Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the study of the sociological aspects of language. The discipline examines
how different social factors, such as ethnicity, gender, age, class, occupation, education, and
geographical location can influence language use and maintain social roles within a
community. In simple terms, sociolinguistics is interested in the social dimensions of
language.

Sociolinguists study linguistic features used by groups of people to examine how social
factors influence language choices.

William Labov (1927-present day), an American psychologist, is widely considered the

founder of sociolinguistics. Labov drew on linguistics, sociology, psychology, and
anthropology to apply a scientific approach to the study of language varieties.

Example of sociolinguistics
Let's look at an interesting example.

African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

AAVE is a variety of English spoken predominantly by black Americans. The variety has its
own unique linguistic structures, including grammar, syntax, and lexicon. In the case of
AAVE, there are variations in the language due to ethnicity, geographical location, and social
class. Because of the effect of these social factors on AAVE, it is considered an ethnolect, a
dialect, and a sociolect (don’t worry, we’ll cover these terms shortly!).

Historically, AAVE has been deemed a ‘low-prestige dialect’ and therefore accused of being
‘bad English’. However, many linguists argue that this is not the case, and that AAVE should
be considered a fully-fledged English variety in its own right. Others have taken this idea
further and argue that AAVE should be considered its own language, which they have called
Ebonics.

In more recent years, common words from AAVE have been making their way into the
‘mainstream’ thanks to social media, and you may even be using AAVE without realising it.
For example, the word ‘woke’ has grown in popularity since 2015. However, the term is not
new and was initially used by black Americans in the 1940s to mean ‘stay awake’ to racial
injustices.

Sociolinguists may be interested in how the use of AAVE has recently started creeping into
the lexicon of teenagers from all different geographical, racial, and class backgrounds. Have
you heard the terms ‘she money’ ‘I’m finna…’ ‘slay’ or ‘on fleek’? They all originate from
AAVE!

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Sociolinguistics analysis: factors affecting sociolinguistics
As we have said, sociolinguistics studies the social factors that influence how people use
language, including their grammar, accents, and lexical choices. The main social factors are:

Geographical location
Occupation
Gender
Our parents/carers
Age
Socioeconomic status - class and education level
Ethnicity

Let’s take a look at some of these factors in more detail.

Geographical location
Where you grew up can significantly impact how you speak. Linguists refer to these
variations in language as dialects. In the UK, dialects vary from region to region and often
have different pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary compared to Standard British
English. Some common UK dialects include Geordie (found in Newcastle), Scouse (found in
Liverpool), and Cockney (found in London).

Occupation
Your occupation can impact how you use language. For example, a computer programmer
would be far more likely to use tech jargon than a chef. Jargon is a kind of slang specific to a
workplace or small group and is often difficult for people outside the group to understand. An
example of tech jargon is the term ‘Unicorn’, which refers to a start-up company valued at
over $1$1 billion

Gender
This factor is a little more controversial than the others as there is a lot of conflicting research
around the differences between men and women’s use of language. Some researchers suggest
that differences in speech are due to genetics, whereas others think that women’s lower status
in society has had an impacted on their use of language.

Some studies have found that women tend to be more polite and expressive, and men tend to
be more direct. Other studies have shown that men swear more, and women are more likely
to use ‘caretaker speech’ (speech modified totalk to young children) as they are often the
primary caregivers.

Age
New words are added to the dictionary every year, and many words that were once common
fall out of use. This is because language is constantly changing. Think about your
grandparents or someone significantly older than you. Do you think they would understand if

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you told them that the email they received looked suss (suspicious/suspect)? What do you
think they would say if you said their outfit was cheugy?

Socioeconomic status
This typically refers to a person’s class. According to a recent survey, there are now seven
social classes in the UK: precariat (precarious proletariat), emergent service workers,
traditional working-class, new affluent workers, technical middle class, established middle
class, and elite. The language someone uses will likely differ significantly depending on their
socioeconomic status.
This can all be linked to the education they received, the people they choose to spend time
with (or can afford to spend time with), the job that they do, or how much money they have.

Ethnicity
Sociolinguists have long argued that there is a relationship between ethnicity and language
uses. The previous example of AAVE shows how ethnicity can affect language.

Elements of sociolinguistics
In this section, we are not discussing the social factors that sociolinguists study, but the
technical terms that feed into sociolinguistics.

Here are some key definitions of terms in sociolinguistics.

Language variation -
An umbrella term for all variations in a language. Language varieties are often referred to as
‘lects’, which are laid out below.

Language Variation Definitions

Language Variation refers to the differences in speech patterns, word choices, pronunciation,
and grammar that are observable among different groups of people. Language variation can
occur for a variety of reasons, including geographical location, social status, age, ethnicity,
and context of communication. Understanding these variations is crucial as it allows you to
appreciate the diversity present in language use across different communities.

Types of Language Variation

There are several types of language variation, each distinctive in its characteristics. A
comprehensive understanding will help you identify them in everyday communication:

Dialect:
These are variations in language based on geographical regions or social groups. For
example, the English spoken in the United States is different from that in the United
Kingdom.
Sociolect: This refers to the variations associated with a particular social class or group.

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Idiolect:
This is the unique language use typical of an individual person.

Register:
These are variations determined by the context or situation. Your language changes when
speaking in a formal setting compared to an informal one.

Importance of Understanding Language Variation

Understanding Language Variation is essential for effective communication. When you
comprehend the differences in dialects or registers, you can communicate more effectively
and with empathy. Here are some reasons why it's important:

It enhances cross-cultural understanding, making it easier to appreciate and respect different

cultures.
It helps in learning new languages by recognizing patterns in variations.
It aids in avoiding miscommunication and fostering better social

Language Variation in Linguistics

Language variation is a fascinating concept within linguistics that examines how language
differs based on several factors. These differences are seen in pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammar across regions, communities, and even individual speakers.

Factors Influencing Language Variation

Language variations are influenced by numerous factors that shape how language is used and
understood. These include:

Geographical Factors:
Where you live can affect how you speak. Different regions develop distinct dialects due to
geographical separation.

Social Factors: Social class, ethnicity, and community traditions can lead to variations in
speech. Your social environment greatly impacts language.

Functional Factors: The situation or context in which language is used can alter language
form. Formal settings tend to influence more standardized language use. For example, In a
classroom setting, a teacher might use more formal language compared to a conversation with
friends. This shift in language based on context illustrates functional language variation.

Significance of Studying Language Variation

Understanding the significance of language variation is crucial for effective communication
and cultural competence:

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Cross-Cultural Communication:
It helps in bridging gaps between different cultures and encouraging mutual respect and
understanding.

Language Learning:
Helps in recognizing and adapting to different language patterns, making language learning
easier.

Social Interaction:
Prevents miscommunication and fosters better interpersonal relationships by understanding
the social context of language use.

