1

L05 --- Metrology: Optical + SPM

Technische Universität München
School of Computation, Information and Technology
Professorship of Chip-Based Magnetic Sensor Technology

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Markus Becherer

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L01 Kick-off + ERD roadmap

Nanofabrication Nanometrology/Patterning Applications Magnetic devices

L02 Conversion + PVD
L03 CVD + others
L04 Nanometrology I - Electrical
L05 Nanometrology II - Optical and SPM
L06 Nanometrology III - Beams of Electrons/Ions
L07 Patterning - Lithography
L08 Metallic Nanowires I
L09 Metallic Nanowires II
L10 Quantum LEDs with Si NP

L11 Introduction (nano)magnetism

L12 Magnetization dynamics
o Optical Microscopes and Ellipsometry
L13 Spin-wave devices
o SPM → Profilometry and STM L14 Nanomagnetic Logic
o SPM → AFM and MFM L15 Nanomagnetic Devices 2.0

The classification is kind of arbitrary, divided into optical measurements and scanning
probe microscopy. Optical microscopy is resolution-limited, but still very powerful, and
scanning probe techniques are really a subject of nanometrology and can resolve feature
sizes down to atomic scales.
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Optical Microscopes

Let’s start with well-known (nano)metrology: optical microscopes.

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The standard optical microscope

Shortcomings:
Optical-Wavelength approx. l= 400 nm → diffraction limited
Limited depth of focus at high resolution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscope
4

I would definitely say that optical microscopes are the workhorse in qualifying sample
fabrication and patterning. We make patterns visible, see structures and defects, and
can even measure many more things with integrated lasers, automated stages, specialized
sensors, and cameras. The biggest limitation of optical microscopes is the diffraction limit
of visible light. Nanostructures are normally invisible, but imaging contact pads or the
outcome of deposition or etching in a contactless, non-detrimental fashion compensates
for that drawback.
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Confocal microscope

Lower res imaging in 3D

Z-slices confocal microscopy

Z-slicing, by moving the sample in

fine steps in the vertical direction.
https://i.stack.imgur.com/jWIbC.jpg Reconstruct 3D image.
Final image 5

Compared to the standard optical microscope, confocal microscopes can open up another
dimension in imaging. They can do 3D images and overcome the small depth-of-focus at
high resolution in optical microscopy by adding confocal pinholes and laser illumination.
Basically, the image plane is recorded – one slice of the image. By doing many images
with z-movement of the sample, software can reconstruct a 3D image. You might ask
what the resolution of the z-movement of the sample is. With piezo drives, a one-digit
nanometer resolution is a piece of cake.
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Microscope in TUM ZEITlab

High magnification High depth of focus

Source: Keyence VK-X250 Manual

Little contrast High resolution

In ZEITlab at TUM, we operate a Keyence confocal laser microscope. Two measurement

examples are taken from the manufacturer’s website. A high magnification image of a
dicing edge and a compact disc (CD) in normal and confocal operation of the microscope.
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Keyence microscope @ ZEITlab

Source: M. Stelzer HES-group @ TUM

7

This image was taken to measure the mesa-structure of the top contact of a Schottky
diode. By knowing the z-axis movement of the sample, one can reconstruct the 3D
topography and even measure lateral and vertical distances with high precision.
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Ellipsometry to measure thin film dielectrics and more

Snell‘s law Fresnel coefficients (reflected)

Reflected p:
reflected

refracted
Reflected s:

https://www.jawoollam.com/resources/ellipsometry-tutorial, Download 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsometry Download 2023. 8

