlined by the USDA (2019). The extracted soil core was then gently placed into a
plastic bag, which was sealed to prevent contamination and preserve the sample's integrity.

• SAMPLING TIME
The soil samples were strategically collected during the dry season, specifically in February, to
minimize the influence of rainfall on soil moisture levels and nutrient availability. This timing
ensured that the samples accurately reflected the soil's natural conditions, unaffected by
excessive rainfall.
3.2. pH ANALYSIS:

APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENTS:

• Conical Flasks
• Stirring rod
• Distilled Water
• pH Meter

REAGENTS:
• Chloroform
• Sodium hydrogen phosphate
• Hydrochloric acid
• Thymol
• Potassium bi-phthalate
• Disodium tetra -tetra-boric-iv-oxo-vii-decahydrate Na2B4O7.10H2O)

PROCEDURE:

The apparatus was rinsed before and after use to ensure cleanliness.

Equal volumes of air-dried soil, which had been passed through a 2mm sieve, and distilled water
were mixed in a beaker. The mixture was then allowed to stand for 30 minutes before being
stirred thoroughly with a glass rod.

The pH meter was calibrated using two buffer solutions to ensure accuracy.

The electrode was rinsed with 0.1N HCl and distilled water to remove any remaining buffer
solution residue.

The electrode was placed in the supernatant liquid, swirled gently, and the pH was recorded to
the nearest 0.1 unit.

Finally, the electrode was rinsed with distilled water, and the results of the pH of the soil sample
were reported.

3.3. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC CARBON

APPARATUS:
Spectrophotometer
Volumetric flask
Pipette
Test tubes with cap
Digestion block
Automatic dispenser

REAGENTS:
Potassium
Sucrose
Sulphuric acid

PROCEDURE:
0.5-1g sample of air-dried, fine-ground soil that had passed through a 0.2mm sieve was weighed
into 50mL digestion tubes.

10ml standard solution was added to the digest tubes. After each 1ml addition of the standard
solution, the pipette was rinsed with 1.00ml of distilled water into the digest tubes.

5ml of K2Cr2O7 solution was added to the samples and standards, followed by 10ml of
concentrated H2SO4. The contents were poured into test tubes with covers and swirled on a
vortex mixer. The tubes were then placed in a digestion block preheated to 135°C for 30 minutes.

After cooling, the tubes were diluted to 50ml, mixed, and centrifuged. The standards and samples
were then read at 600nm.

The standards contained 0, 2.50, 5.00, 7.50, and 10.00 mg of carbon.

3.4. DETERMINATION OF EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS (Ca, Mg, K and Na)

Apparatus and Equipment:

Extracting bottles
Reciprocating shaker
Flame spectrometry/Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.

Reagent :Ammonium acetate,

26.8% Lanthanum Chloride,
Standard solutions –

PROCEDURE:
20g of air-dried soil was weighed into a 50ml extracting cup, and 20ml of the ammonium acetate
extracting solution was added. The extracting cup containing the sample was then placed on the
shaker for 30 minutes.
After shaking, the mixture was filtered through a Whatman No. 40 filter paper to obtain soil
extract A.

Soil extract A was then diluted tenfold for the determination of K, Na, and Ca levels. This was
done by pipetting 5ml of the extract into a 50ml volumetric flask.

Next, 1ml of 26.8% lanthanum chloride solution was added to the diluted extract, and the
contents were diluted to the mark with ammonium extraction solution.

The solution was then sprayed into a flame photometer to determine Na and K levels.
Additionally, atomic absorption spectroscopy was used to determine Ca and Mg levels.

3.5. EXTRACTABLE ZINC, COPPER, AND MANGANESE

Apparatus and Equipment:

1000ml volumetric flask

Reciprocating shaker

Erlenmeyer flask.

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)

Reagents:Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)

Triethaolamine (TEA)

Calcium chloride

Hydrochloric acid

PROCEDURE:

5g sample of soil was weighed into a 125ml Erlenmeyer flask, and 25ml of DTPA
extracting solution was added.

