REVIEW

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A Review on Recent Trends of Bioinspired Soft Robotics:

Actuators, Control Methods, Materials Selection, Sensors,
Challenges, and Future Prospects
Abhirup Sarker,* Tamzid Ul Islam, and Md. Robiul Islam

category of robotics. It is a subdivision of

Bioinspired soft robotics is an emerging field that aims to develop flexible and robotics that concentrates on design, devel-
adaptive robots inspired by the movement and capabilities of biological organ- opment, and application of robots made of
isms. This review article examines recent advances in materials, actuation soft, flexible, and compliant materials for
performing environmental adaptive tasks.
mechanisms, sensors, and control strategies and discusses the challenges and
Soft robots are more adaptive and safer
future prospects of bioinspired soft robotics. Key innovations highlighted include for human interaction, more robust and
pneumatic, elastomer actuators, variable-length shape memory alloy tendons, stable and low cost than traditional
closed-loop control with soft sensors, and the incorporation of soft materials robots.[3] Bioinspired soft robotics draws
including shape memory polymers and conductive composites. Challenges in inspiration from nature’s most unique
creatures. Figure 1 shows how bioinspired
soft robotics such as achieving complex motion control, incorporating feedback
soft robots have similar abilities like differ-
systems, modeling soft material dynamics, and replicating biological muscle ent animals such as earthworm, jellyfish,
efficiency with artificial muscles are also discussed. Promising future directions octopus, snail, etc. It explains how, many
are explored including the integration of biodegradable materials, machine living organisms have inspired researchers
learning-based control algorithms, and leveraging data-driven techniques for and engineers to incorporate unique abili-
modeling and control. Building on progress in multi-functional materials, ties like dexterity, compliance, flexibility,
and adaptability into soft robots.[4]
manufacturing techniques, and bioinspired design principles, soft robots hold
Soft materials used in soft robotics are
considerable promise for expanding robot capabilities, enhancing versatility and elastomers, hydrogels, liquid metals, shape
adaptability, enabling applications from wearable assistive devices to search and memory alloys, polymer foam, etc.[5] Soft
rescue operations. This review provides a holistic perspective encompassing key technologies have expanded the horizon
drivers propelling innovations in the vibrant field of bioinspired soft robotics. for robotics and unlocked new potentials
such as: infinite degree of freedom,
deformability, flexibility, self-healing.
These characteristics can be found in bio-
1. Introduction logical organisms from which different soft robots are inspired,
such animals are worms,[6] fish,[7] jellyfish,[8,9] copepod,[10] inch-
Robots are versatile and programmable machines made for worm, earthworm,[11] snakes.[12] The next generation of robotics
doing complex tasks with great precision.[1] Due to robots’ ability is moving toward soft robotics because of its uses in biomedical
to learn and adapt according to the task and execute them seam- technologies, surgery, drug delivery[13–15] therapy to people
lessly with accuracy in a controlled manner. They have become with autism spectrum disorder,[16] in agriculture for crop
popular in various sectors such as the food industry, agriculture, harvesting,[17–19] underwater exploration,[20,21] interactive wear-
human–machine interaction, manufacturing, space exploration, ables,[22] military, search and rescue,[23] and many more where
military, and so on.[2] Soft robotics has brought light to a new current rigid robots fail to work due to its inability to adapt to
the unpredictable conditions of real world, human safety haz-
A. Sarker, T. Ul Islam, M. R. Islam
ards, absorb impact shocks, conform to complex shapes, etc.
Department of Mechatronics Engineering Bioinspired soft robotics is constantly working to replicate the
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology behavior of living organisms like octopus, jellyfish, snail, etc.
Rajshahi 6204, Bangladesh with the help of technological advancements[24,25] and teaching
E-mail: [email protected] the robots to jump,[26] stretch,[27] grasp,[28] self-deploy,[29] self-
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article heal,[30] grow, climb, and perform locomotion. Soft robotics uses
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/aisy.202400414. shape memory alloy (SMA), pneumatic actuation, electroactive
© 2024 The Author(s). Advanced Intelligent Systems published by Wiley- polymer actuation (EPA), liquid metals, hydraulics, etc. as actu-
VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative ation technologies[31] along with tactile sensors. Soft robotics is in
Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and its infancy and it must overcome many challenges to close the
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. gap between real living organisms and soft robots. Efficiency,
DOI: 10.1002/aisy.202400414 mechanical development, adaptability of electronic components

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Figure 1. Bioinspired soft robotic gripper inheriting the abilities of different biological creatures.

to extreme environment, development of stretchable power sour- 2. Bioinspired Soft Actuators

ces,[32] controllers, sensing modules, integration of advanced
algorithms with soft actuation and control systems are some Actuators are foundational components of robots that use energy
of the challenges that need to be addressed in coming years.[33,34] to produce motion. Conventional robots use motorized, cable
Inclusion of biodegradable materials, renewable energy sources joints or other rigid components that help them in rotational
for sustainable approach toward bioinspired soft robotics,[35] or reciprocal motion. In the search for enhanced efficiency,
machine learning methods for accurate control in unpredictable adaptability, flexibility, and safer human interaction, researchers
conditions[36] will have a great impact on this growing field have been led to design and fabricate actuators using soft mate-
of bioinspired soft robotics, helping it prevail over the boun- rials. The inspiration is taken from living organisms to function
daries of rigid linked robots and be on par with biological the actuators like muscles in the animal body. These actuators
organisms.[37] have the ability to deform and change shape, contract, extend,
Nature has always excited our curious minds. Bioinspired soft bend like real body muscles.[24,38,39] The conventional actuators
robotics is a vast research field with a great potential. This article have finite degree of freedom whereas soft actuators theoretically
discusses the advances, limitations, and future direction for bio- have infinite degree of freedom.[37]
inspired soft robotics. The key features of this review article are Bioinspired soft actuators have advanced astonishingly in
as follows: 1) Highlighting the latest technologies in bioinspired recent years. Mimicking abilities such as camouflage like chame-
soft robotics; 2) Discussing the challenges and exploring possible leons,[39] turtle-inspired swimming and walking,[40] octopus- like
solutions; and 3) Future prospect of these robots. crawling, bionic movement mimicking frogs[41] by using differ-
Table 1 compares the contents of the recent related work on ent smart materials and control technologies in soft actuators.
bioinspired soft robotics. Most review papers have covered a spe- Recently, many new soft actuators have emerged based on mate-
cific aspect of bioinspired soft robotics. But none of them have rials such as pneumatic actuators (PA), hydrogel actuators (HA),
concentrated on all the aspects such as actuation, sensing, con- biohybrid actuatosr (BHA), dielectric actuators (DEA), twisted
trol technologies and material selection together. Most of the and coiled yarns (TCY), shape memory alloys (SMA), liquid crys-
papers have discussed about different actuation systems but very tal elastomers (LCE), and ionic polymer–metal composites
few have explored the model-based and model-free control strat- (IPMC).[25,38] These soft actuators can also be classified based
egies for bioinspired soft robotics. Our article compiles all these on control technologies as follows: pneumatic actuation,[32,37,42]
technological advances along with the challenges and future hydraulic actuation, electrical actuation,[43,44] chemical reaction
directions of bioinspired soft robotics. Figure 2 shows the topics stimulation[37] or other stimulations such as water, light, pH,
covered in this article. heat, electric field, and magnetic field.[25]

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 Table 1. Survey of related papers.