Very powerful techniques for thin film measurements are based on constructive and de-
structive interference at interfaces. This can be done with monochromatic light sources
or using the full spectral information with white light. This lecture will briefly discuss
ellipsometry, which uses linearly polarized light that gets rotated and becomes elliptical
at thin films of thickness d. Snell’s law can justify the physical principle, according to
which light is reflected and retracted at the interface of materials with different optical
refractive indexes. By performing the analysis into s-(senkrecht) or p-(parallel) polarized
light with respect to the plane of incidence, Fresnel coefficients can be calculated. From
this, the main equation for ellipsometry, which includes the phase shift (difference) ∆
between s- and p-polarization and the amplitude ratio upon reflection Ψ between s- and
p-polarization, is expressed and measured by the tools in so-called polarizer/analyzer
geometry. (Note that the right side of the equation is simply another way to represent
a complex number.) Since ellipsometry measures the ratio (or difference) of two values
(rather than the absolute value of either), it is very robust, accurate, and reproducible.
For instance, it is relatively insensitive to scattering and fluctuations and requires no
standard sample or reference beam. To make use of lock-in-amplifiers, often the analyzer
is physically rotated in the so-called rotating-analyzer-ellipsometer, but rotating polar-
izer (RPE), rotating compensator (RCE), and phase modulation (PME) do also exist.
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1. Measure , 2. Provide model, and 3. Fit the data

rtot

https://www.jawoollam.com/resources/ellipsometry-tutorial, Download 2023.

9

Optical constants (more general material properties) have to be known to determine the
thickness of transparent films. The tool manufacturer provides a database you can use.
But there are also techniques to determine material properties with the same instrument.
Those things are beyond the scope of this lecture. A flow chart for thin film ellipsometry
is given on this slide. First, you typically perform a measurement and then feed the
data into a model (thin film material, number of layers, type of substrate, etc.). The
provided software fits the measurement data to the generated data of the model, often in
a feedback loop. After reasonable fitting, you get refractive index n, extinction coefficient
k, or layer thickness, whatever you have been looking for.
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Example, thin SiO2 layer on Si

The phase information from Δ is susceptible to films down to sub-monolayer thickness. The figure below compares reflected
intensity and ellipsometry for the same series of thin SiO2 layers on Si. There are significant variations in Δ, while the
reflectance for each film is nearly the same.

https://www.jawoollam.com/resources/ellipsometry-tutorial, Download 2023.

10

Exemplary data for the fitting procedure in a spectral ellipsometer. Reflected Intensity is
plotted versus wavelength. Here 1 nm and 2 nm thick SiO2 layer are compared. Almost
no difference in the intensity measurement, but ∆ significantly varies. Such optical
techniques are very accurate, convenient in thickness measurements, and non-destructive.
They have wide applications. But for lateral resolution, optics is limited by the diffraction
limit.
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But sometimes, resolution is still insufficient

11

This is a picture series from our labs. Left: a chip carrier with an electronic pulsing circuit
and a bonded 1 cm × 1 cm chip with magnetic nanodevices (left). The nanostructures
are hardly visible in two zoomed images with optical microscopy with the highest optical
resolution (middle). Only an SEM image is fully resolving the nanomagnetic memory
cells (right).
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What other techniques do exist?

(Biased) view from an ancient SPM manufacturer ☺ : TopoMetrix 12

A summary of nanoscale imaging techniques, biased by a Scanning Probe Microscopy

(SPM) manufacturer. Confocal microscopy can do 3D images but is limited to spatial
magnification of around 10.000. The numbers for ion beam and Scanning Electron Mi-
croscopy (SEM) are not up-to-date, as SEM might resolve structures down to the atomic
level. SPM is made for atomic resolution and is worth looking at in detail.
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Scanning probe microscopy

→ Stylus profilometry

→ Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)

13

Now, let’s move on to scanning probe techniques.

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The basic elements of stylus profilometry

Source: https://australiasurfacemetrologylab.org/
14

Stylus profilometry is probably the oldest scanning probe technique. The stylus shaft of
a profilometer is typically about 20 mm in length. The stylus tip in contact with the
surface is typically a 60º diamond cone with an end radius of 25 µm. Various sensors may
be used to detect the vertical movement of the stylus, including linear variable differential
transformers, three-plate capacitive sensors, and optical levers. The diagram below shows
an optical lever configuration similar to the one used in atomic force microscopy. In
operation, as the translation stage drags the sample under the stylus tip, the stylus arm
rotates about the pivot so that the tip stays in contact with the surface, and as the stylus
rotates, the laser light reflecting off of a mirror above the pivot tracks this motion across
a position sensitive photodetector. The amplified photodetector signal is digitized by a
computer for a graphical representation of the surface profile and data processing.
The magnetic force solenoid on the opposite side of the pivot has a cylindrical recess to
allow free space for a small permanent magnet attached to the end of the stylus shaft.
The magnetic field inside the solenoid applies a counter torque to the stylus rotation
via the small magnet. The current through the solenoid is varied to raise and lower the
stylus tip and to adjust the contact force between the tip and the sample surface while
the sample is scanned.
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Scanning probe microscopy

There are really many!