The mixture was then shaken on a mechanical shaker for two hours at 70 rpm,
keeping the soil in suspension.

Immediately after shaking, the mixture was filtered through a Whatman No. 42 filter
paper.
The atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) instrument was calibrated according to
the manufacturer's instructions, using DTPA extraction solutions as a blank.

Using the calibrated AAS instrument, the concentrations of zinc (Zn), copper (Cu),
and magnesium (Mg) were determined using the appropriate lamps.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS.

4.1. pH
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the ideal soil pH range is between 6.0 and
7.0. This range supports:Optimal microbial activity, Nutrient availability and Healthy plant growth.
Soils outside this range may need extra care to maintain fertility and support plant growth.
The collected soil sample had a pH value of 6.89, which falls within the WHO's recommended
range. This indicates that the soil has a suitable pH level for optimal microbial activity, nutrient
availability, and plant growth.

4.2. DETERMINATION OF EXCHANGEABLE CATION(Ca, Mg, K and Na)

Exchangeable cations, such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, are essential for soil
fertility and plant growth. These positively charged ions are attracted to the surface of soil
particles through electrostatic forces, and they can be exchanged with other cations present in
the soil solution.

CATIONS | Ca(cmol/mg) | Mg(cmol/mg) |

Na(cmol/mg) | Ka(cmol/mg)
SAMPLE A: 5.12 3.20 0.37 0.93

Assessing exchangeable cations is vital for evaluating soil fertility and its ability to retain
nutrients. This information enables the creation of tailored approaches to enhance soil fertility,
boost crop yields, and optimize nutrient management .

4.3. EXTRACTABLE ZINC, COOPER AND MANGANESE

Zinc, copper, and manganese are crucial micronutrients for plant growth and development.
Extracting these micronutrients from soil through different methods provides valuable
information on their availability for plants to absorb and utilize.

EXTRACTABLE ZN(mg/kg) Cu(mg/kg) Fe(mg/kg) Pb(mg/kg) Mn(mg/kg) Org C%N

SAMPLE A: | 0.51 3.2 40.9 0.8 23.1 1.86

knowing the factors that influence nutrient availability and interpreting analysis results can guide
soil fertility management and plant nutrition strategies, leading to healthier cocoa growth and
higher yields.

FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS FOR COCOA PRODUCTION

Cocoa is a crop with high nutrient demands. Recent studies emphasize that fertilizer
requirements for cocoa production vary significantly depending on factors such as soil type,
climate conditions, and cocoa variety (International Cocoa Organization, 2020; Food and
Agriculture Organization, 2019).

ASSESSING SOIL FERTILITY STATUS

To determine the most effective fertilizer strategy, it's crucial to evaluate the soil's fertility status
through soil testing, as emphasized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (2020). Soil testing
provides valuable insights into the levels of vital nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and micronutrients like zinc, copper, and manganese (International Union of Soil
Sciences, 2019). This information enables farmers to make informed decisions about fertilizer
applications, optimizing crop yields while minimizing environmental impacts.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. CONCLUSION
A recent study examined the soil conditions in selected cocoa farmlands in Olotunmo Apata
Ibadan. The results revealed acidic soils lacking essential nutrients Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium dominantly sandy loam soil texture and low organic matter content. These findings are
alarming for cocoa farmers, as poor soil quality can limit cocoa yields and affect cocoa quality and
flavor.

5.1. RECOMMENDATION
• BALANCE SOIL pH: Use liming to adjust soil acidity to a suitable level.
• FERTILIZE: Apply fertilizers rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to address nutrient
gaps.
• USE ORGANIC AMENDMENTS: Use compost or manure to enhance soil fertility and structure.
• CONSERVE SOIL: Implement mulching, contour farming, and other practices to reduce erosion
and promote soil health.
• REGULAR SOIL TESTING: Monitor soil pH and nutrient levels through regular testing and adjust
management strategies accordingly.