References Actuation System Soft Sensor Soft Materials Control Methods Challenges Key Findings
Variable Electroactive Fluid Bio- Bio- Shape Electroactive Hydrogel Bio- Open Closed Model Model Modeling System Material
Length Polymers Elastomer inspired degradable Memory Polymer logical loop loop based free & Control Integration

Adv. Intell. Syst. 2025, 7, 2400414

Tendon Actuator Alloy
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[37]   ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓         Working principle of soft

actuators, design and material
selection in bioinspired soft
robotics
[25]    ✓  ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓        Advances in bioinspired soft
actuator and sensor between
2017–2020
[20] ✓ ✓ ✓         ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓  Application of different
modeling and control

2400414 (3 of 21)
technologies and future
direction of underwater soft
robotics
[24] ✓ ✓ ✓            ✓ ✓ Inspiration for soft actuators,
materials and creation of
hybrid system with tissue
engineering
[31] ✓ ✓ ✓              Recent development in field of
soft grippers and their
performance parameters
[32]          ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓   Summary of recent advances
and control strategies of
pneumatic soft actuators
[38] ✓ ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓      ✓ ✓  Soft material selection and
their design strategies,
comparison of popular
actuation methods
This article ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ This article covers the recent
technological advancement in
the field of bioinspired soft
robotics

© 2024 The Author(s). Advanced Intelligent Systems published by Wiley-VCH GmbH

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Figure 2. Overview of the topics covered in this review article.

2.1. Variable Length Tendon resistance for better response time[51] and using curved SMAs
instead of conventional straight SMAs for larger deformation.[52]
Variable-length tendon (VLT) mimics the functionalities of ten-
dons in living organisms. Its key feature is to replicate the flexi- 2.2. Fluidic Elastomer Actuator
bility and adaptability of biological muscles and tendons. VLT can
be classified into tension cable and SMA.[44] Variable-length ten- Fluidic elastomer actuators (FEA) use elastomeric materials and
don has advantage over conventional actuation due to its pressurized fluids (hydraulic or pneumatic) to inflate the cham-
enhanced dexterity, efficiency, force generation per length, bers and generate locomotion. Elastomers that work similarly to
and precise control over movement. Its application in bioinspired SMA undergo change in volume in controlled manner to mimic
soft robots, locomotion, and grippers can revolutionize actuation the compliance and deformability of biological muscle.[44] The
mechanism.[40] miniature inflatable chamber technology has made it possible
The characteristics of SMAs allow them to deform in response to generate of force in small scale and precise locomotion.[53]
to stimuli like temperature, enabling the generation of motion One of the early versions of a fluidic actuator, called pneumatic
without external motors or other components. SMAs formed artificial actuator, also known as McKibben actuator, is con-
in such a way that it is easy to integrate with soft structure.[45,46] structed of fiber braid that can produce high-intensity pressure
In SMAs change of temperature controls the force generation.[24] and deform using pressurized air.[24]
Relatively small force generation,[47] overheating, poor effi- FEA has found many applications in bioinspired soft robotics
ciency[24] can be pointed out as disadvantage of SMA. in driving mode of soft actuators, energy efficiency, controlled
Applications of SMA can be noticed in caterpillar-inspired deformation, lightweight, and force generation per weight, which
GoQBot,[48] octopus-like arm structures,[49] soft turtle robot,[50] is scalable.[40] New generation of fluidic actuator coming in light
and so on. is PneuNets (PN), this synthetic elastomer layered actuator
Tension cables and piezoelectrics are also other techniques of deforms by pressurized gas and can hold its shape without
actuation for soft robots. The use of tension cables have any external energy sources.[47] Resilient quadrupedal soft
decreased over time due to the challenges of integrating hard robot,[54] snake-inspired soft robots,[55] compliant soft grippers[56]
cable with soft body.[44] Piezoelectric actuators use current to gen- are some of the examples of PN architecture in bioinspired soft
erate mechanical strain and they have similar advantages as robotics.
SMA. SMAs have limitations but they can be overcome, for FEAs are pressure-driven actuator which can be pneumatic or
example, small strain can be addressed by spiral shaped hydraulic. Hydraulic system is not as common as the use of
SMA,[47] decreasing cross-sectional areas for higher thermal pneumatic system in soft robotics field. These actuators can

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generate large forces and in the future, there are more possibili- mimicking jelly fish,[8] underwater fish propeller using
ties of them to become lighter in size.[53] Pneumatic and hydrau- IPMC,[68] steerable fish[69] are suitable.
lic actuation methods are among the technologies used to Table 2 discusses a detailed comparison of some vital charac-
replicate the movement of biological creature in soft robotics. teristics of different soft actuation mechanisms. Strain is the
Pneumatic actuation is preferred over hydraulic due to the easy deformation from the initial state in the direction of actuation
access of air, eco-friendly to use, less time delay in response. and strain rate expresses the change in strain per unit time.
Although pneumatics have their drawbacks, such as needing a Stress simply means the pressure exerted which is the ratio of
continuous supply of air and high sealing requirements in output force to cross-sectional area. Figure 3 highlights the range
extreme conditions[32,57,58] and hydraulics can generate more of Young’s modulus, where it is clear that electromagnetic actua-
force than pneumatic actuators.[40] The basic principle behind tors have a higher range with SMA being close second. Work
hydraulic and pneumatic actuation is to pump the pressurized density refers to the work done per cycle by the actuator, while
fluid into chambers that can produce desired deformation hence efficiency is the conversion of input energy into output. Figure 4
movement such as bending, twisting, expanding, etc.[53] shows that the SMA has a higher work density due to its ability to
withstand high strain and stress. Figure 5 shows that dielectric
actuators are far more efficient than any other actuation
2.3. Electroactive Polymers
mechanism.
Electroactive polymer (EAP) actuators respond to electric stimu-
lation which means they can change their size or shape when and 3. Control Methods
electric field is applied. EAP is mainly classified into two catego-
ries: 1. Electronic EAP and 2. Ionic EAP.[47,59] There is also Bioinspired soft robots are capable of doing complex tasks by
stimuli-responsive hydrogel actuator that swells when gaining interacting and adapting to the environment. However, control
water and shrinks as soon as water leaves. By this principle, it of soft robotics has always been a challenging task due to its flex-
produces motion for soft robots.[60] This article discusses dielec- ible, deformable, adaptive, and compliant nature.[4,20] Their con-
tric elastomer actuators (DEA) and ionic polymer–metal compo- tinuum property demands different a modeling technique than
sites (IPMC) actuators. rigid-body robots. Unlike conventional rigid-body robots whose
movements can be described by three translations and three rota-
2.3.1. Dielectric Elastomer Actuators tions, soft robots have infinite degree of freedom. Because of
nonlinear characteristics like hysteresis, compliance, infinite
DEA works on the principle of electrostatic forces that are gen- degrees of freedom, and unique design and modeling techni-
erated between electrodes embedded in a dielectric elastomer ques, the control strategies used in conventional robots can’t
film. This leads to the contraction or extension of the body.[60] be implemented in soft robotics.[13,70] According to the task, envi-
DEA’s application in bioinspired soft robotics is possible because ronment, materials, and actuation system the control strategies
of their ability to produce distortion or large deformation, high may vary. Control methods used in bioinspired soft robotics can
energy density, long life, and fast response speed.[61,62] Rotary, be classified into two categories: 1) Open loop control; and
multilayer stacked, diamond, rolled, bending, zipping, balloon, 2) closed-loop control.[47]
The most common control method in soft robotics is open
cone, hinge, planar, etc. are different types of DEAs.[61]
loop control. Open loop control is generally used where mini-
Although DEAs bring a lot of positives to the table, it still has
mum control effort is required.[34] Motion control of underwater
its limitations as well. Low yield stress without a rigid frame,
star fish-like soft robot,[71] swimming eel-like robot with torque
complex design, and high operating voltage are major concerns
control algorithm,[72] control of granular material universal
in dielectric elastomer actuation technology.[24,38]
griper[73] uses different control methods. Open loop control tries
to replicate muscle memory like a living organism without sen-
2.3.2. Ionic Polymer–Metal Composites sor feedback by predicting the movement based on the available
knowledge about the system. Since there is no feedback mecha-
IPMC actuators require less operating input voltage (between 1 nism to determine if the actuator has reached the targeted posi-
and 5 V) compared to DEAs. It is composed of ionic polymer tion. This limits the use of open loop method to only known
which is sandwiched between two metal electrodes. Upon apply- environments and conditions.[74]
ing an electric field, the ions within the polymer move toward the Closed-loop control is more robust and accurate compared to
oppositely charged electrode, causing the polymer to bend or open loop control method. The closed-loop control approach in
deform. This feature of IPMC is utilized in soft robotics actu- brittle star inspired underwater soft robot with crawling
ation.[38,60,63] The characteristics of IPMC have made it popular feature,[75] underwater soft robot with ability to swim[76] are
in wet environment usage and underwater soft robotics. IPMC is examples of advancements in closed-loop control methods.
an exciting choice for bioinspired soft robotics actuation systems Closed-loop approach is more accurate due to its feedback system
due to its capability of reaching large deformations against low having the ability to reject noise or disturbance.[40] Bioinspired
electric field applied,[64] very quick response time of as good as soft robotics takes inspiration from biological creatures.
4 mm per 0.005 s,[44] and high durability. Though ionic EPAs like Hence the impact of biological mechanisms can be seen in soft
IPMC can show low mechanical coupling efficiency.[65,66] The robots. If a human tries to grab something its neurons will act as
applications of IPMC in inchworm-inspired soft robot body,[67] sensors that will command the movement of arm. Then, for

