PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

24PH201

UNIT - II
LASER

Department : CSE / IT / ADS / CSD

Batch/Year/Semester : 2024-2025/ I / II
Created by : DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Date : 17-01-2025
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No. CONTENTS

1 Course Objectives

2 Syllabus

3 Course Outcomes

4 CO - PO/PSO Mapping

5 Lecture Plan

6 Activity Based Learning

Lecture Notes: Unit – II - Laser

2.1 Introduction to Laser

2.2 Characteristics of Laser

2.3 Differences between Ordinary and Laser light

2.4 Spatial Coherence

2.5 Temporal Coherence

2.6 Interaction of Light with Materials

7 2.7 Einstein’s A and B coefficients - Derivation

2.8 Components of Laser

2.8.1 Population Inversion

2.9 Pumping Methods

2.9.1 Optical Amplification

2.10 Types of Laser

2.11 Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

2.12 Semiconductor Lasers

S. No. CONTENTS

2.13 Homojunction Semiconductor Laser

2.14 Heterojunction Semiconductor Laser

2.15 Engineering Applications of Laser

2.16 Introduction to Fibre Optics

2.17 Structure of Optical Fibre

2.18 Principle of Propagation of Light through Optical Fibre

2.19 Total Internal Reflection

7
2.20 Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle

2.21 Fibre Optic Communication

2.22 Fibre Optic Sensors

Key Points to Remember

Solved Problems

Video links

Quiz

8 Assignment

9 Part A – Questions with Answers

10 Part B – Questions

11 Online Certification Courses

12 Real Time Applications in Day to Day Life and in Industry

S. No. CONTENTS

13 Content Beyond the Syllabus

14 Prescribed Textbooks and Reference Books

15 Mini Project Suggestions

 COURSE OBJECTIVES

The Course will enable the learners to:

• Understand the classical free electron theory and Fermi distribution function

• Relate the theory of laser with its applications in optical fibres.

• Solve the Schrodinger’s wave equation in one dimensional and three

dimensional box.

• Gain the basic knowledge in quantum operators and quantum gates.

• Comprehend the behavior of semiconductor diodes in various electron devices

and nano electronic devices
 SYLLABUS
COURSE CODE PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE L T P C
(CSE / IT / AIML)
24PH201 3 0 2 4

UNIT I ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 15

Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity and

thermal conductivity - thermal conductivity of a bad conductor- Lee’s disc method -
Effect of temperature on Fermi function - Density of energy states and average
energy of an electron at 0 K- Effective mass of electron - Concept of hole.

Semiconductors - Direct and Indirect bandgap semiconductors -

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration - Bandgap Determination.
(Theory -9)
1. Determination of Thermal conductivity of a bad conductor - Lee’s Disc Method

2. Bandgap determination of intrinsic semiconductor

(Laboratory- 6)

UNIT II LASER 18

Characteristics of Laser, Spatial and Temporal Coherence - Population

inversion - Relation between Einstein’s A and B coefficients - Components of Laser
- Optical amplification (qualitative) - Semiconductor lasers: Homojunction and
Heterojunction- Application: Engineering applications of lasers in data storage
(qualitative), Principle of Fiber optics- Fiber optic communication system - Fiber
optic sensors (pressure and displacement).
(Theory 9)
1. Determination of divergence of the laser beam
2. Determination of acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber
3. Determination of wavelength of semiconductor laser
(Laboratory 9)
UNIT III QUANTUM THEORY
15
Introduction- Blackbody Radiation - Newton’s law of cooling -
Planck's quantum theory- matter waves, de-Broglie wavelength, Heisenberg's
Uncertainty principle, Time independent and Time - dependent Schrödinger's
wave equations, Physical significance of wave function, Particle in a one-
dimensional potential box - Particle in a three-dimensional box (qualitative) -
degenerate and non- degenerate energy levels- Quantum tunneling -
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM).
(Theory -9)
1. Determination of emissivity (Newton’s law of cooling)
2. Determination of Planck’s constant
(Laboratory- 6)

UNIT IV BASICS OF QUANTUM COMPUTING 12

Quantum Operators: Linear vector spaces - inner product space - Hilbert

space - examples Vectors and Tensors: Scalars and vectors, Dirac notations
of Bra-Ket notation-Matrix representation of observables and states.

Quantum Computing: Quantum states - classical bits - quantum bits or

qubits - Entanglement and superposition - multiple qubits - Bloch sphere -
quantum gates - CNOT gate - Advantages of quantum computing over
classical computing.