What Causes Language Variation

Language variation is a natural phenomenon influenced by several factors that contribute to
the diversity of language use among different groups. Recognizing these causes can enrich
your understanding of linguistic diversity

Geographical Influences
Geographical location plays a significant role in language variation. When people live in
different areas, they often develop unique dialects that include specific pronunciations,
vocabularies, and grammatical structures. For example, the English spoken in New England
contrasts with the Southern English dialect in the United States.

Consider how 'car' is pronounced in Boston compared to Houston. In Boston, it might sound
like 'cah', whereas in Houston, the 'r' is more pronounced.

Social and Cultural Factors

Social identity, cultural heritage, and community traditions influence language variation
significantly. Factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and social class can shape how
individuals and groups express themselves. Within any given language community, multiple
speech patterns coexist, reflecting the society’s complex social fabric.

Lects

Dialect - a language variety based on geographical location.

Sociolect
Do you believe that everyone who speaks English uses the language the same way? Or would
you agree that we all speak a little differently? You may already know that where we live can
significantly impact how we speak, but did you know that social factors can also affect our
language? The social groups we associate with can influence our pronunciation, word
choices, syntax, and slang. The resulting language variety is known as sociolect which are
varieties of language or dialects that are associated with particular social groups.

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Sociolect (Explanation)
Do you believe that everyone who speaks English uses the language the same way? Or would
you agree that we all speak a little differently? You may already know that where we live can
significantly impact how we speak, but did you know that social factors can also affect our
language? The social groups we associate with can influence our pronunciation, word
choices, syntax, and slang. The resulting language variety is known as sociolect which are
varieties of language or dialects that are associated with particular social groups.

This article will define the term sociolect and outline the different social factors that influence
sociolects. It will then introduce different types of sociolects and provide plenty of examples.
Finally, it will explain the difference between the terms ‘dialect’ and ‘sociolect’.

What is a sociolect: definition

In English language and linguistics, the term sociolect refers to a language variety used by
particular social groups. The term is a combination of the words social and dialect because
that’s precisely what a sociolect is: a social dialect!

What is the meaning of the term social dialect?

A social dialect is a variety of a specific language modified in terms of vocabulary, accent,

and grammar by the social groups using it. For example, Gen Z’ers will likely use a slightly
different vocabulary than the baby boomer generation (think of slang). Both age
demographics speak English, but that version of English differs.

Sociolects typically develop over time amongst people who share the same social
backgrounds or environments, such as a job or educational background. When we spend a lot
of time with people or groups of people, we may find that our language begins to change and
becomes more like the people around us; this is what we call accommodation.

Accommodation can happen for several reasons and usually takes place without the speaker
even realising they're doing it! One of the most common reasons we change our language to
match others around us is to build a sense of identity and belonging. Using the same word
choices, slang, and pronunciation as the people we spend time with can show the world
which social groups we belong to.

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Sociolect: types of social factors

Now we know a sociolect is a language variety affected by different social factors, let’s take
a look at those factors.

The main social factors influencing sociolects include socioeconomic status, age,
occupation, gender, and ethnicity.

Socioeconomic status

An individual’s socioeconomic status typically refers to their class. The language someone
uses will likely differ depending on their socioeconomic status. Why do you think that is? It
could be because of the level of education, the books and movies they have read/seen, the
type of job, and the places they live.

According to a recent survey conducted by the BBC, there are now seven social classes in the
UK:

 Precariat (precarious proletariat)

 Emergent service workers
 Traditional working-class
 New affluent workers
 Technical middle class
 Established middle class
 Elite

How do you think language use will differ across these seven classes? Do you think each
class has its own sociolect?

Age

It’s common for younger generations to use different words, especially slang, to their parents
or grandparents. Doing so can create a sense of individuality and freedom from the older
generations and a sense of belonging with other people their own age. As the younger
generation grows older, the new younger generation shows up and develops their slang and
sociolects.

Think about the language younger generations use today and someone significantly older.
What do you think they would say if you said their outfit was cheugy?

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Did you know the word cheugy was created by Gabby Rasson, an American software
developer, to describe things that were no longer deemed cool or fashionable? Cheugy was
Collins dictionary’s 2021 second word of the year.

Occupation

This factor refers to the jobs people do and the vocabulary, or jargon, they use because of that
job.
Jargon = words or phrases used within certain professions, which may be difficult to
understand by those outside that profession. For example, ‘garbage collection’ refers to an
automated memory management system in the computer programming world.
As people learn and develop skills for specific jobs, they pick up lots of new vocabulary. This
vocabulary might include technical terms, jargon, acronyms, or insider jokes.
For example, wedding photographers use the term ‘uncle Bob’ to describe the type of guest
who brings their own camera and gets in the way all the time! For those people who aren’t
wedding photographers, this term probably doesn’t mean much.

Gender

Many linguists have looked into how men and women use language differently. Some
suggest that language use differs because of genetic differences between the two sexes,
whereas others argue that societal expectations significantly impact language use. On the
other hand, some linguists state there is no difference between how women and men use
language.

Robin Lakoff, a linguist who focused on women’s language, found that women tended to be
more polite, use more hedging tactics (e.g. 'would you mind if…’) and were ‘hypercorrect’
with their grammar. However, this is just one study, and other linguists have questioned
Lakoff’s work.

Ethnicity

The term ethnicity is often confused with race, so let’s have a quick look at the definition of
ethnicity first.
Ethnicity = a person’s ethnicity is linked to the ethnic group they associate with. An ethnic
group is a group of people with a shared nationality, culture, race, or religion.
Ethnic groups may use similar language to create a sense of unity, to set themselves apart
from others, or because other languages have influenced their language use. For
example, Jamaican Patois, a vernacular form of English considered a sociolect, has been
directly influenced by several West-African languages.

Sociolects influenced by ethnicity are often referred to as ethnolects.

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Think about your own social background. Do you think it has influenced the way you speak?
Do you recognise yourself as belonging to a particular social group? If so, do you think your
speech helps you create a sense of unity and belonging within that group?
As previously mentioned, most people use several different sociolects throughout their lives.
Several sociolects can exist inside a person’s brain, and it is up to them to decide which
sociolect they wish to use depending on the social situation.

Sociolect: examples in English

As you can probably imagine, sociolects are constantly changing and growing, so there is no
definitive list of all the different types. Here are a few examples of the different types of
sociolects.

Sociolect examples

Sociolects Description Examples of use

Dialect spoken by "apples and pears" (stairs), "dog and bone"
Cockney
working-class Londoners (phone)
African American
Dialect spoken by many "yo" (hello), "finna" (going to), "lit"
Vernacular
African Americans (exciting)
English (AAVE)
Dialect associated with
young women from "like" (filler word), "totally" (completely),
Valley Girl
California's San Fernando "oh my god" (exclamation)
Valley
Language used by people "algorithm" (mathematical process), "cloud
Techspeak working in the tech computing" (data storage), "AI" (artificial
industry intelligence)
"hypothesis" (proposed explanation),
Formal language used in "empirical" (based on observation or
Academic English
academic settings experiment), "meta-analysis" (statistical
analysis of multiple studies)

These sociolects represent different ways of speaking that are associated with particular
social groups and contexts. Understanding and using these sociolects can be important for
effective communication and for navigating different social situations. Let's look in more
detail at various social factors and some further examples of their effect on English language
use.