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 Table 2. Comparison of different actuation mechanism in bioinspired soft robotics.

Actuation Mechanism Strain Stress Work density Frequency [Hz] Efficiency Modulus Strain rate Advantages Limitations References

Adv. Intell. Syst. 2025, 7, 2400414

[%] [MPa] [kj m 3] [%] [MPa] [% s 1]
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Shape Memory 4–8 200 104–105 0.5–5 10 28–75  103 10–50 Easy to fabricate and Complex motion control [25,45,60,175,176]
Alloy (SMA) program
Large deformation (300%)
Pneumatic 10–40 1.16 1–200 1–5 49 0.1–100 10–70 Environment friendly High sealing required [31,32,40,60,175]
Actuation (PA) Easy to access air Constant supply of air
Less time delay necessary
Lightweight
Dielectric 1–1000 7.7 100–500 1–1000 90 0.1–3 102–105 High energy density High voltage required for [25,40,60,175,176]
Actuator (DEA) Fast response time actuation

2400414 (6 of 21)
Greater force
Ionic Polymer-Metal 0.5–10 3 1–10 0.1–2 1.5 25–2500 1–3 High actuation strain with Uncontrollable deformation [25,40,60,175,177]
Composites (IPMC) respect to low applied Low electromechanical
voltage coupling efficiency
Bidirectional actuation
Large bending displacement
Hydrogel Actuator 10–20 .005 460 1 up to 80 – 2 Ability to mimic strength and Slow response time [64,175,176,178,179]
energy density of biological Possibility of electrolysis
muscle above certain voltage
Low voltage operation and Comparatively weaker
bistable mechanical properties
Liquid Crystal 10–50 .3–5.3 1–180 0.001–1 – 0.1–3 1–10 Powerful than ionic Can’t operate independently [25,40,60,180,181]
Elastomer (LCE) Longer operating time because it needs external
high voltage amplifier
Hydraulically 170 .3 64.4 20–50 21 – 2176 High force generation Fluid leakage can happen [40,60,182–184]
Amplified Self-healing Simple fabrication Requires high voltage to work
Electrostatic Actuator
(HASEL)
Electro-magnetic Actuator 15–25 – – High (up to – 0.3  102– – Fast response Low efficiency [25,182,184–186]
500 Hz) 3  105 Compact structure Complex control

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Control of soft robot also depends upon the modeling of the

system. The precise control of robot in challenging environment
requires different type of control strategies. Different model-
based controllers that rely on analytical models or model-free
controller which use machine learning techniques are imple-
ment in bioinspired soft robotics.[36,70] Basic principle in a lay-
ered control structure is that low-level controllers track the
reference and drive the actuators, high level controllers use sen-
sor feedback to estimate path and trajectory, meanwhile mid-
level controllers involve kinematic and dynamic control.[20,22]
The control of soft robotics has seen new heights thanks to
the advancements in this field. Reinforcement learning (RL) is
promising model-free control method that learns from trial
and error with environmental experience. Also use of deep rein-
forcement learning (DRL) in the development of bioinspired soft
robotics has enabled control of complex systems whether it is
known or not.[20] There is recent work on DRL algorithm to
mimic the muscle excitation patterns and movements of soft
Figure 3. Overview of Young’s modulus of different soft actuators.
bodied animals. Soft tissues and muscles modeled by finite ele-
ment method (FEM) are incorporated with a DRL algorithm for
control of soft bodied robots.[77] FEM is also a popular open loop
control strategy used for soft robot actuation.[74] One research
uses deep Q-network (DQN) algorithm in soft robot fish for
exploring underwater life. There are applications of deep
Q-learning (DQL) which is union of deep learning and Q-learn-
ing method.[78] There are other algorithms such as deep deter-
ministic policy gradient (DDPG), normalized advantage
function (NAF), and advantage actor-critic (A2C) used to control
soft robots in simulation environments. But there is a difference
between simulation and real-world environment, this is
where generative adversarial networks (GAN) can be used to
narrow the gap between training environments and real-world
applications.[20]
Kinematic model-based control requires a simple model
because it considers soft robot without any force to perform
position-based control. A human-inspired kinematics-based con-
troller is used to control the tip position of a soft continuum arm
Figure 4. Work density of different soft actuators. used in daily interactive tasks like opening doors or pulling
drawers. This project uses two control methods first, simplified
Jacobian model and second, is Q-learning.[79] This finding
implies that low-level controller focused on kinematics paired
precise movement of the arm visual assistance is required from with high level planer can be as efficient as a complex model.
the eyes. Similarly closed-loop control can be divided into two On the contrary, dynamic model-based control utilizes a mathe-
parts: 1) First level closed-loop control; and 2) second level matical model to predict future behavior. Compared to
closed-loop control.[74] kinematics-based control the dynamic model-based control is
The first level controls the deformation of the soft actuators more accurate and versatile because dynamic approach takes
where input is different stimuli such as water, pressure, temper- the forces into consideration.[80] There have been many research
ature, electricity, etc., and the output of the actuator may be in works on dynamic model approaches, including model predictive
terms of changes in length or angle.[74] First level closed-loop control (MPC) based on piecewise constant curvature (PCC)
control in contrast to open loop control has a feedback path that model for continuum joint soft robots control,[81] trajectory track-
compares output with reference with help of sensor. ing and interaction with the real-world environment and propor-
Second level control takes the geometric parameters (length, tional integral derivative (PID) controller is used for regulating
angle) of the actuator as input and the output is the geometric the robot’s configuration,[82] application of curvature controller
parameter of the whole robot body. Second level control takes and cartesian regulation for achieving natural softness and adapt-
output of the first level which works as a mathematical model ing impedance of end effector[83] have had a great impact in the
of kinematics and dynamics. Second level control includes kine- field of bioinspired soft robotics. The model-free controllers use
matics or dynamics, on the contrary, first level has no relation to data-driven techniques. In contrast to model-based control tech-
the kinematics and dynamics of robot body.[74] Forward and niques, data-driven control learn from data collected from system
inverse kinematics are important in space control problems. operations. Data-driven techniques like reinforcement learning

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Figure 5. Comparison of efficiency of soft actuators.

Figure 6. Overview of different control techniques of soft robotics.