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy
15

An immense list of different measurement modes is available; the most widely known are
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM). Those two
differ greatly in the measurement principle; we will look at both in more detail. We start
with STM, which was invented and developed earlier than the other SPM techniques.
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The STM
principle

F. Trixler, LMU
16

Dr. Frank Trixler is a researcher at LMU and Deutsches Museum, and when asking for
some images for STM, where he is an expert, he immediately provided me with some
drawings and graphs. The heart of an STM is a piezo-scanner with x, y, and z movements.
At one side of the scanner, an ultra-sharp metallic tip (it has to be conductive), in the
best case atomically sharp, is moving over a flat sample. The tip-sample distance has
to be controlled in a fast and robust way. We will see it is accomplished by keeping
a tunneling current between the tip and sample constant. For that, a control loop is
running and adjusting the z-height of the tip so that the tip is not crashing into the
surface. Basically, the STM is a sophisticated control loop navigating a sharp tip at a
constant distance over a surface.
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Quantum tunneling for z-control

Quantum tunneling effect. Illustrated
is the exponential damping.
Of a wave function within a one-
dimensional potential barrier, with Φ
as the tunneling barrier height (in the
case of STM, this barrier height is the
effective local work function: the
energy required to remove an
electron from the sample electrode to
bring it to the vacuum level V0), EF as
the Fermi levels of the metal
electrodes and s as the barrier width
(extending from x = 0 to x = s).

F. Trixler, Current Organic Chemistry, 2013, Vol. 17, No. 17 17

The interface sample-distance-STM tip is given in a cross-sectional view here. The tun-
neling effect can be explained by the exponential damping of a wave function within a
1D-potential barrier. Playing with the externally applied potentials (moving the Fermi
energies EF up or down), tunneling current between sample and tip can be controlled.
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The STM by Binnig and Rohrer

https://goo.gl/images/b4cC3s 18

This image by Binnig and Rohrer, who got the Nobel Prize for the invention of the STM,
shows the working principle. The tunneling current exponentially depends on the gap
width d = distance between sample and tip.
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19

The real experimental setup of the first STM is somewhat complicated. Metal springs
provide electrical contacts and decouple the system from acoustic and mechanical noise.
Larger levers and piezos perform the 2D scanning, but I am still looking for the z-axis.
This piezo is probably vertically mounted at the side of the round metal plate, where
x-y-z levers form a 3D crossing (white material). The tip is most likely off the center of
the metallic plate that is electrically connected by the large metal clamp. Maybe you
want to have a look at the original publication. https://journals.aps.org/prl/pdf/
10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.57
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F. Trixler: Graphene @ ambient cond.

A pocket size STM

F. Trixler: Molecular wire from Quinacridone with H---H bonds

DFT simulation

F. Trixler running Advanced Pocket Size STM @ Deutsches Museum

A novel pocket-size STM is tidied up. The pyramided structure decouples the scanner
on top from vibrations (multiple spring-mass systems). Exemplary measurements are
shown: Graphene (2D carbon) and a molecular wire. The result is impressive, but a
lot of tricks and knowledge — and even more time is needed to get such high-resolution
images.
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That you can get --- if the sample is conductive.

STM topography revealing
atomically resolved graphene
lattice.

The blue and green spheres

indicate two carbon atoms of the
unit cell labeled A and B.