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Socioeconomic status and sociolects

Basil Bernstein (1934 - 2000) was a sociolinguist who examined the relationship between
social classes and language use in an educational setting. He found that working-class
students spoke using restricted code, whereas middle-class students used elaborated code.

Typically, restricted code:

 has a smaller range of vocabulary,
 has more words linked to regional dialect,
 is more informal,
 is dependent on social context,
 has linguistic predictability (speech will follow similar patterns).

On the other hand, elaborated code:

 is more formal,
 is explicit in its meaning (more likely to be understood by all),
 is less dependent on context,
 has syntactic complexity,
 has a wider range of vocabulary.

It might be easy to assume that elaborated is ‘better’ than restricted code, but that would be a
mistake. Restricted code carries culture and can be an essential part of how people express
themselves and their identities.

Age and sociolects

A good example of how age can affect language is the use of slang. Penelope Eckert, an
American linguist, carried out research on the features of teenage speak, including slang, in
her 2003 study Language And Adolescent Peer Groups. She suggested that teenagers use
more slang words to help distinguish themselves from older generations.

What slang words are common amongst your generation today? Do you think older
generations know what they mean? Do you consider these slang words to be part of your
sociolect?
Eckert concluded that linguistic change (variation from the standard form) is most common
amongst teenagers - this means we have teenagers to thank for many new words that appear
in the dictionary each year. She also stated that it is important to remember that not all
teenagers speak the same and noted that variation is most prominent amongst the young. This
is probably because our speech tends to become more standardised as we get older.

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What’s the difference between a sociolect and a dialect?

Now we have a good understanding of what a sociolect is, let’s take a closer look at the
term dialect.

The most common definition of a dialect is a language variety used in a specific geographical
location. This means that the spoken language (e.g. English) has been changed in terms
of lexicon, grammar, and pronunciation by the people living in an area.
An example of an English dialect is Scouse - the regional dialect spoken in Liverpool.
Despite the fact regional dialects differ from the standard form of the language, they are
usually intelligible to all those who speak the original language. Although, saying that, a non-
native English speaker might struggle if a Liverpudlian asked them if they liked their ‘new
webs’ (webs = trainers).

We’ve established that the most common definition of a dialect is related to regional
differences, but it isn’t just geography that can influence dialects. Social factors, such as
class, ethnicity, and age, can also affect dialects. Sound familiar? That’s right; sociolects are
a type of dialect.

So, in summary, dialect is an umbrella term for all language varieties that have been
influenced by location, social factors, ethnicity, etc.

Ethnolect (Explanation)
Dialects, sociolects, ethnolects... What are they, and how do they differ? Today, we will
focus on ethnolect, a type of dialect that focuses on ethnicity.

Definition of Ethnolect

An ethnolect is a distinctive form of a language that is specific to certain ethnic groups.

Ethnolects are used by members of different ethnic groups to help establish personal and
ethnic identity, as well as reflect their position in society. They also help outsiders understand
the characteristics of certain ethnic groups and the different ways people can express
themselves through language.
The word 'ethnolect' is a portmanteau word (a blend of two words to create a new one) - it
combines the words 'ethnic' and 'dialect.'

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Race vs ethnicity

What is the difference between race and ethnicity? These are two terms that are often
confused with one another, but it is important to be aware of their differences:

Race - refers to the biological characteristics and physical traits of a group of people, such as
skin colour, eye colour, hair texture etc.

Ethnicity - focuses more on cultural identity and background, and the way a group of people
expresses themselves. This could refer to someone's race, nationality, religion, culture etc.

Migrant Ethnolects

Many ethnolects are created as a result of the immigration of people from other countries.
These ethnolects are often used amongst migrant families to communicate more effectively,
particularly amongst those who do not speak English as a first language. It is common within
today's society for the younger generations of migrant families to use ethnolects to better
communicate with the older generations.

Ethnolect Examples

Some examples of ethnolects are as follows:

 African American Vernacular English

 Chicano English (aka Hispanic Vernacular English)
 Jewish American English
 Greek Australian English

African American Vernacular English

One of the most well-known ethnolects is African American Vernacular English (AAVE),
also known as 'ebonics'. This is a language variety influenced by African languages, spoken
mostly by working or middle-class African Americans (and some Black Canadians).

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AAVE originated in the 17th and 18th centuries, during the British colonisation of the USA.
Over this period of time, the transatlantic slave trade was taking place, meaning many
Africans were shipped to the USA and forced into slavery. Many of the African captives
spoke different native languages, so needed a common language to communicate with each
other (and communicate with their captors too). While captive, they were introduced to a
range of different British dialects and were influenced by the language. As a result, this led to
a gradual language change and the development of AAVE.

Have you heard of any of the following phrases? They are examples of current AAVE
phrases:

 We been knew.
 Chile, anyways.
 I'm finna do it.
 I ain't never seen anything like it.

Although AAVE is a dialect, it is often wrongly mistaken for Gen Z slang. This leads to
younger generations possibly appropriating words rooted in AAVE. It is important to respect
the origin of ethnolects and be aware of appropriating a language that is rooted in history or
slavery.

Chicano English

Chicano English, also known as Hispanic Vernacular English, is a Mexican ethnolect

influenced by Spanish. It is spoken mostly by native Mexican Americans. Although Chicano
English speakers are often bilingual (speaking two languages), many are monolingual
(speaking one language). Chicano English was created as a result of mass Mexican
immigration into the USA in the 20th century.

Chicano English sometimes anglicises Spanish words, which means changing the form and/or
pronunciation of a Spanish word to make it more familiar to English speakers. For example,
the suffix 'ing' could be added to the end of a Spanish word to make it sound more English:

"My sister is bailanding."

Here, 'bailanding' has been anglicised from the Spanish word 'bailando', which means
'dancing.'

Chicano English is a fully formed English ethnolect and is not to be confused with Spanglish,
which is the blending of both Spanish and English words and grammar.

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Jewish American English

Jewish American English refers to the language variety spoken by Jews in America that is
often influenced by Yiddish and Hebrew. It first developed after the mass migration of
Yiddish-speaking Jews from Eastern Europe to the US. However, it is worth mentioning that
not all Jewish Americans are descended from Yiddish-speakers.

Greek Australian English

This is a Greek ethnolect spoken by Greek immigrants in Australia. It has been used for the
past 170 years. One prominent feature of Greek Australian English is the deletion of certain
words. For example:

"How they know?" instead of "How do they know?"