(RL), neural networks, Gaussian process regression (GPR), To generate structures with global compliance and deformability,
Koopman operator, etc. are rapidly developing.[20,80] Figure 6 this integration deftly combines soft, stiff, and biological materi-
gives an overview of different control techniques used in soft als.[1,2] Developments in 3D printing, durable material interfaces,
robotics based on models. and creative systems-level design are just as important to
this field’s success as the creation of novel multifunctional
materials.[37]
4. Material Selection Although a lot of progress has been achieved in soft robotics in
the last 10 years, soft bioinspired robotics is receiving more atten-
Soft robots with bioinspired designs have the capacity to match tion. This field offers fresh opportunities to create designed
or perhaps exceed the extraordinary adaptability and multipur- parts, apparatuses, and robots that can connect conventional
pose capabilities seen in living things. The design of such robots robotics with living systems.[84,85]
must seamlessly integrate sensing, passive mechanics, active Soft robots have utilized various materials, including rubbers,
movement, and control in order to achieve their full potential. fabrics, papers, filaments, flexible electronics, and intelligent

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materials with a modulus of elasticity at least 1000 times lower distinct deformation properties. The phase transition occurs
than that of rigid materials.[86–91] Rubber polymers with high based on the temperature difference, with martensite showing
extensibility serve as common body materials, with mechanical deformation at lower temperatures and austenite exhibiting
characteristics dictated by elastic coefficients.[3] Intelligent the opposite behavior.[92]
material-driven mechanisms, especially those using various
intelligent materials, are widely employed and can significantly
influence the robot’s maximum load, deformation, endurance, 4.2. Electroactive Polymer
and overall performance.[92]
Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are smart materials that change
From Figure 7 key materials used in soft bioinspired robotics
include[2,9]: 1) Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs); 2) Electroactive shape or size in response to electrical stimulation. The two main
Polymers: a) Dielectric Elastomers; b) Ionic Polymer–Metal types of EAPs used in soft robotics are dielectric elastomers (DEs)
Composites; 3) Responsive Hydro-gels; 4) Other Intelligent and IPMCs.[59]
Materials (shape memory polymers, magnetorheological materi-
als); 5) Biological Materials: a) Muscle cells; b) Plant fibers; 4.2.1. Dielectric Elastomer (DE)
c) Carbon-based materials; and d) Liquid crystalline polymers
Among these, SMAs, EAPs, and muscle cells are most DEs are composed of elastomeric materials like silicones or
prevalently utilized for actuation. acrylics that are sandwiched between two compliant electro-
des.[61,62] When a high voltage is applied, electrostatic forces
4.1. Shape Memory Alloy squeeze the elastomer, causing it to expand in area and contract
in thickness up to 480% strain.[61] Key properties that make DEs
SMAs exhibit shape memory and superelasticity through solid– suitable as soft robotic actuators include high energy density, fast
solid phase transformations induced by temperature or magnetic actuation speed, low cost, customizability, and noiseless and
field changes. This makes it possible to apply linear actuation shockless operation.[62,63] DE transducers have been imple-
with reversible contraction and elongation.[10] Based on how they mented in soft grippers, crawlers, swimmers, and manipula-
function, SMAs may be divided into two types: magnetic control tors.[61,66] However, issues like high driving voltages,
and temperature control. In the creation of soft robots, the tem- electromechanical instability, and viscoelastic creep still need
perature control type is more frequently employed as it produces to be resolved before widespread adoption.[62] Recent work has
force and deformation upon heating. The two phases of focused on new dielectric materials, prestraining methods,
temperature-controlled SMAs—the high-temperature austenite and stacking geometries to improve actuation strain and
phase and the low-temperature martensite phase—each have efficiency.[61]

Figure 7. Different materials used in bioinspired soft robotics.

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4.2.2. Ion Exchange Polymer–Metal Composite (GO), and carbon nanotubes (CNT), as well as hydrogel materials
like poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM), liquid crystal elasto-
IPMC actuators contain an ion exchange membrane (usually mers (LCE), DE, and IPMC,[101–109] researchers have developed
Nafion) plated with noble metal electrodes, like gold or platinum. soft bioinspired actuators and sensors in recent years. Below is a
When an electric field is applied, mobile cations migrate, causing discussion of these materials and the underlying mechanics.
bending toward the anode via osmotic swelling.[63,67] Under 3 V
activation and in a hydrated state, IPMCs can achieve over 220%
4.5.1. Muscle Cells
strain but with low force output (1–5 MPa).[59] Properties such as
low operating voltage, biocompatibility, chemical stability, and
Muscle tissue, featuring high strain density, self-healing proper-
resilience have enabled bioinspired underwater soft robots to
ties, and electrical activation, is a crucial component for efficient
achieve maneuverable propulsion and manipulation.[66,68]
actuation in soft robotics. Muscle cells naturally offer high actu-
However, further optimization is needed to address issues such
ation strain and self-healing ability. The direct integration of such
as dehydration, poor force production, and efficiency loss over
contractile units from cardiac or skeletal muscles facilitates
repetitive cycles.[63,69] Recent focus has shifted to improving
untethered biohybrid systems well-suited for biomedical applica-
ion mobility and electromechanical efficiency using novel
tions.[9] Soft robotic systems directly utilize living cells, especially
nanocomposite structures.[63,65] Overall, IPMCs remain a highly
cardiac and skeletal muscle cells, which have led to the develop-
versatile and adaptive EAP for soft transduction in wet
ment of the field of miniature soft biohybrid robots. These bio-
environments.
compatible robots have unique sensing and actuation capabilities
and show potential for use in medical applications such as med-
4.3. Responsive Hydrogel ication treatment, surgery, and disease diagnosis.[110] Bio-hybrid
micro systems can sense and respond, making them appropriate
Hydrogels undergo swelling/deswelling transitions in response for untethered applications and environment-adaptive.[25]
to environmental stimuli.[9] Responsive hydrogels undergo phase
transformation in response to external factors such as tempera-
ture, pH, light, or specific chemical molecules. For instance, 4.5.2. Plant Fibers
thermosensitive hydrogels exhibit changes in hydrophilicity
and hydrophobicity based on the temperature, while Plant fibers, which are well-known for their capacity to expand
pH-sensitive hydrogels change their volume and morphology and contract in response to variations in moisture, aid in actu-
in response to acidity or alkalinity.[92] ation. These processes are comparable to those found in a variety
of plant moving parts, such as the opening of a pine cone.
Actuators that utilize these characteristics of the material are
4.4. Other Intelligent Materials
known as hygromorphic bio-composite (HBC) actuators.
HBCs are inexpensive, easily accessible, and eco-friendly, but
Other intelligent materials, such as shape memory polymers
(SMP) and magnetorheological materials, offer unique proper- their primary disadvantage for composite reinforcement is that
ties. SMP can eliminate deformation through external factors like their high water absorption shortens their lifespan. Furthermore,
heat, light, electricity, or magnetism, and some SMP materials the creation of high-performance composites is impeded by inad-
can be directly formed by 3D printing. Magnetorheological mate- equate understanding and investigation of their mechanical
rials exhibit reversible changes in mechanical, electrical, and behavior.[103,111,112]
magnetic properties under the influence of a magnetic field.
Liquid metals are pure metals or alloys of metals that show 4.5.3. Carbon-Based Materials
the characteristics of a low melting point, low toxicity, low viscos-
ity, high conductivity, and high flexibility, as well as good thermal The word graphene describes a mono layer configuration of car-
conductivity. Common liquid metallic elements include mercury bon atoms that resembles a honeycomb-shaped hexagonal lattice.
(Hg), gallium (Ga), and cesium (Cs), among which gallium is Flexible graphene paper with a Young’s modulus of 23–42 GPa
more popular due to its low melting point and high boiling and a tensile strength of 15–193 MPa, depending on the produc-
point.[93,94] Liquid metals flow-ability, softness, conductivity tion procedure, is produced by stacking graphene layers. High
changes with ratio contents mixture. For instance, increasing electrical conductivity is exhibited by graphene, which is pro-
oxide content will increase the electroconductivity of mate- duced when graphite oxidizes and graphite oxide exfoliates
rial.[93,95] Liquid metals are innovatively used in soft humanoid GO layers. Conversely, GO serves as an electrical insulator.
robots,[96] wheeled robot,[97] shape transformable nanoma- Bio-inspired robotics use graphene’s electrical properties
chine,[98] artificial muscle,[99] biomimetic robotic jellyfish,[100] for sensing purposes. When graphite is exposed to potent oxidiz-
etc. Gallium-based alloys are non-toxic and bio-compatible which ing chemicals, graphite oxide is created. The Staudenmaier,
will be vital in healthcare sector as well. Hummers, and Modified Hummers methods are often used
for this oxidation.[113–115] Even though GO paper has exceptional
4.5. Biological Materials mechanical strength, flexibility, electrical and thermal conductiv-
ity, and surface area, warming can lead to individual layers rup-
Using a variety of biological materials, such as muscle tissue, turing and delaminating, which can cause irreversible damage to
plant fibers, carbon-based materials like graphite, graphene oxide the material’s layered structure and layer wrinkling. Additionally,

