e ees E 3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS “CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS "(pride - Lorentz Thoory (Classical Free Electron Theory) Concept of Free-electron : h All atoms consist of valence electrons conductiona. —t—t—s M-2 AL CONDUCTIVITY <8 LEGTIIG: Mitty, from atom to atom, ang thus can move easily the body of y. metal. The free movemen, of electrons means that non. of them belongs to any atom, in particular, but each of them belongs to the mepj to which they are confined to. Thus, each such electron is named a free electron, Lattice : The disconnection of a valence electron from the Parent atom, results in a virtual loss of one negative charge for that atom. Consequently, the electrical neutrality of the atom itr M-2 4 METALS germs CONDUCTIVITY tea and it starts moving in a come f direction (Fig. 2). Since feaimeion be 4 candiom process. the two do not have any deeteasion. This is the Kind of 2 ‘adomness in the motion of a free arom. Thus in the absence of an Sie field, though the free fearons are in. motion, it doesn’t give FLECTRGN RANDOM noTIOK a current due to the Fig. 2 Pe oes in their motion, pan Vetocty = a “When an electric field is applied, there will be a net ent in the randomly moving free electrons’ positions jn a direction opposite to the direction of the field. ment/unit time is called drift velocity which will be150 a Ym Meas field oa the coeduction electroas is annulled #0 shat the elec, seeivtoa siae of constant velocity which is proportional ro the wry of the applied field. Assumptions of the Classical Free Electron Theory: The maia assumptions of the classical free electron they, are as follows. 1. tn a metal there are freely moving valence clectrony called free electrons confined to its body. The electric current in a metal duc to an applind field is a consequence of the drift velocity of the free electrons (conduction electrons) in a direction opposite to the direction of the field. o% The free electrons are treated equivalent to gas molecules, and thus assumed to obey the laws of kinetic theary of pec In the absence of ibe field, as laws of Kinetic theory of gases, the energy with cach electron at a temperature 7 will be (3/2)4T, where & is the Bolamann consmant. It is related to the kinetic energy Uurough the relation, etnias et a rat i eer Stat eee 2 Square velocity, Hal due to the jonic cores is takescc ETT i uance tele by the conduction eectons hee 4 gett the lattice tons. j between successive j,ever a large eumber of collisions) is catieg . averaging: ct where, 2 is the mean free path. If ng is the drift velocity, then vg << vy. adie -M-2 184 ee My where, nis the free electron concentration «is the charge on the electron, t is the mean collision time, and, mis the mass of the electron. Mobility of Electrons = ‘The mobility of electrons is defined as the magnitude of q, dsift velocity aequired by the electrons in « unit field. Thus, if gj, the applied electric field in which the electrons acquire a drig, velocity vg, then the mobility of electrons p is given by, no (18) We have the equation for drift velocity,M.3 Se CORY a 156 ; ont, or, ae # [From proportionality (2)], oy Now, from the proportionality representations (1) ,,, (3), it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with the experimental observations, bs Dependence of Electrical Conductivity on Electron Conceatratiga ; As per the classical free electron theory, the electrical conductivity o is given by, soncentrations for Zinc and Cadmium af 13.10 10" /m? and 9,98 10”/m?, which are much higher than = ae a and ba uYety the values for which ar Se e/a tain and Silver, But than that of Copp ‘ sae of Zine and Cadmium # and, 0.15 x 10/0 m (see Table 1) F which are 388 hye" When a metal is subjected to the influence of an electric field, a free electron in the metal moves under the combined influence of the applied electric field and that of a periodic jal due to lattice ions. Because of such a superposed effect, the electron responds as if it possesses a mass called effective mass which is different from its true mass with which it is accounted if it were to be under the influence of external field alone. Se ne m*, basis of an as is dealt on the tiectron theory eet Conductivt'y based on quantum tet Sommerfeld realized that, the free electrons oeM-2 jagrmchs CONDUCTIVITY IH METALS a eee nen MOY: One Creat Similarities between the two theories, The following assumptions apply to both the theories 1 Seg ecg evel Mm costa potest kali $ The mutual repulsion ‘between the electrons, and the force of attraction between the electrons and ions, are considered insignificant, Differences between the two theories. Gastical free electron theory has the following features. 1. The free electrons which consitme the electron gas can have continuous energy values. 