"I'll go shops" instead of "I'll go to the shops."

"Can I buy oranges" instead of "Can I buy some oranges."

Multiethnolect Example

A multiethnolect is a kind of ethnolect that is not restricted to a single ethnic group.

Multiethnolects are influenced by many different languages, and the speakers of these
multiethnolects often come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. There is more of a focus on
where people live and the neighbourhoods they grow up in, as opposed to their nationality (or
the nationalities of their parents).

In Europe - and especially larger European cities - there are many different ethnolects due to
a large amount of immigration and ethnic diversity. Let's take the German multiethnolects as
an example:

German multiethnolect

In Germany, there have been a variety of multiethnolects, all of which have slightly different
language influences. However, the one language that has had the most notable influence on
each German multiethnolect is Turkish. The multiethnolect that is primarily influenced by
Turkish is known as Türkendeutsch.

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Difference Between Ethnolect and Dialect

Although ethnolects and dialects can become confused with one another, there are differences
between them both. Let's begin by defining what a dialect is.

A dialect is a form of language that is spoken by a specific group of people. It may not be
understood by outsiders. An example of a dialect is Southern American.

Unlike an ethnolect, a dialect is not dependent on ethnicity alone. Instead, the specific groups
of people are connected through a range of social factors, such as region, gender, age,
ethnicity, job, etc. On the other hand, an ethnolect is a type of dialect that focuses solely on
ethnic groups.

Accents
They say so much about who we are and where we come from, but how much do you know
about them?
This article will explain what an accent is and explain why there are different accents. It will
then provide examples of different accents, including the wide variety found in the UK.
Finally, it will discuss the prejudices people face because of their accents.
Accent meaning
In linguistics and sociolinguistics, accent refers to the way people or specific groups of
people sound when they speak. Accents are usually defined and recognised by geographical
location.

For example, English speakers from the UK have a different accent from English speakers in
the USA. However, it doesn’t stop there. Within the UK, there are multiple accents, meaning
someone from the South of England will likely have a different accent than someone from the
North.

People in the southeast of Englandwill likely have a different accent than someone from the
North.

Accent (Explanation)
Accents – they say so much about who we are and where we come from, but how much do
you know about them?

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Accent meaning

In linguistics and sociolinguistics, accent refers to the way people or specific groups of
people sound when they speak. Accents are usually defined and recognised by geographical
location.

For example, English speakers from the UK have a different accent from English speakers in
the USA. However, it doesn’t stop there. Within the UK, there are multiple accents, meaning
someone from the South of England will likely have a different accent than someone from the
North.
People in the southeast of England often speak with the Received Pronunciation (RP) accent,
whereas people from Newcastle often speak with a Geordie accent.

Accents usually differ in terms of the pronunciation of words, vowels and consonants, and
prosodic features (the way speech sounds, including tone, pitch, and stress).
The RP accent pronounces the word down as /daʊn/, i.e. the middle vowel is an ‘ow’ sound.
The Geordie accent pronounces the word down as /duːn/, i.e. the central vowel makes a
longer ‘oo’ sound.

Accent explanation

Traditionally, accents developed amongst groups of language users who lived in relative
isolation from other communities. People within a community typically sound similar
because they pick up each other’s slight language changes and adopt each other’s speech
characteristics. These characteristics eventually define the accent.
Language changes will naturally develop over time in each individual.
We usually see the most prominent accent differences when there is a significant
environmental barrier between communities of people, such as a river or mountain range.
These would have stopped people from communicating and prevented a certain amount of
accent levelling.
Accent levelling = a form of standardisation where people lose their distinctive accents and
start to sound similar.

Accents were then further developed when people started moving around the world due to
trade, immigration, and colonisation. As people moved around, they brought their languages
and accents, which were adopted by locals and integrated into their language use. For
example, in the 1930s, many Scottish steelworkers were sent to Northampton to work. We
can still hear the influence of the Scottish accent in the Northampton accent today.

Accents reflect the sociocultural history of people or places. For example, the standard
Australian accent reflects the London accent as this is where many settlers were sent to
Australia from.

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How accents develop

We are not born with our accents. Instead, they develop based on social influences. As we
learn to speak, we naturally imitate the people around us, such as our caregivers, picking up
on their speech patterns, including pronunciation, stress, and intonation.

Children pick up accents far quicker than adults, just like how they pick up language much
faster. This is because children’s brains have more plasticity than adults and can learn and
adapt much quicker. This could explain why some parents have stated that their American
children have begun speaking in a British accent after watching episodes of Peppa Pig!

Scientists believe that after the ‘critical period’ (the time frame in which children can quickly
learn new things – usually around puberty), our accents become ‘cemented’ and less likely to
change. However, like everything to do with language, nothing is completely fixed. Accents
can continue to change slightly for the rest of our lives due to factors like moving country,
travelling, occupation, and who we spend our time with.

Accent examples

There are so many different languages in the world which all have their own dialects and
subsequently their own accents. For simplicity's sake, we'll be focusing on different English
accents. To begin, we'll look briefly at English accents across a range of different countries.

Different English accents

As you’re probably aware, English is a truly global language, and there are many different
English accents. Keep in mind that there are variations of accents within each country, and
there is no ‘standardised’ accent for any country. Let's first look at the general American
English accent compared to the general British English accent.

General American English accent vs general British accent

When you think of differences in English accents, you’ll likely think of the British accent
compared to the American accent.

The main difference between the two accents is the pronunciation of the letter R. The general
British accent is considered non-rhotic, meaning the /r/ sound at the end of words isn’t
pronounced.
The word water is pronounced with an ‘uh’ sound at the end rather than an 'er' sound.

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On the other hand, the general American accent is considered a rhotic accent, meaning the
/r/ sound is pronounced.

There is also a slight difference in the pronunciation of vowel sounds. For example, the
British accent uses the /ɒ/ (short ‘o’ sound) in words like shop and drop, whereas the
American accent uses the /ɑ/ sound, creating more of an ‘a’ sound.

As we mentioned, there is no one accent for a country. So, let’s look at some variations of the
accents within the UK.

Accents in the UK

There are many different accents in the UK despite it being so small! Many linguists suggest
this is the case because many communities were separated by ‘borders’, either natural or
political.

Here is a list about some of the accents in the UK and their different features.

Accent Phoneme Phone

RP (Received Pronunciation) /pɪn/ (pin) [pɪn]

Cockney /ɪn/ (in) [ɪn]

Yorkshire /ɪə/ (ear) [ɪə]
Northern Irish /tʃeɪnʤ/ (change) [tʃeɪnʤ]
Scottish /lɔːt/ (lot) [lɔːt]
Welsh /dʒɪn/ (chin) [dʒɪn]

Received Pronunciation (RP)

RP is often considered the ‘standard’ way British people speak, and people who deviate from
this are considered to speak with an ‘accent’. However, this isn’t the case, and it’s important
to remember that RP is an accent itself. We all speak with an accent that is unique to us!