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graphene’s uses are limited by its short life cycles and low comprehensive environmental perception and proprioception.[34]
actuation strain.[113,116] Recent progress has resulted in the development of integrated
soft sensing systems and innovative sensor materials designed
4.5.4. Liquid Crystalline Polymers to replicate biological sensory capabilities.[25,34] Numerous soft
sensors have been created to measure essential parameters
Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) can reorder their orienta- necessary for controlling soft robots. For instance, flexible and
tion and exhibit shape transformations when activated.[9] stretchable strain and pressure sensors enable soft robots to
Furthermore, LCEs have the capability to autonomously organize perceive touch, contact, and interactions with their external envi-
ronments, akin to natural skin.[5] Examples include resistive and
into a homogeneous material, undergoing mechanical transfor-
piezoresistive soft sensors that utilize conductive composites or
mations into various spatial orientations and geometries.
liquid metals to convert pressure or strain into measurable
However, the activation of LCEs necessitates elevated tempera-
electrical signals.[25] Similarly, soft optical sensors leveraging
tures exceeding 100 °C. Additionally, these materials face
changes in light transmission can identify deformation for pro-
challenges due to suboptimal mechanical properties, and their
prioceptive feedback.[34] This section delves into recent trends
application is restricted by low blocking stress, which falls below
and insights derived from key papers in the field.
500 kPa.[117]
Table 3 compares some of the key materials used in bioins-
pired soft robotics. Figure 8 shows the comparison between 5.1. Bioinspired Soft Sensors
the strain capability and durability/life cycle of some soft materi-
als. Among the soft materials there are SMS, DE, IPMC and Bioinspired refers to designs, materials, or technologies that
muscle cells.[25,51,61,63,66,68,92] While various material options draw inspiration from biological systems and processes found
exist, such as SMAs, DEs, and IPMCs, that appear most in nature. This method involves using the structures, activities,
promising for soft robotic actuation based on strain capabilities, or methods of biological things as a model to tackle challenging
configurability, and reliability.[8–10] Further development of engineering problems and advance current technologies. Bio-
nanocomposites using novel multi-functional constituents may inspired advances in soft robotics take advantage of the adaptabil-
help overcome limitations of existing technologies.[8] ity and efficiency of natural systems, resulting in the creation of
sophisticated materials and robotic designs that improve perfor-
mance and functionality[34]: 1) Bio-mimicry is crucial in soft sen-
5. Soft Sensors and Sensing for Control sor design to replicate biological sensory features. Artificial
tactile, optical, and chemical soft sensors aim to emulate natural
Effective control of soft robots relies on integrated sensing and senses using intelligent layouts and soft, active materials.[34]
feedback systems. Recent progress has focused on multimodal, Drawing inspiration from organisms like cephalopods and
stretchable, and biodegradable soft sensors to achieve plants, there is a focus on encoding external mechanical

Table 3. Comparison of properties for some key soft robotic materials.

Serial No. Material Strain capability Response time Stimulus type Durability/Life cycles References
1 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) <10% Slow (secs) Temp., Magnetic Field High (>106) [51,52,92]
2 Dielectric Elastomer (DE) 380–480% Fast (ms) Electric Field Medium (104–105) [61,64,66]
3 Ion Exchange Polymer–Metal Composite (IPMC) >200% Fast (ms) Low Voltage, Wet Low(102–103) [63,68,69]
4 Muscle Cells ≈40% Fast (ms) Electrical, Chemical 100–200 (ex vivo) [25,102,110]

Figure 8. Comparative strain capability and durability of different soft materials.

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information through touch sense and mechanosensation.[118] Challenges in achieving full biodegradability were acknowledged
The integration of sensing and the soft body in soft robots neces- due to Ag nanowire degradation in humid conditions. The
sitates innovative, flexible, and deformable strategies to achieve substitution of non-biodegradable components, such as Ag nano-
comprehensive exteroception and proprioception capabilities; wires, poses difficulties due to rapid degradation in humid
2) Artificial tactile sensing relies on mimicking the intrinsic char- conditions.[127]
acteristics of natural touch, utilizing intelligent layouts, and
incorporating soft active materials.[24] Various materials, includ- 5.2.2. Implantable Biodegradable Sensors
ing conductive polymers, liquid metals, graphene, and stretch-
able epidermal electronics, contribute to the advancement of A thin Fe/Zn bi layer structure has been employed as electrodes
soft sensing technologies. Two case studies are examined, for a capacitive sensor with a sensitivity of 0.06 kPa 1. Although
highlighting three-axial force sensing using textiles and soft exhibiting partial degradation within 18 days, the study
materials for capacitive transduction in the first case.[119] The sec- emphasized the need for accelerated degradation in practical
ond case explores bending and pressure detection in a soft body, applications. Balancing degradation rates while preserving sen-
drawing inspiration from plant mechanoperception and employ- sor performance is crucial for the practical implementation of
ing stretchable materials and textiles[120]; and 3) Despite the implantable biodegradable sensors.[128]
advancements, integrating sensing devices into soft robots poses
challenges related to decoupling mechanical solicitations and 5.2.3. Stretchable Pressure and Strain Sensors
addressing the deformations of the soft body. The pursuit of mul-
timodality and functional integration emerges as critical aspects Stretchable capacitive sensors, utilizing silk fibroin sheets with
for future developments.[121] Ag nanowires, demonstrated high sensitivity (1.8  10 2) at
low pressures up to 20 kPa. However, challenges persist in
5.2. Biodegradable Sensors achieving complete degradation of materials like Eco flex under
natural conditions. Striking a balance between stretch ability and
Materials that may naturally break down into simpler organic degradation rates is essential for creating sustainable and func-
compounds by microbes such as bacteria and fungi are known tional stretchable pressure and strain sensors.[129]
as biodegradable materials. This reduces the impact of the
material on the environment. Numerous settings, including both 5.2.4. Temperature Sensors
anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic (with oxygen), can
support this activity.[122] A deformable temperature sensor has been developed with
Because biodegradable sensors in soft robotics include envi- serpentine-shaped Mg traces encapsulated in Eco flex, exhibiting
ronmental factors in robotic design, they represent a substantial a sensitivity of 0.2% K 1. The use of biodegradable materials
step forward in the development of sustainable technology. Many contributes to sustainability. Exploring alternatives like natural
biodegradable materials and their uses in sensor technology are wax composites for temperature sensing further enhances the
highlighted in recent research, emphasizing their potential to cut eco-friendly design of sensors.[130]
down on electronic waste without sacrificing functionality.
Biodegradable sensors, which incorporate materials that offer 5.2.5. Humidity Sensors
crucial mechanical qualities and safely decompose in the envi-
ronment, are developing as a game-changing breakthrough in Humidity sensors, based on interdigitated Zn electrodes and bio-
bio-inspired soft robotics. These sensors are in line with the ris- degradable hydrogels, demonstrated a significant relative imped-
ing need for sustainable technologies by drastically reducing elec- ance change of two orders of magnitude between 10% and 80%
tronic waste and its negative effects on the environment.[123] relative humidity. The utilization of biodegradable substrates like
Conductive coatings made from graphene and carbon nanofibers hydrogels enhances the ecofriendliness of humidity sensors,
combined with biodegradable vitrimers offer flexibility and recy- providing valuable insights into environmental conditions.[131]
clability, crucial for soft robotics applications.[124] Besides, biode- The development of biodegradable sensors involves intricate
gradable materials enable soft robots to adapt to environmental material choices and design considerations. Challenges persist in
stimuli, enhancing their functionality in applications like ensuring complete biodegradability and managing degradation
drug delivery and sensing.[125] Biodegradable micro robots are rates, especially under practical conditions. Future advancements
designed for biomedical applications, ensuring no toxic residues should prioritize sustainability without compromising sensor
remain post-operation, which is vital for in vivo applications.[126] performance.
When together, these revelations highlight the potential of bio-
degradable sensors in enhancing the sustainability and function- 5.3. Other Sensors
ality of soft robotic systems.
Furthermore, there is a recognized trend toward integrating
5.2.1. Pressure Sensors sensing data with data-driven learning algorithms. Researchers
have applied learning algorithms in haptic identification,[132]
A piezoresistive pressure sensor using Ag nanowires has been developed neural network and regression models for closed-loop
developed on a paper-based platform, exhibiting high sensitivity control,[133] utilized long short-term memory networks for
(1.5 kPa 1) within the pressure range of 30 Pa to 30 kPa. real-time kinematics and force modeling,[31] and developed a