(Theory -9)

Truth table verification of CNOT gate through Virtual Laboratory

(Laboratory-3)
UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES 15
Introduction to Nano materials – synthesis by sol gel method, properties
- Quantum confinement - Quantum structures: Density of energy states
of quantum wells, quantum wires and quantum dots - band gap of
nanomaterials - Quantum dot laser- Single electron phenomena - single
electron transistor - Quantum system for information processing.
(Theory -12)
1. Synthesis of Nano-powders by sol-gel method
(Laboratory- 3)
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of this course, the students will be able to

C01: Derive electrical and thermal conductivities using

classical free electron theory

C02: Calculate the electrical conductivity and bandgap in

Intrinsic semiconductors

C03: Associate the basic principles of working of laser and

their applications in fiber optics

C04: Calculate the energy eigen value and eigen function for a
particle in a one- dimensional and three dimensional box
using Schrodinger wave equations
C05: Use quantum operators to frame equations for logic
gates in Quantum computing
CO6: Relate the quantum properties of nanoscale materials
with their applications
 COURSE OUTCOME MAPPING WITH POs / PSOs

Program Outcomes Program Specific

Outcomes
Level ofCO
COs K3,
K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2
K6
PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3

PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12

C120.1 -
K2 2 1 2 2 2
- - - - - - - - -
C120.2 -
K2 2 1 2 2 2
- - - - - - - - -
C120.3 -
K2 2 1 2 2 2
- - - - - - - - -
C120.4 -
K2 2 1 2 2 2
- - - - - - - - -
C120.5 2 -
K2 1 2 2 2
- - - - - - - - -
C120.6 K2
2 1 - - - - - - 2 2 - 2 - - -
C120 2 1 - - - - - - 2 2 - 2 - - -
 LECTURE PLAN

S. No. of Pertaining Taxonomy Mode of

Topics to be Covered
No. Periods CO Level Delivery

Lasers: population of
energy levels; Einstein’s PPT / Chalk &
1 1 CO3 K2
A and B coefficients Talk
derivation
Resonant cavity, optical
PPT / Chalk &
2 amplification 1 CO3 K2
Talk
(qualitative)
Semiconductor lasers:
PPT / Chalk &
3 homojunction and 1 CO3 K2
Talk
heterojunction
Engineering applications
PPT / Chalk &
4 of lasers in data storage 1 CO3 K2
Talk
(qualitative)
Fiber optics: principle,
numerical aperture and PPT / Chalk &
5 1 CO3 K2
acceptance angle; V- Talk
number
Fibre optic PPT / Chalk &
6 1 CO3 K2
communication Talk

Fibre optic sensors: PPT / Chalk &

7 1 CO3 K2
pressure sensors Talk

Fibre optic sensors: PPT / Chalk &

8 1 CO3 K2
displacement sensors Talk

PPT / Chalk &

9 Problems 1 CO3 K3
Talk
 ACTIVITY
NAME OF THE LEARNING
S. No. ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY OUTCOME
HANDS-ON https://www.teachengineering.org
ACTIVITY - Describe laser
Lasers, Let's
/activities/view/van_troll_lesso
1 applications in today's
Find 'Em! n03_activity1
world