2 kk is possible that many electrons may possess same energy. _ & The pamern of distribution of energy among the free electrons obey Maxwell-Bolumann statistics quantum free electron theory has the following features. The encrgy values of the free electrons are discontinuous because of which their energy levels are discrete. ‘The free electrons obey the Pauli's exclusion principle+79 See CMY Woe Thus the theory prediets a large value for specific hear By, per quantum free eleciron theory, it is enly those electrons iy are occupying energy levels close to E, which can absorb ij heat energy. Such electrons constitute a very small percentage of the total number of free electrons. Hence the specific heat vale becomes very small for the metal which is in conformity wich the experimental observations. Further, it is shown on the basis of quantum free electron theory that, (2% Taking a typical value of E, = 5eV (since the value of &, lies in the range 1 to 10 eV for metals), we get, ‘Thus the quantum free clecu on theory is successful i# pecific heat value for the constuction cecti! M-2 paca EOMDUCKTTY METAL # Also as per epee E,and therefore vy, are _entially independent’ temperature, But, 4 is dependent meee There feces oo cn bay as fou We know that, the waves associated with the electron re subjected to scattering by the vibrating ions of the lattice. he vibrations occur such that the displacement of ions takes ploce equally in all directions. If 7 isthe amplitude of vibration, then the ions can be considered to present effectively a circular cqosssection of area Rr” that blocks the path of the electron irrespective of the direction of approach. Since vibrations Of larger area of cross-section cause more deviation in the tficiently. Increased scattering of waves revults ina reduction in the value off mean free path of the electrons. ltd silver which ses only one free electrons, The explanation for the same could be given 28 follow, oe As per quantum free electron theory, we have y, equation for electrical conductivity as, ne (2 Z(8) From the above equation it is clear that, the value of ¢ depends on n, the ratio (1/u,), and a”. If we compare the cases of copper and aluminium,M-2 CONDUCTIVITY IN MET) queens as 175 jattice distortions and, (2) lattice vibrations, a a perfect conductor could exist on the basin of hen tee effec® oan ‘Though it is possible to have perfect lattice arrangement jn laboratory samples of small sizes, it is highly difficult to have dimortionless lattice in a bulk material thar we use as conductors i Pe oe ae camtortion arises while the conductor is made lucting, annealing, alloying etc, The presence Be sities ales od to this diaortte. 2) Lattice Vibrations : The atoms in a lattice of any material are always in a gate of vibration due to thermal energy. The thermal energy depends on the temperature of the body. It means that if we cool the conductor with a distortion-free lattice to a temperature of zero degree absolute, it should attain the sate of perfect conductor with p = 0. But it will not happen so due to uncertainty principle. ncertainly principle, certain amount of lattice vibrations persist even at absolute zero temperature, and is called sero- ‘polat energy vibration. These vibrations nevertheless contribute toFREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS at e Bu Mites "Hence J=cE ‘Which is Ohm's law Limitations of the Free Electron Theory. It has following limitations _ 1. [does sot explain why only some crystals are metallic. 2 According to classical statistical mechanics, the average kinetic energy if free-electron ic eT, Ifa metal contains N free electrons per gram atom, the total kinetic energy should be SAAT and hence specific heat of Nk per ram atom or 3 R per mole. However the observed vahic is oaly about 196 of this calculated value, " pote sehen cunt a ame ag Another difficulty in Hox dee es aps ee roe oh secre ac associated with its spin and: therefore ge (os framagt susceptibility inversely ‘to the absolute served electronic a an dan aia predicted one. In fact the paramagnetism of metals is ncarly independent of temperature, © 3. I does not explain the temperature variations of the electrical conduc- tivity, Let Seren erste ores tetra: Aocording to Paul Pa no two electrons cam have = Sree Gn cuianou asseccmpas bat mnt one ton, Forages fm thee ae re gana sats : electrons mg = +3 -. Each energy level of quantum aumber n cay two lectrons ne wit pap and oe wit pia down = 1) of the system electronS FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS The electron velocity Uy at Fern surface given by from the m Up = Why = + Up == kp ba A525) i 3 5.05, DENSITY OF STATES D (E) Let D (E) be the deasity of available electron states, then & ' J D(E})dE =N Substituting the value of N from eqn. (5:24), We have A525) _. The variation of D (E —— (E), with Bisiecalled Fermi Accson, ‘Whea there is one clectron per atom in the metal; the lection gee may pected to be highly degenerate at room temperature.7°01. What is ree electron theory HI Drude suggested composed of ‘chary ’ an coca art ge ects po cal wte he onary pu tckerues ddinary gan Meese sim mete ten te agnumber ial states i f DF) & defined. py range E.and F + de apes pps ot~~ 7 he 4 Number of atoms/onit volume of the materia) « Ya% 10? xD Sp omic weight ee ea metic per wens 1, 208 atomic weight a) fis case of copper, number of free electrons per atom is one). n Free electron concentration in copper is ne = 120025 x 10" x 10° x B98 x 108 6354 i =85x 10" /m'. Note: If N, is given equal to 6.025 x 10/k mole, then, Eq(3) tannot be used. Instead, the free electron concentration is then expressed as, = Humber of free electrons per_atom x Ny xD ‘atomic weight A SOLVED EXAMPLES CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY “The mobility of electrons in a conductor Is 4 x 107 ls". Then tha deift velocity of the electron in the presence Slectric fleld of atrongth 100 Vim! Is 1D) 0.04 ms"? VT, Jan. 11178 Wag To find: Drift velocity, vy =? Solution : . We have for mobility of el 25 oars 4 wu =pxB=(410%)100, me v, = 0.4 m/s. Hence, Choice A is correct. Example @): Thickness of the metal, d = 10°" m, Applied potential, ¥ = 1 V, ‘Temperature, T = 300 K, 4 Mobility of electron, p = 40 cm?/Vs = 40 x 107 mv. To find : E 1. Drift velocity, uy =? 2. Thermal energy, ? Solution : Fam We havo for electric field in the metal, ei Bop ay= 000 Vim. WE <4 = 1000 «40x10 «4 m/s. A ee 3 _ Fas 3h? = 3 «1381 x 10 x 300, » Fy 6.215 x10 y