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convolutional neural network (CNN) model for object identifica- The examination of transduction mechanisms and the struc-
tion in conjunction with a triboelectric tactile sensor to construct tural and functional patterns of bioinspired sensors is crucial for
a tactile feedback smart glove.[134] Using several machine comprehending the behavior principles of these sensors and
learning techniques, soft optoelectronic sensory foams with their sensing capabilities: 1) Structural Motifs: Biological sensory
proprioception are created.[135] systems have developed specialized structures, such as finger-
Various sensor types play a significant role in the sensing prints, domed microstructures, porous networks, whiskers, hier-
capabilities of bio-inspired soft robotics. Photoreceptors, drawing archical micro/nano features, and crack-like slits, to enhance
inspiration from the human eye and arthropod compound eyes, sensitivity, signal amplification, response time, and detection
are designed with tunable soft lenses that alter focal length ranges[145]; 2) Flexible Mechanosensors: Bio-inspired flexible
through mechanisms such as pH changes, electrowetting, and sensors strive to replicate these structural motifs using materials
dielectric actuation. Curved image sensors, resembling retinas, like conductive composites, liquid metals, ionogels, and
have been fabricated to minimize aberrations and achieve a wide elastomers. This replication has resulted in improved pressure
field of view.[136–138] Chemo-receptors emulate gas and humidity sensitivity, proprioception, texture detection, and other enhanced
sensors based on beetle photonic structures and human skin, capabilities[25]; and 3) Functional Motifs: Biological sensory func-
exhibiting color changes or wrinkling. These sensors can detect tionality emerges from mechanoreceptors, ion channels, and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and humidity with high sensory neurons responsible for signal transduction and propa-
sensitivity down to 0.54 nm or 1.74 g mL 1 through hydrogen gation. Flexible sensors imitate these functionalities through
bonding and molecular interactions.[139–143] Mechanoreceptors piezoelectric, triboelectric, piezoresistive, and capacitive effects,
include strain sensors incorporating microcracks, self-healing along with the incorporation of artificial neuron systems.[24]
hydrogels, and hierarchical structures for heightened Regarding current trends, there is a notable shift toward
sensitivity. Dual strain/pressure sensors utilize interlocking enhancing the integration of flexible sensors with soft bodies,
micro/nanostructures and capacitance changes. Pressure-only aiming to advance toward closed-loop autonomous systems.
sensors, inspired by plant leaves, sea sponges, and human Additionally, there is a growing demand for multifunctional
mechanoreceptors, are also being developed. Additionally, sensing to achieve comprehensive environmental perception.[34]
flow sensors mimic hair cell neuromasts found in fish and Table 4 compares some of the key aspects and metrics of
amphibians.[144] different sensors while Table 5 compares some key sensor

Table 4. Comparison table of key aspects and metrics for the different bio-inspired sensors.

Serial No. Sensor Type Transduction Mechanism Key Properties Performance Metrics References
1 Photo receptors pH tuning, electrowetting, Soft, tunable lenses Focal length variation: 0.246–0.362 mm; [187]
dielectric actuation Field of view change: 30–80°
2 Chemoreceptors Molecular interactions, Hydro gel swell-ability and instability Humidity range: 10–97% RH; [188,189]
hydrogen bonding VOC detection limit: 1.74 g mL
3 Strain Sensors Piezoresistivity, micro cracks, Stretch ability, conform-ability Gauge factor: 107–1129%; [190,191]
self-healing Strain range: 0.25–2000%
4 Pressure Sensors Capacitance change, Sensitivity, linearity Pressure range: 0.4 Pa–25 kPa [192,193]
interlocking nanostructures
5 Flow Sensors Pillar deflection, optical diffraction Sensitivity, dynamic range Detection threshold similar [191,194]
to natural system

Table 5. Key sensor performance metrics and transduction mechanisms inspired from the biological world.

Sl. Sensor type Sensitivity Frequency Transduction Biological Transduction Stimulus- Frequency Output signal References
No. response mechanism analog mode Response bandwidth
1 Piezoresistive High Static/Low Resistance Slow adapting Static Low Resistance Slow adapting [123]
frequency change receptors compression change receptors
2 Capacitive Medium Static/Low Capacitance Slow adapting Static Low Capacitance Slow adapting [195,196]
frequency change receptors compression change receptors
3 Piezoelectric Medium Dynamic/High Piezopotential Fast adapting Dynamic High AC voltage Fast adapting [197]
frequency receptors compression receptors
4 Triboelectric Medium Dynamic/High Tribocharge Fast adapting Frictional slide High AC current Fast adapting [198]
frequency receptors receptors
5 Iontronic Ultrahigh Wide frequency Ion flow Ion channels Ion flux Wideband Ionic current Ion channels [199]
range

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complexity of closed-loop control with feedback systems but it

is also needed for precision. Possible solutions can be data-driven
and model-based control approaches, reduced order dynamic
modeling, machine learning for control policy optimiza-
tion.[81,82,146–148] Data-driven approaches like neural networks
to learn complex control policies mapping states to actions, avoid-
ing hand-engineering.[81] Researchers implemented model order
reduction to rapidly simulate different gaits for a soft-legged
robot.[146] Leverage differentiable simulators to train control
policies in simulation and transfer them to real robots[71]