1. Use a computer model called the

PhET simulator.
2. Students investigate the laser
Understand lasing
Fundamentals using a single atom for the active
2 action in a single atom
of a laser medium, and observe how the
laser.
three basic parts of the laser
produce laser light.
3. Give your inference.
1. Use a computer model called the Understand the
PhET simulator. interplay of the
Construction of
3 2. Students explore how to construct variables that produce
multi atom laser
a multi-atom laser with the PhET the laser beam after
simulator the lasing process
1. Students can perform the
experiment systematically in the
Physics Laboratory using
Determination
semiconductor LASER source, any Correlate divergence
4 of angle of
ordinary light, optical bench, and and light intensity
divergence
a screen.
2. Record the observations and give
the inference.
1. Students can perform the
experiment using grating with
(N= 105 lines/m) in the Physics
Determination
Laboratory using semiconductor
of laser Apply Laser light to
LASER source, optical bench,
5 wavelength and determine a particle
grating, given powder sample and
average size of size
a screen.
particle
2. Record the observations and give
the result.
 ACTIVITY
S. NAME OF THE LEARNING
ACTIVITY
No. ACTIVITY OUTCOME
https://astroedu.iau.org/en/activiti
es/1411/the-fibre-optic-cable-class/
Activity 1:
- What is light and what are some
of its uses?
Fibre optics & - How can light be used in Apply TIR in
6
Astronomy technology? astronomy
- How can light be used in
Astronomy?
- What is a total internal reflection
and what are its uses in the real
world and in astronomy?
https://astroedu.iau.org/en/activiti
es/1411/the-fibre-optic-cable-class/
Activity 2:
- What is a spectrograph and how Record the
Fibre optics &
7 does it work i.e. where do fibre spectrum of
Astronomy
optics fit in? objects in space
- Give an example of where a
spectrograph is being used and
what is its function?
https://www.fizzicseducation.com.a
u/150-science-experiments/light-
Lovely light sound-experiments/lovely-light-
Bending of light in
8 beam beam-experiment/
TIR
experiment Students can record the video of
this activity done at home with
explanation.
 LASER
2.1 Introduction
Einstein first predicted the existence of two different kinds of processes in which an atom
can emit radiations in the year 1917. Later in 1958, A. L. Schawlow and C. H. Townes
explained theoretically about the possibility of getting coherent light from stimulated
emission process. Finally in 1960, Dr. Theodore Maiman demonstrated the first laser
namely, the pulsed Ruby laser.
The term ‘LASER’ is an acronym of ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’.
It is a device which produces a powerful, monochromatic (single colour) and coherent
beam of light. It can travel over long distances without much loss of intensity. It amplifies
light waves. There are solid state, liquid state, gaseous state and semiconductor lasers.
They are used in many fields such as telecommunication, medicine, biology and computers.

2.2 Characteristics of Laser

The following characteristics distinguish a laser beam from an ordinary light.
They are
(i) High directionality
(ii) High intensity
(iii) High monochromaticity
(iv) High degree of coherence
High Directionality: An ordinary light source emits light in all possible directions. Since
laser travels as a parallel beam, it can travel over a long distance with a small angular
divergence or spread. The angular spread of a laser beam is less than 1 mm for every
metre. This reveals the directionality of the laser beam. But in the case of ordinary light
beam, the spread is about 1 metre for every one metre that light traverses.
High Intensity: Since ordinary light spreads in all directions, the intensity reaching the
target is very less. But, due to high directionality and coherent nature of laser, it has the

ability to focus over a small area of 10–6 cm2 with high intensity. Even a 1 watt laser beam is
more intense than 100 watt ordinary incandescent lamp.
For example, 1 milli watt power of He–Ne laser appears to be brighter than the
sunlight.

High Monochromaticity: Laser beam is highly monochromatic; the wavelength is

single, whereas in ordinary light like mercury vapour lamp, many wavelengths of light
are emitted. The light from a normal monochromatic source spreads over a range of
wavelength of the order 100 nm. But the spread is of the order of 1 nm for laser.

High Degree of Coherence: It is an important characteristic of laser beam. In lasers,

the wave trains of same frequency are in phase. The radiation given out is in mutual
agreement not only in phase but also in the direction of emission and polarization.
Since all the constituent photons of laser beam possess the same energy, momentum
and propagate in the same direction, the laser beam is said to be highly coherent
which leads to its high power.

2.3 Differences between ordinary Light and Laser Light

Laser light is distinguished from ordinary light due to the following reasons.
2.4 Spatial Coherence

Consider two points at time t=0 on the same wave front of a given
electromagnetic wave, the phase difference of electromagnetic wave at the two
points at time t=0 is 0. If for any time t>0 the phase difference of electromagnetic
wave at the two points remains 0, we say the electromagnetic wave has perfect
coherence between the two points.

If this is true for any two points of the wave front, we say the wave has perfect
spatial coherence. In practice, the spatial coherence occurs only in a limited area, so
we say it the partial spatial coherence. Let S is a source of light. Two points X and Y
are such that XY << L i.e. less than the coherence length, there will be a definite
phase relationship between X and Y i.e. there will be high coherence between points
X and Y. However, if XY >> L, coherence will be absent between X and Y. Consider A
and X as two equidistant points from S.

If the source S is a perfect point source the waves will reach points A & X in exactly
the same phase, i.e., the two points will have perfect (spatial) coherence. If,
however, the source S is an extended source, points X and A will no longer remain
coherent. This may be understood by the Young’s double-slit experiment. The light
emitting from narrow slit S falls on two slits S1 and S2 placed symmetrically with
respect to S.
S1 and S2 are derived from the same original source S. They will maintain a
constant phase difference at all points on the screen. Hence, a stationary
interference pattern will be observed on the screen.