Many people consider RP to be ‘posh’ as it’s associated with official settings, such as private
education and news reporting. RP is the accent you’re most likely to hear on TV and in films.

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Estuary English

This is the accent used by those who live near the Thames estuary (river) in London. It is
similar to RP but is considered less ‘posh’ and more the ‘everyday’ accent of Londoners and
people living in the South East of England. Many linguists believe Estuary English to be a
mix of RP and Cockney (a London-based accent associated with the working class).

Cornish

The Cornish accent is used in Cornwall and the Southwest of England. It’s often considered a
‘country’ accent despite the fact there are several large cities and towns in the area! One of
the most notable factors of the Cornish accent is that it’s a rhotic accent compared to most
other UK accents, which are non-rhotic. Rhotic accents pronounce the /r/ sound at the end of
words like water and tractor.

Scouse

This is the name given to the prominent accent used in Liverpool. The Liverpudlian accent is
quite nasal compared to other accents. Like other accents in the north of England, the /ʊ/
sound found in words like book and put is pronounced as /u:/ (longer oo sound). You can
hear examples of a Scouse accent by listening to The Beatles!

Geordie

features of the Geordie accent is the glottal stop ⟨ʔ⟩ and glottalisation of /p, t, k/. A glottal
This is the name of the accent (and dialect) used in Newcastle. One of the most prominent

stop happens when the throat closes, creating a pause in sound. For example, paper is
pronounced /peəpʔɐ/ and local as /loːkʔə/.

Scottish

As you may know, Scotland does have its own languages, but the most common language
spoken now is Scottish English. This section is about the accents of Scottish English. The
basics of the Scottish accent have been influenced by Gaelic (the first language used in
Scotland and predominantly used in the Highlands), Scots phonology (a language that
developed in the Lowlands with its unique pronunciation), and English lexicon (vocabulary
that travelled across the border).

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The main features of a Scottish accent include a slight trill (roll) of the /r/ sound and a glottal
stop on /t/ sounds.

Accents and identity

Accents can play a huge role in a person’s sense of identity, including their self-perception as
well as how others perceive them. Accents can reveal a lot about a person, such as their place
of birth, where they live, their socioeconomic status (class), and whether they’re a native or
non-native speaker of a language.

Some people are very proud of their accents and the sense of identity it gives them. In
contrast, others try to change their accents to conceal parts of their identity.

Accents and prejudice

Some accents are considered more ‘prestigious’ than others, and some are considered ‘low-
prestige’. This perception of different accents is usually linked to class, but ethnicity and race
can also play a role.

Received pronunciation (RP) is often considered the most prestigious accent as it is

associated with private education, news reporting, and the Queen. However, linguists state
that accents are just accents and don’t necessarily have anything to do with education level –
these are just the meanings and values society places on certain accents.

People with certain accents, such as non-native English speakers, often face prejudice and
discrimination because of their accents. They state that they are usually deemed less
intelligent, less educated, and as having poor language skills. In reality, someone who has
learned a second language isn’t unintelligent!

This prejudice can lead to harmful stereotyping, mass discrimination of whole groups of
people, and internalised discrimination (i.e. someone believing they’re not capable of
something or aren’t as intelligent as others because of their accent).

Non-native accents
Pronunciation and accent are often the most difficult parts of learning a new language. Most
people who learn a second language, especially in adult life, speak with an accent that differs
from the native speakers. This accent can usually be identifiable with the speaker’s native
tongue, e.g. a French person speaking English would be recognisable as French. Often non-
native English speakers face discrimination for their accent and will decide to work hard to
try and sound more like a native. On the other hand, others feel proud of their accent and
identity as a second language speaker.

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Many linguists, such as Andy Kirkpatrick 1 and Jennifer Jenkins2, state that accent isn’t an
essential part of learning a language, only intelligibility (the ability to be understood).

Facts about accents

There are so many accents in the UK (let alone in the English language!) that there are bound
to be a lot of fun facts about them.

 Accents can change over time due to factors such as language learning, exposure to
new linguistic influences, and physical changes to the speech apparatus.
 English is considered a lingua franca, which means it is a language that is used as a
common means of communication between individuals who do not share a native
language.
 There are over 100 different accents in the UK, each with their own distinct sounds,
vocabulary, and grammar.
 The London accent is the most recognized accent in the UK, known for its Cockney
rhyming slang and strong, clipped sounds.
 The accent from Liverpool is known for its elongated vowels and friendly, upbeat
tone, while the accent from Birmingham is known for its flat, nasal sound and fast
pace.
 The Scottish accent is known for its rolling 'r' sounds and unique words and phrases,
such as wee meaning small and aye meaning yes.
 The Welsh accent is known for its soft, musical sound and unique Welsh words, such
as bore da meaning good morning.
 The Northern Irish accent is known for its Irish lilt and usage of Hiberno-English
terms, such as what 'bout ye? meaning how are you?
 The accent from the West Country (South West England) is known for its rural,
earthy sound and use of traditional words and expressions, such as crikey meaning oh
my goodness.
 In recent years, many young people in the UK have adopted a neutral accent known
as Estuary English, which combines elements of various regional accents and is
often considered more professional and easier to understand.

Register - how we change the language we use depending on our circumstances eg. formal
vs. casual speech.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these terms.

Language variation

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Varieties of language can develop for various reasons, such as social background,
geographical location, age, class, etc. The English language is an exciting example as there
are so many different variations all around the world. Have you heard of the terms Singlish
(Singaporean English) or Chinglish (Chinese English)? These are all different varieties of
English that have arisen due to the global spread of English. In fact, there are so many
different varieties of English that the term ‘standard English’ has become quite a
controversial term among linguists.

Language variation can also be broken down into ‘lects’. These include dialect, sociolect,
idiolect, and ethnolect.

Dialect in sociolinguistics
Dialect refers to language varieties that are specific to particular geographical locations.
Think about how someone from the North of England sounds different to someone from the
South, or how someone from the West coast of the USA sounds different to someone from
the East coast. Although these people all speak the same language (English), the accent,
lexicon, and grammar they use can vary greatly. The variations help contribute to the
formation of dialects.

Sociolect in sociolinguistics
A sociolect is a language variety spoken by a particular social group or social class. The term
sociolect is a combination of the words social and dialect.

Sociolects typically develop among groups of people who share the same social environments
or backgrounds. Social factors that influence sociolects include socioeconomic status, age,
occupation, race, and gender.

Bob Marley’s hit song 'No woman, no cry ' is a good example of sociolect in action.
Although Marley was an English speaker, he often sang in Jamaican patois, a sociolect that
borrows from English and West African languages and is often associated with the rural
working class.

In patois, Marley’s song title roughly translates to ‘Woman, don’t cry’. However, it has long
been misunderstood by those unaware of the sociolect, to mean something like ‘if there’s no
woman, there’s no reason to cry’.