6.2. Modeling and Dynamics

Figure 9. Sensitivity versus resolution for different bioinspired soft Accurately modeling soft body dynamics with factors like variable
sensors. stiffness poses difficulties.[20,80] The balance between model
complexity and real-time control also needs to be managed.
Softness necessitates new modeling approaches beyond tradi-
performance metrics and transduction mechanism inspired
tional robotics control theory.[149] Reducing computational cost
from the biological world. Figure 9 shows graph that gives a
of models and simulations is important for efficient control
visual comparison between the resolution and sensitivity of 3
implementation.[150] Reduced order methods like model order
sensors where we can see that the sensitivity of a sensor
reduction and Koopman operator framework to capture domi-
decreases with the increase in resolution. Strain/pressure sen-
nant dynamics can be implied to overcome the issue.[146,147]
sors using interlocking micro/nanostructures like hierarchical
Data-driven and learning-based approaches can also be a solution
structures (sensitivity up to 618.9, resolution 0.02% strain).[119]
for tackling the limitations.[36]
Capacitive tactile sensors using textiles (sensitivity up to 102, res-
olution 0.01 kPa).[130] Temperature sensors using magnesium
traces (sensitivity 0.2% K 1, resolution 0.1 °C).[144] Figure 10 6.3. Materials Requirements
demonstrates the rise in research interest in various categories
of sensors. The rising interest in research is very significantly Achieving the demanding mechanics, processability, costs, shelf
visible in sensors like mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, and life, and degradability requirements with sustainable materials is
chemoreceptors over the years.[25,136,137,139,140] challenging. Enhancing stretchability without compromising
strength or acceleration degradation is also difficult. Managing
swelling and stability in ambient environments is a significant
challenge. Replicating highly efficient muscle actuation from
6. Challenges
biology with artificial muscles remains difficult.[146] Continued
6.1. Control of Soft Robots materials research needed to improve actuation.[151,152] Design
optimization processes still in early stages due to developing
Compared to stiff robots, soft robots are more difficult to operate material models.[153] Replicating efficient muscle actuation
due to their flexibility, deform-ability, and continuous nature.[4,20] from biology with artificial muscles remains difficult.[154,155]
Besides, infinite degrees of freedom, non-linear characteristics Continued materials research is needed. Power consumption
like compliance and hysteresis make conventional control meth- and storage is a notorious issue limiting progress of mobile soft
ods inapplicable.[13,70] There are also challenges regarding the robots.[156] To solve the issues continued research into novel

Figure 10. Recent trends in various category of soft sensors.

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smart materials like dielectric elastomers, ionic polymer metal principles from neuroscience and biology[13] alongside
composites, SMAs, self-healing materials, biodegradable materi- Sim2Real approaches powered by differentiable simulators.[71]
als has to be made.[13,30,53,117] Materials sustainability through
recycling and biodegradability should be emphasized.[157–159]
7. Future Prospects
6.4. Sensors and Sensing Bioinspired soft robotics combines biology with engineering to
mimic the adaptability, robustness, and flexibility of biological
Integrating sensing devices seamlessly into deformable soft creatures. This field has huge potential to revolutionize various
bodies.Decoupling multiple mechanical signals like pressure industries, such as healthcare, disaster relief, underwater
and strain.[121] Miniaturization of sensors while preserving per- exploration, space exploration, human–machine interaction,
formance. Some of the key possible solutions can be microfluidic manufacturing, and many more, as shown in Figure 11.
sensors, flexible and stretchable electronics, and skin-inspired Bioinspired soft robotics is not a new concept; there have been
composites. A paper-based electrical respiration sensor has been some research works in recent years, yet there is room for more
developed as wearable. Besides, a flexible pressure sensor using improvement in soft robotics technologies. The current research
electrospun nanofibers has been fabricated for a soft sensing in this field aims to dethrone conventional rigid-body robots by
suit.[127–131] developing new designs, modeling, materials, and controlling
technologies.[20] The main idea behind soft robotics is to be able
6.5. System Integration to replicate the characteristics of biological organisms such as
muscles, tendons, sensory systems, and the nervous system.
Combining sensing, actuation, mechanics, and control elements Because of this, the compliant, flexible, infinite degrees of free-
in a unified system. Interfacing rigid components like electronics dom, and adaptive nature make controlling soft robots very chal-
with soft materials.Coping with body deformations affecting lenging. The new model-free reinforcement learning for complex
functionalities.[1] Significant progress still required in creating tasks without any mathematical model of the system is the future
untethered continuum arms that can generate desired force pro- of soft robotics. The introduction of artificial intelligence and
files for advanced control schemes.[147,160] Onboard computation machine learning to learn from experience and predict future
for control still faces barriers from system weight and power behavior will create opportunities in the application of soft
constraints.Smoothly integrating sensors, actuators, computa- robotics in complex tasks and uncertain environments.[38] The
tion, and energy components into a unified system is challenging characteristics of soft materials are different from those used
but critical.[148] Onboard computation for control still faces in rigid-body robots. Therefore, it can be a great addition to
barriers from system weight and power constraints. Better be able to estimate the performance and lifetime of soft actuators
characterization of interface mechanics between hard and soft by applying prognostic methods.[36,165,166]
components, compliant hybrid electronics, wireless and energy Soft materials are one of the main components of bioinspired
harvesting solutions to untether soft systems can be imple- soft robotics. Hence, the search for new advanced materials is
mented to eliminate the existing limitations.[137,144,148] very important in overcoming existing challenges. Recent
Researchers has developed an anthropomorphic robotic torso research is exploring new soft materials with variable controlled
ECCE integrating bio-inspired muscles, compliance and stiffness, suitable for unpredictable environments, taking advan-
sensing.[148] tage of their morphology in actuation, sensing, and control to
solve the current challenges in bioinspired soft robotics.[20] In
the future, moving toward more data-driven approach, using data
6.6. Computational Complexity
processing algorithms and computational modules with intelli-
gent soft materials.[34] Another direction is using organic living
Efficient control implementation hinges on reducing the
tissues for bioinspired soft robotics. These living tissues embed-
computational cost of models and simulations, particularly for
ded in soft robotics might be able to help replicate the actual
computationally intensive models like Cosserat rods.[161] This
muscle actuation and sensory features. This inspiration from
necessitates the development of numerical methods that enable
biological creatures can lead to a better control and interaction
real-time control.[162] Promising solutions lie in model order
with the real-world environment.[20]
reduction methods, graph neural networks, and machine
A direction that will take bioinspired soft robotics to the
learning-based approaches.[81,82,147,153]
forefront is miniaturizing actuators, power supply and sensory
circuits. Soft robots free of any kind of rigid components are
6.7. Behavioral Complexity the future goal.[44] Integration of the flexible power sources, flex-
ible driving components and controllers should be explored. This
While achieving the behavioral diversity and dexterity of humans will be a step toward rigid component-less soft robotics.[32,167]
and animals remains elusive,[163,164] leveraging imitation Negative impact on environment due to technological
learning from human/teacher demonstrations holds promise advancement cannot be denied. Sustainable energy sources, bio-
for simplifying the acquisition of real-world skills.[163,164] degradable materials, recycling are the solutions to this. Nature
However, differences in embodiment between robots and biolog- has the best examples for sustainable and biodegradable resour-
ical systems pose significant challenges. Promising long-term ces. Bioinspired soft robotics takes those inspiration to integrate
solutions lie in mimicking bio-mechanics and control with robotics technology for a better future. Bioinspired soft

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Figure 11. Applications areas of bioinspired soft robotics.