Tunneling parameters are I=10 pA

and U=50mV.

http://www.nanoscience.de/HTML/research/graphene.html 21

It is worth looking at the STM topography image of a 2D graphene sheet again. Height
information is coded in color (0 pm to 50 pm) and lateral dimensions match perfectly to
the atomic distance of carbon atoms in the perfect hexagonal grid (1.4 Å). Note that the
conditions for scanning were a fixed tunneling current and applied voltage. The height
of the tip was adjusted during the scan to keep the current constant. What do I mean
by the headline? The STM principle only works for metallic or conductive structures. If
one cannot run a tunneling current, then we cannot control the sample-tip distance. For
such cases, AFM techniques are available.
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Getting 100X smaller than compact disc features by STM

F. Trixler: Tracks of a CD recorded with AFM F. Trixler: PTCDA-molecules, scratched by STM
10 µm x 10 µm scan range 100 nm x 100 nm scan range

F. Trixler, LMU 22

These images are an homage to R. Feynman’s ‘Plenty of room at the bottom’ . A compact
disc, you all know. The length of the recorded tracks is in the 1-digit µm-range. Now,
can we zoom in by a factor of 100? Yes, F. Trixler did, and ‘scratched’ with the STM
PTCDA-molecules. The result is similar to the CD tracks. Unfortunately, read-out is as
time-consuming as writing, and therefore this method is unsuitable for mass-fabrication.
If it were, one could improve bit density by a factor of 100 × 100 = 10.000.
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Zooming by STM into nanoscale

The animation was created with a row of STM
scans. By gradually decreasing the scan
range, a zooming effect can be generated.
The scale reaches from about 500 nm
(0.5 µm) image width in the first picture to
2,5 nm (25 Å) image width in the
last picture.

At first you can see a zooming into a

monolayer of PTCDA - an organic molecule
which was made to adsorb on graphite. Black
areas are holes in the 2-dimensional
film of PTCDA , whose pattern first becomes
visible in picture 11. After a stop of
zooming at picture 17, the distance between
STM- tip and sample is decreased for
piercing the organic film. At picture 19 the
graphite starts to become visible. The
decreasing of tip/sample distance is stopped,
and scan range decreasing resumes for
zooming into the hexagonal pattern of graphite
(pictures 20 - 25).

F. Trixler, LMU 23

This is a video providing consecutive frames that zoom on a surface with STM starting
from 0.5 µm field of view down to 2.5 nm, unfortunately only visible in the lecture.
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Scanning probe microscopy

→ Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

→ Magnetic force microscopy (AFM)

24

Let’s address the last topic of this lecture: AFM.

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Atomic Force Microscopy (Non-contact mode)

1 2

TopoMetrix Technical Briefs, SPM - Overview 25

By contrast with STM, AFM does not measure a tunneling current, but ‘forces’ between
a tip and a sample surface. For that, an optical ‘amplifier’ is used — or call it cantilever
combined with ‘optical lever’ . The right image shows the principle. A cantilever with a
sharp tip is mounted on a Z-piezo. A laser is directed to the reflective back of the lever
and mirrored towards a differential (or 4-quadrant) photodetector (PD). As soon as the
cantilever is bent, PD 1 detects more/less and PD 2 less/more light. This differential
signal is amplified, and the z-piezo moves such that no bending should occur. The
movement of the piezo is recorded and plotted as the topography of the scan. To increase
sensitivity/stability, often the cantilever is oscillated close to its resonance frequency (by
a piezo mounted on the cantilever holder), and as we learned already, lock-in techniques
can suppress noise significantly, and a phase or frequency measurement is much more
robust than small DC signals. Figure 2 on the right side shows more details on the
resonance frequency, where we excite the cantilever (or at least close to it). Controlling
phase or frequency in a PLL is much easier than maintaining an amplitude. Hence, we
gain resolution in our measurement setup.
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Tip-sample interaction

Depending on tip-sample separation

during scanning, three modes of an

atomic force microscope are available:

1) contact,

2) non-contact,

3) semicontact*

*Which is intermediate between contact

and non-contact.

http://www.ntmdt-si.com/spm-basics/view/probe-sample-interaction-potential
26

Depending on tip-sample separation during scanning, three modes of an atomic force

microscope are available: 1) contact, 2) non-contact, and 3) ‘semicontact’ , which is
intermediate between contact and non-contact.
In the contact mode, the probe tip directly touches the sample surface during scanning.
In the non-contact mode, the probe is far enough and does not touch the surface. In the
semicontact mode, intermittent contact occurs. The last two AFM modes are needed to
implement modulation (or vibration) techniques.
Each mode is used to solve particular problems, some investigations being conducted
using various techniques in different modes. This gives us a broad scope of opportunities
and allows us to operate a microscope in the most appropriate and effective mode under
experimental conditions.
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(Ultimate) AFM resolution