Individuals don’t just have one sociolect, and most people will use several different sociolects
throughout their lives. Our speech will likely change depending on who we talk to and where
we are.

Idiolect in sociolinguistics

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Idiolect refers to an individual’s personal use of language. The term is a combination of the
Greek idio (personal) and lect (as in dialect) and was coined by the linguist Bernard Bloch.

Idiolects are unique to the individual, and constantly change as individuals move through life.
Idiolects are dependent on social factors (just like sociolects), current environments,
education, friendship groups, hobbies and interests, and so much more. In fact, your idiolect
is directly influenced by almost every aspect of your life.
Imagine the following scenarios and consider how each situation might affect your idiolect.

You spend a year abroad working in Germany.

You binge-watch an entire American Netflix series.

You begin an internship at a law firm.

You become best friends with someone whose native language is Mandarin.

In these scenarios you may find yourself saying Danke instead of thanks, using more up-
speak (rising inflection), using some legal jargon, and cursing in Mandarin.
Much like sociolects, each individual uses different idiolects depending on their environment,
choosing which version of their language they deem most appropriate.

Ethnolect in sociolinguistics
An ethnolect is a variety of a language used by a specific ethnic group. The term ethnolect
comes from a combination of ethnic group and dialect. It is commonly used to describe the
variation of English that non-native English speaking immigrants use in the USA.

African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a good example of an ethnolect.

Accent
Accent refers to an individual’s pronunciation, which is usually associated with their
geographical location, ethnicity, or social class. Accents typically differ in pronunciation,
vowel and consonant sounds, word stress, and prosody (the stress and intonation patterns in a
language).

Our accents can tell people a lot about who we are and often play a significant role in our
identity formation. Many sociolinguists are interested in studying accent discrimination and
have found that non-native English speakers are often discriminated against for their ‘non-
standard’ accents (Beinhoff, 2013)¹.
Similar discrimination can also be found in the UK, with Northern accents receiving less
airtime on British TV than Southern accents.

Register

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Remember we said that most people use multiple sociolects and idiolects depending on where
they are and who they are talking to? Well, that is an individual's register.

Register is the way people adapt their language in accordance with what they deem most
appropriate for the situation they are in. Think about the way you speak when you are with
your friends compared to when you are at work. Register doesn’t just apply to the spoken
word but often changes when we write. The most common differences in written register are
formal versus informal writing. Think about how you would write an instant message
compared to an academic essay.

The work of sociolinguists

Sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in
finding patterns in speech, understanding why our speech differs, and identifying the social
functions of language.
Sociolinguists focus on the quantitative and qualitative analysis of language variations,
making it a scientific discipline.

Discourse Analysis
An important research method in sociolinguistics is discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is
the analysis of both written and spoken language (discourse) in its social context.
Sociolinguists use discourse analysis as a tool to understand language patterns.

Types of sociolinguistics
There are two main types of sociolinguistics: interactional and variationist sociolinguistics.

Interactional sociolinguistics
Interactional sociolinguistics studies how people use language in face-to-face interactions. It
has a specific focus on how people manage social identities and social activities as they
interact.

Variationist sociolinguistics
Variationist sociolinguistics is interested in how and why variations arise.

Language and identity in sociolinguistics

Studying sociolinguistics can reveal how our identity is bound to our use of language because
of gender, race, class, occupation, age, and where we live.

Sociolinguistics can help us understand ourselves as individuals or as members of larger

social groups. It can also highlight how language can be used as an identity marker and help
us feel a part of a larger community. Many theorists view our language, including our word
choice, accents, syntax, and even intonation, as inexorably linked to our sense of identity.

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Suggested further reading on language and identity: Omoniyi & White, The Sociolinguistics
of Identity, 2009.

Sociolinguistics - Key takeaways

Sociolinguistics is the study of the sociological aspects of language and is interested in
society’s effect on language.
William Labov (1927-present day), an American psychologist, is widely considered the
founder of sociolinguistics.
Social factors that can influence our language include: geographical location, gender, our
parents/carers, race, age, and socioeconomic status.
Sociolinguistics is interested in understanding language variation. Varieties within language
include dialects, sociolects, idiolects, ethnolects, accents, and registers.
Sociolinguistics is widely considered a scientific discipline and sociolinguists utilise
quantitative and
qualitative research methods to study language use.

Jargon
In your study of English Language, you've probably come across terms such as 'slang',
'dialect', and 'jargon'. The latter is what we're going to be exploring in this article. If you've
ever had a job, or even if you've belonged to a specific sports team or club, it's likely that
you've heard jargon being used before and may have even used it yourself. We'll look at some
examples of jargon a bit later on in the article, which might ring some bells, but let's cover
the definition of jargon first:

Jargon meaning
The word 'jargon' is a noun, meaning:

Jargons are specialised words or phrases used by a certain profession or group to refer to
things that happen in that profession or group. People outside of these professions are likely
to find these jargon expressions difficult to understand. Jargon often includes technical terms,
acronyms, or specialized vocabulary that is specific to a particular field, industry, or
community.

As a student, it's likely that you hear examples of jargon used all the time. Teachers use lots
of educational jargon. Some examples of this you might have heard include:

Peer assessment - marking a classmate's work

Point Evidence Explanation (or 'PEE') - a method for structuring essays effectively

Coursework - work done throughout the year to be assessed, instead of exams

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Critical thinking - approaching a topic analytically and with logical reasoning .

Difference between jargon and slang

Jargon can be seen as a type of 'professional slang' in some ways, and that is a fairly
important distinction to make between the two terms. Whereas slang refers to colloquial,
informal language that is more commonly used verbally than it is written, jargon is
commonly a professional language used in professional settings. Jargon is used equally in
written and verbal communication.

Examples of slang
Salty: when someone is acting bitter or agitated.

Dope: a way of saying something is cool or good.

Peng: when something is attractive or appealing.

Examples of jargon
Contempt of court (legal jargon): the offence of being disrespectful or defiant during a court
proceeding.

Myocardial infarction (medical jargon): a heart attack.

Accrual (accounting jargon): a strategy for recording revenue that has been earned but not yet
paid. Jargon synonym
Are there any other words you should look out for that have the same meaning as 'jargon'?
Let's see...

Jargon doesn't have any exact synonyms. However, there are some other terms that mean
similar things and could be used in place of the word 'jargon' in certain circumstances. Some
examples include:

Lingo: this is often used in place of the word 'slang', but if you added other words to it, such
as 'botanical lingo', 'engineering lingo', or 'business lingo', then you get phrases that
essentially mean jargon. It's worth noting that the term 'lingo' is quite colloquial, so it might
not be appropriate to use in all situations.

-Speak or -ese: similarly to 'lingo', these suffixes can be added to words to refer to the kind of
vocabulary used in different professions. For instance, 'medical speak' (medical jargon) or
'legalese' (legal jargon).