robotics is now at a stage where we can think of implementing soft robotics in underwater exploration is growing with recent
more sustainable and greener technology.[35] In robotics, a major innovations. Development of acoustically controlled soft robot
problem is what happens to the product after end of its life cycle. fish,[78] legged robot named SILVER-2[158] has broadened the
Current conventional robots are already moving toward a more scope of marine research, ocean exploration and interaction with
sustainable approach and integrating a recycle loop.[168] underwater animals. The introduction of soft grippers for auto-
Biodegradable and biocompatible materials can be used in matic crop harvesting in agriculture can solve problems like
bio-inspired soft robotics. Different natural and synthetic biode- hygiene, damaging crops, adapting to unstructured real-world
gradable polymers such as chitosan, gelatin, cellulose, polylatic environment.[17,18] Bioinspired soft robotics can become the
acid, polyethylene glycol, polyarcylic acid, etc. can be used in new standard in healthcare by introducing likes of micro-
the development of soft robotics.[125,169,170] Research of new motors.[15,173,174]
materials or modification of existing materials for better durabil- Soft robotics has room for a lot of growth in the commercial
ity, long life cycle, recycling and waste reduction can help in miti- market. However, unique functionalities alone cannot make bio-
gating greenhouse emission and environment pollution. Design, inspired soft robotics successful commercially. There has been
fabrication, and manufacturing of soft actuators, soft sensors, great advancement in the field of bioinspired soft robotics.
electronics, and other components of bioinspired soft robots Going forward, the aim for manufacturing soft robotics should
should use biodegradable, renewable, low cost.[35,171] Self-healing be inexpensive and mass production. This can help bioinspired
polymers can also solve the sustainability issues in soft robotics soft robotics gain success commercially.[157]
as their self recovery property means less wastage.[30,172]
Application of renewable energy sources like the wind power,
solar power, vibration, etc. is an eco-friendly approach for bio- 8. Discussion
inspired soft robotics. A suitable example for this is sunlight
driven soft robot.[159] Another important technology, microbial This review has highlighted significant advances across key
fuel cells make use of microbially catalyzed anodic and cathodic enabling areas that are driving progress in bioinspired soft robot-
electrochemical reactions to produce energy without any external ics. Innovations in soft materials, fabrication approaches, actu-
power source. Research on this technology may unlock new ation mechanisms, sensing and control strategies are helping
potential for bioinspired soft robotics.[35] bridge the gap between traditional rigid robots and highly flexible
New technologies will take bioinspired soft robotics to new natural organisms. However, there remain considerable gaps to
heights in the application fields. The application of bioinspired be addressed before soft robots can match the versatility and

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robustness exhibited by living creatures. Many research disorder, agriculture for crop harvesting, underwater exploration,
challenges persist in effectively translating bioinspired design interactive wearable, military, search and rescue and many more.
concepts into fully realized functioning soft robotic systems. This review article focuses on the recent advancement of
A primary bottleneck is the availability of suitable soft multi- actuation system, control methods, sensors, materials and the
functional materials. Replicating the integrated properties of bio- challenges related to them. The progress of soft technologies
logical muscle, skin and sensory organs with artificial substitutes is pushing the boundaries of bioinspired soft robotics. New
continues to be an open materials science challenge. Balancing research and development of new technologies is adding to
critical mechanics like strength, conductivity, bio-compatibility, the vast sea of bioinspired soft robotics, yet there are still many
and degradability demands substantial interdisciplinary materi- major challenges that stands in the path of bioinspired soft
als research. The processability and scalable manufacturing of robotics reaching its full potential.
these materials also pose difficulties. Additionally, soft actuation The flexible and continuum nature of soft robots makes the
mechanisms have yet to achieve the efficiency, speed and power modeling and controlling a difficult task for engineers.
density observed in natural muscle. Alternatives to pneumatic Because of this model-free control strategies such as reinforce-
and hydraulic approaches need to be explored to progress toward ment learning, Q-learning, adaptive control is becoming popular
fully soft robotic architectures without rigid components. in soft robotics. Integration of sensor, power system or control
Considerable work remains in improving existing electroactive circuits can be challenge which is why search of new materials is
and variable-length polymer actuators. important to move toward soft robot without any rigid compo-
Effective closed-loop control of infinite degree of freedom soft nents. Bioinspired soft robotics can make use of the renewable
continuum structures is non-trivial, necessitating sensing and energy sources such as solar, wind, vibration, microbial fuel cells
models that account for material nonlinearities. Soft propriocep- etc. for driving the system. The integration of renewable energy
tion and exteroception together enable natural movement, but sources with biodegradable materials will be a step toward
integrating flexible sensors into bodies without compromising greener approach.
mechanics or decoupling strains remains an ongoing pursuit. Bioinspired soft robotics was made by keeping safer human
Along with advances in materials and components, progress interaction, sustainability, adaptability and efficiency in mind.
toward autonomous functionality relies on innovations in model- In future bioinspired soft robotics can move toward inclusion
ing and controls tailored to soft bodies. Bridging these gaps calls of only biodegradable and soft components. Addition of embed-
for perspectives and collaborations spanning material science, ded sensory and power source circuit will be a leap in the
mechanics, mechatronics, bio-mechanics, and biological inspira- right direction for bioinspired soft robotics. Another focus of
tion. There is a need to coalesce principles from these areas into bioinspired soft robotics should be the commercial market.
integrated soft robotic platforms. Exciting near future possibili- Our article represents the existing sensor, material, actuation,
ties include hybrid systems combining soft and rigid elements, control technologies and their advancement. Also, we discuss the
machine learning-based modeling and control, and drawing con- current challenges and possible solution in the field of bioins-
cepts from synthetic biology to integrate biological components pired soft robotics. Bioinspired soft robotics is still a new concept
for sensing, actuation, control and energy harvesting. and it has the potential to overtake rigid-body robots.
While challenges exist, the vibrant progress across the many
constituent disciplines of bioinspired soft robotics paints an opti-
mistic outlook for the coming years. With innovations in multi- Conflict of Interest
functional materials, manufacturing techniques and bioinspired The authors declare no conflict of interest.
design, soft robots hold the potential to match and even surpass
natural organisms in many aspects of movement, resilience,
adaptation and autonomy. By effectively addressing the identified Author Contributions
gaps in an interdisciplinary fashion, it is destined for greater
advancement. Abhirup Sarker: Conceptualization (lead); Writing—original draft (lead);
Writing—review & editing (lead). Tamzid Ul Islam: Conceptualization
(lead); Writing—original draft (lead). Md. Robiul Islam: Supervision (lead);
Writing—review & editing (supporting).
9. Conclusion
The nature of soft technologies and materials makes them more
adaptive, robust and safer for interaction. Discovery of new actu-
Keywords
ation and control technology, algorithms, materials, modeling, bioinspired, control methods, materials selection, reinforcement learning,
and design is playing a pivotal role in advancement of bioinspired soft actuators, soft robotics, soft sensors
soft robotics. Unparalleled features like infinite degree of free-
Received: May 24, 2024
dom, deform-ability, flexibility, adaptiveness, self-healing of dif- Revised: September 3, 2024
ferent biological creatures like fish, jellyfish, copepod, inchworm, Published online: September 30, 2024
earthworm, snakes have helped in developing new technologies
for soft robotics. The next generation of robotics is moving
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Abhirup Sarker is an undergraduate student of Department of Mechatronics Engineering at Rajshahi

University of Engineering & Technology. His main research interests include robotics and control system.
He is currently working on a soft gripper project.

Tamzid Ul Islam is an undergraduate student of Department of Mechatronics Engineering at Rajshahi

University of Engineering & Technology. His main research interests include mechatronics, robotics, AI,
automation, and control system. He has worked on several projects such as: Auto earthquake alert
project using microcontroller, walking humanoid robot, motor driver control, etc. He is currently working
on a soft gripper project.

Md. Robiul Islam is currently working as an assistant professor in the Department of Mechatronics
Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering Technology (RUET). After completing graduation, He
joined as an assistant engineer (Operation and Maintenance) in Bashundhara Industrial Complex Ltd
(BICL), Narayangang from 19 November 2013 to 21 January 2015. Thereafter he joined as a lecturer in
the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology
(BAUST). He worked there for about 3 years 6 months 29 days. He served as an assistant proctor of
BAUST. His research interests include mechatronics systems design, robotics, machine learning, wind
turbine aerodynamics, and renewable energy.

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