10 nm

€ 50-100 / tip

https://www.nanoandmore.com/
27

Measuring with AFM is constantly overcoming obstacles. Even though height informa-
tion is very accurate, lateral resolution is limited by the convolution of the tip geometry
with features on the sample. There is continuous wear on the tip, and even though one
has spent e100 for a high-resolution tip, it will degrade to a blunt or even broken object
after a while.
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ZEITlab AFM

Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)

1) Use magnetically coated tip

2) Scan topography
3) Scan with constant height in
lift-mode

→ Van-der-Waals forces dominate topography scan, magnetic/electric forces dominate lift-scan 28

In our research, we are operating a state-of-the-art AFM instrument. Often, we are

interested in magnetic forces; hence, we use a magnetically coated tip and do two scans
for one line: a topography scan first, followed by a ‘lift-scan’ , where we get in constant
height to the sample and record magnetic and electrical forces. We even constructed an
electromagnet to apply vectorial fields to our samples. In the images, you see the 3D
scanning head, a camera for tip adjustment, and the 3D magnet with a sample below
the scanner. By the way, the scanner was once broken without knowing why — e50.000
quit for replacement. Since then, we have treated the scanner like raw eggs, even though
the manufacturer claimed that a scanner is a ‘consumable’ .
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Park Systems Webinar --- 20.05.2020 29

Wednesday this week (meaning 18-05-2020), my colleague joined a webinar of Park Sys-
tems and reported on this slide. It seems that our design from 2011 was pretty unique
but never copied. It’s a pity but lovely that it is still discussed ten years later.
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Magnetic force microscopy - surfing the magnetic stray fields!

(a) Operation of a MFM in Tapping™-mode. (b) Amplitude versus Phase detection.

(c) Natural domains of a 10 ML Co/Pt sample in remanence mode.
30

Another summary of magnetic force microscopy, showing an example of magnetic north

and south poles in a remanent state in c. Two scans are needed: The first scan at around
10 nm distance in Tapping mode to record the sample’s topography, the second scan at a
typical lift-height of 50 nm mainly being sensitive to magnetic stray fields. The magnetic
stray fields that attract or repel the magnetic tip will affect both amplitude and phase
depending on their polarity.
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Magnetic force microscopy – making poles visible

35 mT 40 mT

→ Magnetic poles (north/south) appear in the phase image in bright / dark colors 31

This is a typical result of magnetic force microscopy, topography image (left), and mag-
netic force gradient (right). We will come back to this image in later magnetic lectures,
but here, I want to highlight that one can measure the magnetic poles of nanostructures
with high resolution. The lateral scale is a 9 µm × 9 µm field-of-view for all three images.
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Artifacts in SPM: the tip

Traces are followed by a dull and a sharp probe as they go
over a protruding feature.
In such a measurement, the side of the tip will cause a
broadening of objects in the image.

A double tip will cause a shadow or double image along

the scanning direction.

Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 242: Atomic Force Microscopy: Biomedical Methods and Applications,
Edited by: P. C. Braga and D. Ricci 32

Let’s finish the lecture with typical artifacts in measurements. We see artifacts as we
deal with sharp but also brittle and delicate tips. First, the smaller the tip apex, the
less broadened the image becomes. Second, having by accident two tips, the image gets
like a ghost image shifted by the two tip distance. Sometimes, one is picking up dirt or
particles, also leading to unforeseen artifacts.
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Artifacts in SPM: the tip

Because of the width of the tip, the hole will not

be correctly reproduced.

A badly damaged tip creates artifacts while

scanning a regular test pattern.

Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 242: Atomic Force Microscopy: Biomedical Methods and Applications,
Edited by: P. C. Braga and D. Ricci 33

Square cross-sections of trenches can also be distorted because the tip apex is not tiny
enough to enter the trench and reproduce the proper shape. Even worse, a somewhat
broken tip gives a weird pattern of the regular test structure. Hence, watch out for
artifacts, have known test patterns at hand, and carefully set the scan parameters to
extend the lifetime of your tip.
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Stray-field distribution data of VEECOs MESP™

Artifacts in MFM standard MFM tips measured with Lorentz electron
microscopy.

34

The last artifact for discussion is related to magnetic force microscopy. As seen, the
MFM tips have a magnetic dipole at the very front, i.e., a magnetic coating of the side
of the tips generates magnetic stray fields that interact with the sample’s stray fields.
This slide shows the magnetic stray field generated by commercially available MFM tips
measured by Lorentz electron microscopy (a costly and complicated version of SEMs).
As seen in the next slide, the standard tip already has more than 35 mT induction field,
enough to perturb magnetization patterns on our research films.
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Artifacts in MFM

(a, b) Sketch of magnetic pole (a’,b’) The reversal of single domain dots due to strong tip-
configurations after a first and sample interaction, after the first scan recorded by MFM.
second scan with MFM. The scan direction is indicated by the arrows.

35

In this experiment, we scanned magnetic dipoles of square shape twice. The left images
a and b are just for clarification, what we see in the – noisy – measurements. Real
measurements are depicted on graphs a’ and b’on the right. During the first MFM
scan, we suddenly see magnetic domains switching as the contrast changes during the
line scan. During the second scan, b’, the magnetization reversal was detected, and
the perturbations became visible. Be aware that MFM tips can significantly change
magnetization, which is not only valid for magnetic measurements. Scanning probe
methods often introduce perturbations, sometimes irreversible ones.
 36

L01 Kick-off + ERD roadmap

Nanofabrication Nanometrology/Patterning Applications Magnetic devices

L02 Conversion + PVD
L03 CVD + others
L04 Nanometrology I - Electrical
L05 Nanometrology II - Optical and SPM
L06 Nanometrology III - Beams of Electrons/Ions
L07 Patterning - Lithography
L08 Metallic Nanowires I
L09 Metallic Nanowires II
L10 Quantum LEDs with Si NP

L11 Introduction (nano)magnetism

L12 Magnetization dynamics
o Optical Microscopes and Ellipsometry
L13 Spin-wave devices
o SPM → Profilometry and STM L14 Nanomagnetic Logic
o SPM → AFM and MFM L15 Nanomagnetic Devices 2.0
 37

Q 1:
What are the resolution limits in optical microscopy? Why are con-focal microscopes
able to increase resolution?
Q 2:
What do I mean by z-slicing in confocal microscopy?
Q 3:
Look at the principle definitions in Ellipsometry: Snell’s law, Fresnel coefficients, and
THE ellipsometry equation with tan Ψ and ∆. Explain the measured quantities Ψ and
∆ in your own words and look them up on the web!
Q 4:
One of the main applications of Ellipsometry is film thickness evaluation. Knowing the
optical constants of a dielectric, one still has to give a Model for the experimental config-
uration. Discuss the flow chart for thin-film thickness measurements with Ellipsometry.
Q 5:
At first glance, a stylus profilometer is easily confused with an atomic force microscope.
Name 3 significant differences and rank them in order of decreasing importance.
Q 6:
What happens if you try to measure an insulating surface with a Scanning Tunneling
Microscope (STM)? Could one use an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) instead?
Q 7:
Why do you (more-or-less) easily get atomic resolution in STM and why is it so much
harder to do with AFM?
Q 8:
Draw and understand the typical setup of an Atomic-Force-Microscope (AFM). Why do
we need a laser and a four-quadrant photo-detector?
Q 9:
Why are we often measuring frequency or phase in AFM? And how can we oscillate the
cantilever?
Q 10:
Plot and explain typical artifacts in the topography measured with an AFM tip and
discuss it in terms of convolution.
Q 11:
Magnetic forces can be measured with an AFM in the so-called lift mode. How can we
separate topography and magnetic information in the measurement?
Q 12:
could you think of perturbations in MFM measurements? Why is there a trade-off
between the magnetization of the MFM tip signal integrity of the measured magnetic
contrast?