Argot: this is potentially one of the nearest synonyms for jargon and refers to the slang or
specialised language used by a particular group (usually related to social factors such as age
and class).

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Patter: this is a slang term that refers to jargon or the specific language used in certain
occupations.

Jargon examples
To consolidate our understanding of what jargon is even further, we'll now look at some
examples of jargon used in different professions.

Medical jargon
Comorbidity: when a person has two or more diseases or medical conditions present in the
body at one time.

Bench-to-bedside: when the results of laboratory research are used directly to come up with
new treatments for patients.

Arterial hypertension: high blood pressure.

Systolic: relating to the process of the heart muscles contracting to pump blood into arteries.

Legal jargon
Injunction: a specialised court order that commands a party to do something or refrain from
doing something.

Libel: a written and published false statement that damages a person or party's reputation.

Perjury: when someone intentionally gives a false testimony during a court proceeding after
swearing to tell the truth.

Mitigation: the process by which a party that has suffered a loss takes measures to minimise
the effect of the loss.

Horticultural jargon
Cotyledon: one of the first leaves to appear after a seed germinates and begins to grow.

Etiolation: the process of partially or fully depriving plants of sunlight during growth,
resulting in pale and weak plants.

Inflorescence: a cluster of flowers growing on one stem, encompassing the flower heads,
stalks, and other parts of the flowers.

Humus: the dark, rich organic matter found in soil as a result of plant and animal material
decaying.

Accounting jargon

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Reconciliation: the process of comparing transactions to supporting documentation to check
for and eliminate discrepancies.

Depreciation: the process by which an asset loses value over a period of time.

Capital allowances: any expenses that a company is able to claim back against its taxable
profit.

Prepayment: the settlement of a debt or loan repayment prior to the official due date.

The use of jargon in communication

As you've likely gathered by now, jargon is language that different professions use to refer to
things that exist within these professions. There are several purposes of jargon:

to name specialised concepts, objects, or situations

to facilitate communication within a workplace or industry

If we look more closely at the latter point, jargon is used by people within a specific
profession or group to make communication within the group easier and more efficient. How
so?

The use of jargon in communication relies upon the assumption that everyone within the
communicative exchange understands said jargon and what it refers to. By using jargon
terms, colleagues can make points clearer and more efficient, as there is no need to provide
extensive details about a particular situation. In other words, jargon usually negates the need
for very detailed descriptions.

History of the term 'jargon'

By this point in the article, you've probably built up a decent sense of what jargon is.
However, 'jargon' didn't always mean what it means to us today.

One of the first recorded uses of the word 'jargon' was in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury
Tales. This excerpt is from The Merchant's Tale, one of the stories in The Canterbury Tales:
He was al coltissh, ful of ragerye,
And ful of jargon as a flekked pye.
The slakke skyn aboute his nekke shaketh,

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Whil that he sang, so chaunteth he and craketh.

Geoffrey Chaucer, The Merchant's Tale, The Canterbury Tales (c. 1386)

In this passage, the character, January, serenades his new wife and compares himself to a bird
that is 'full of jargon', referring to the chattering sound birds make. This definition of jargon
stems from the Old French word, 'jargoun' meaning a twittering sound.

If we jump forward a few years to British colonial times, we can see that the word 'jargon'
was used to refer to creoles and pidgins, or the language enslaved people used to
communicate when they didn't share a common language (much like a lingua franca). 'Jargon'
began to take on negative connotations and was often used derogatorily (insultingly) to refer
to rudimentary, incoherent, or 'broken' language.

Modern use of the word 'jargon' has changed drastically in meaning, and we now know
jargon to be specialised language used by certain professions.

Benefits of using jargon

As with most features of the English language, there are benefits and disadvantages to using
jargon. In this section, we'll look at the benefits.

Clear definitions

One of the key advantages of using jargon is that jargon words were created to mean or refer
to very specific things. Sometimes, a jargon word can be used to describe a very complex
specialised concept or situation, and using jargon negates the need for this complicated
concept or situation to be explained in detail. In other words, when people understand the
jargon, communication becomes clearer and more efficient.

In accounting, instead of saying 'The client needs to initiate the gradual reduction of debt
relating to the initial cost of the assets.' which is very wordy and confusing, the account
could simply say 'The client must initiate amortisation.'

'Amortisation' is an example of accounting jargon that clarifies and simplifies what would
otherwise be a lengthy and complex explanation.

Common language

Jargon is important and beneficial in various workplaces because it facilitates professional

communication by creating common language. Through mutual understanding of field-

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specific jargon, everyone in that field will know what is being discussed, whereas people
outside the field might not. This means that colleagues can talk more freely and efficiently
about work-related concepts and issues, without 'muddying the waters' with non-specific or
irrelevant language.

Jargon can also show how much authority a person has regarding a certain matter, as the
more experienced a person is in a particular field, the more jargon they are likely to know and
use.

Shared identity and workplace culture

Because most people within a profession will understand that profession's jargon (at least to a
basic extent), there is more potential for a shared identity and stronger workplace culture. Just
as adolescents use slang to create a sense of community and identity, the same can be true in
professional environments with the use of jargon.

Suppose a group of horticulturalists are discussing the best ways to encourage more vigorous
fruiting on different plants. In that case, they might use jargon terms such as 'pinching off',
'forcing the rhubarb' and 'side shoots' in their descriptions. It's highly likely that all the
horticulturalists involved in the conversation will understand what is meant by these terms,
which means they are included in the exchange. Inclusion leads to feelings of community and
shared identity, which can create stronger professional relationships and, subsequently, better
workplace culture.

Disadvantages of using jargon

Let's now look at the disadvantages of using jargon:

It can be exclusive

Just as jargon can create opportunities for shared language and identity, it can also have the
opposite effect. If someone is new to a particular profession or is less experienced than
others, they might not know the meanings of all the jargon terms used by more experienced
colleagues. If the more experienced colleagues continually use jargon words that others don't
understand, this can lead to the less-experienced peers feeling excluded.

This is an issue for professional-client relationships too. For instance, if a doctor is speaking
to their patient using only complicated jargon, the patient might be left feeling confused and
discouraged as they have not been able to understand what is being said.

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Doctor: 'The tests show that you've recently suffered a mild myocardial infarction.'

Patient: 'Gee, thanks for the explanation, Doc. I have no idea what that means.'

(This is obviously an extreme example, and an exchange like this would be quite unlikely to
happen. However, we'll use it for the purpose of illustrating the point.)

It can be confusing for non-native language speakers

New and inexperienced people are not the only ones who might be at a disadvantage in the
workplace if a lot of jargon is used. Anyone who doesn't speak English as a first language
might find jargon terms difficult to understand, as they might be unfamiliar with them.

This can lead to people not being able to fully understand workplace conversations, which
can be frustrating and make it difficult to complete one's duties. Non-native English speakers
might require additional explanations for jargon terms, which can impede the efficiency of
workplace communication.

Overuse can lead to distrust

In certain industries, excessive jargon use can lead to feelings of distrust, especially where
clients or customers are concerned. If a client hears jargon terms being thrown around all the
time and are unable to fully understand what is being said, they might begin to feel distrust of
the company working for them. Jargon can make things unclear for people who don't
understand the terminology.

Suppose a person's financial advisor continually uses jargon terms such as 'depreciation',
'capital allowances', and 'accrual' without properly explaining these terms to their client. In
that case, the client might feel taken advantage of or as though the financial advisor does not
respect them. The client might think that the financial advisor is trying to hide something by
not explaining terms clearly.

Slang (Explanation)
Do you ever use words with your friends that your parents don't know the meaning of? Or do
you use words that someone in another country (or even city) wouldn't understand? This is
where our good friend slang comes into play. Chances are, everyone uses some type of slang
when they talk to different people; it has become a part of the way we socialise with others.
But what actually is slang, and why do we use it?

In this article, we will explore the meaning of slang and look at some examples. We will also
consider the reasons for people using slang and the effects it can have in different situations.

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Slang meaning in English language

Slang is a type of informal language comprised of words and phrases that are generally used
within specific social groups, regions and contexts. It is used more frequently
in spoken conversation and online communication than in formal writing.

Why do people use slang language?

Slang can be used for a variety of reasons:

To communicate more efficiently

Slang words/phrases take less time to say or write out, so it is a quicker way to communicate
what you want to say.

To fit into certain social groups

Within a group of friends, slang can be used to create a sense of belonging and closeness.
You can all use similar words/phrases to relate to one another and express yourselves, and
you are all familiar with the language you use together.

To create your own identity

Slang can be used to reflect who you are and which social groups you belong to. It can help
to distinguish yourself from others. The slang you use to communicate and express yourself
can be understood by people you associate with but won't always be understood by outsiders.

To gain independence

In particular, slang can be used by teens and young adults to separate themselves from their
parents and create more freedom in how they communicate. It is a good way to show the
differences between generations. For example, your parents may not understand the slang you
use with friends and vice versa. It's like each generation has a secret language that
distinguishes them from others!

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To show belonging to or an understanding of a certain region or country

Depending on where you are from, different slang words are used that are often only
understood by the people in those particular areas.

Examples of slang and colloquial language

Now, let's take a look at different types of slang and some examples of them.

Internet slang

A common type of slang in today's society is internet slang. This refers to words or phrases
that have been made popular or have been created by people who use the internet.

It is worth noting that because internet slang is so popular, it is sometimes used in daily life
outside of online communication.

Who uses internet slang the most?

Compared to older generations who didn't grow up with the internet, younger generations are
more likely to use social media and the internet to communicate, and they are more familiar
with internet slang as a result.

Examples of internet slang

Some examples of internet slang include letter homophones, abbreviations, initialisms,

and onomatopoeic spellings.

Letter Homophones

This refers to when a letter is used in the place of a word that is pronounced in the same way.
For example:

Slan
Meaning
g

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C See
U You
R Are
B Be
Y Why

Abbreviations

This refers to when a word is shortened. For example:

Slang Meaning
Abt About
Rly Really
Ppl People
Min Minute
Probs Probably
Appro
Approximately
x

Initialisms

An abbreviation that is made from the first letters of several words which are pronounced
separately. For example:

Slang Meaning
LOL Laugh out loud
OMG Oh my God
LMAO Laughing my ass off
IKR I know right
BRB Be right back
BTW By the way
TBH To be honest
FYI For your information

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Fun fact: 'LOL' has been used so much that it is now recognised as its own word in the
Oxford English Dictionary!

Onomatopoeia

This refers to words that are used to mimic sounds. For example:

Slang Meaning
Haha Used to replicate laughter
Oops/whoops Used when a mistake is made or to express an apology
Ugh Often used to show annoyance
Eww Often used to show disgust
Shh/shush Used to tell someone to be quiet

Fun fact: The way to write 'haha' in Korean is ㅋㅋㅋ (pronounced like 'kekeke')
Do you know of any other ways to write or say 'haha'?

As we have explored internet slang, we will now take at some newer slang words created and
commonly used by the younger generation.

Gen Z slang words

Gen Z refers to the generation of people born from 1997 to 2012. Gen Z slang is used mostly
by young adults and teenagers, both on the internet and in real life. It is a way to create an
identity and sense of belonging between people in the same generation, as they can relate to
one another. At the same time, it gives a sense of independence from the older generations,
who are seen as outsiders as they are not familiar with the slang of younger generations.

Examples of Gen Z slang

Have you heard of any of the examples listed below?

Word/
Meaning Example sentence
phrase
Lit Really good/exciting 'This party is lit'

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 An excessive/obsessive fan of a
Stan 'I love her, I'm such a stan'
celebrity
Slaps Cool 'This song slaps'
Extra Overly dramatic 'You're so extra'
Sus Suspicious 'That looks a bit sus'
On fleek Look very good 'Your eyebrows are on fleek'
Spill the tea Share the gossip 'Go on, spill the tea'
'Getting out of bed at 1 pm?
Mood Relatable
Mood'

It is also important to be aware of AAVE, a dialect that is not gen z slang but could be
wrongly mistaken for it. AAVE stands for African American Vernacular English; it is an
English dialect influenced by African languages and is widely used in Black communities in
the US and Canada. It is an important part of African American culture, but it is often
appropriated by non-Black people. Have you heard of phrases such as 'Chile, anyways' or 'we
been knew'? These have roots in AAVE but are widely used by non-Black people on the
internet.

What are your thoughts on non-Black people using AAVE on the internet? Do you think it's
important we understand the roots and history of a dialect to avoid appropriation?

Regional English slang words

Slang can be region and language-based, meaning that people from different regions in the
same country and people from different countries altogether use different slang words.

We will now compare English slang used in different regions by looking at some examples
and their meanings. Although England is small, there are many different dialects, resulting in
the creation of new words in each region!

Word: Meaning: Example sentence: Commonly used in:

Boss Great 'That's boss, that' Liverpool
Lad A man 'He’s a handsome lad' Northern England
'Don’t be such a
Dinlo/Din A foolish person Portsmouth
dinlo'
Bruv/Blud Brother or friend 'You alright bruv?' London
Mardy/Mardy bum Grumpy/whiny 'I'm feeling mardy' Yorkshire/Midlands
Geek To look at 'Take a geek at this' Cornwall

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Canny Nice/pleasant 'This place is canny' Newcastle

Which of the above words are the most interesting or unusual to you?

References
B. Beinhoff, Perceiving Identity through Accent: Attitudes towards Non-Native Speakers and
their Accents in English. 2013

THE SCOPE OF
SOCIOLINGUISTICS

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