If however, the width of the slit S is gradually increased, the pattern becomes poorer
and poorer in contrast and finally disappears. This is because as the source gets
extended, the spatial coherence on the screen turns into incoherence. This is due to
the reason that when the slit S becomes wide, the slits S1 and S2 receive waves
from different independent points of S and hence no longer remain coherent with
respect to each other.

Spatial and temporal coherence are independent. A partial temporal coherent wave
may be perfectly spatially coherent. Laser light is highly coherent.

2.5 Temporal coherence

Consider a fixed point on the em wave front. If at any time the phase difference
between time t and time t+Δt remains the same, where Δt is the time delay, it is
said that the em wave has temporal coherence over a time Δt. If Δt is any time
value, the em wave has perfect temporal coherence. If this happens only in a range
0<Δt.

Waves with broad range of frequencies have a short coherence time since the
amplitude of the wave changes quickly. White light has a broad range of
frequencies. It varies quickly in phase. Hence, it has a very short coherence time.
White light is called incoherent.
A wave containing only a single frequency is perfectly correlated with itself for all
time delays.

The oscillating Electric field E of a perfectly coherent light wave would have a
constant amplitude of vibration at any point, while its phase would vary linearly with
time. As a function of time, the function would appear as shown in figure. But, no
light source ever produces perfect temporal coherence of this kind.

When an excited atom returns to the ground state, it emits a pulse of short duration
of the order of 10-10 s, after which pulse abruptly changes. Hence the electric field
due to actual light will be is shown in figure.

The average time interval for which the field remains sinusoidal is known as
coherence time or temporal coherence of light wave. It is denoted by ζ. Distance =
velocity × Time.

The distance for which the field is sinusoidal will be L= c × ζ Here c is the speed of
light & L is the coherence length i.e. the distance for which field is si

Coherence is thus related to synchronization of light in time, or along the laser

beam. The duration of the synchronized emission from the laser multiplied by the
speed of light is thus called the coherence length of the laser emission. This is the
distance along which the photons are coherent or moving in step. To remain in
phase with one another, these quanta must have approximately the same
wavelength. Thus the temporal coherence is related to the monochromaticity or the
spectral width of the light emitted from the laser: the broader the spectrum the
shorter the temporal coherence.
2.6 Interaction of Light with materials
In order to understand the working principle of laser, let us study the quantum
processes that take place in a material, when it is exposed to light radiation. Let
us consider an assembly of atoms exposed to light radiation. According to quantum
theory, light radiation consists of photons with energy hν.
(i) Stimulated absorption : An atom residing in the lower energy state E1 can
absorb a photon and go to the higher energy level E2 (excited state) provided the
photon energy equals to the energy difference E1 − E2. This process is known as
Stimulated or Induced absorption or simply absorption. Stimulated absorption
process is shown in Fig. 2.1.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1 Stimulated Absorption
(a) Atom before absorption of photon energy
(b) Atom after absorption of photon energy
After absorption of photon, the atom returns to ground state by emitting photon of
energy hv. The emission process can take one of the following forms.

1. Spontaneous emission

2. Stimulated emission

(ii) Spontaneous Emission: In the case of spontaneous emission, the atom passes

from higher energy state E2 (excited state) to lower energy state E1 (ground state)
spontaneously by emitting a photon of energy hv. This is a downward transition.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2 Spontaneous emission
(a) Atoms before spontaneous emission
(b) Atoms after spontaneous emission
The spontaneous emission is random in character as shown in Fig. 1.2.
2.2 The radiation
emitted spontaneously by each atom has a random direction and phase. Thus radiation
in this case is a random mixture of quanta having various wavelengths. Moreover, they
are not in phase. Thus the radiation is incoherent and has a broad spectrum. It is the
process of spontaneous emission that dominates in conventional light sources.
(iii) Stimulated Emission: In the case of stimulated emission, the presence of
incident photon will trigger excited atom to make a transition to the ground state. This
2.3
is also another downward transition as shown in Fig. 1.3.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.3 Stimulated emission
(a) Atom before stimulation
(b) Atom after stimulated by photon energy
According to Einstein, an interaction between the excited atom and a photon can
trigger the excited atom to make a transition to the ground state. The transition
produces a second photon which would be identical to the triggering photon in respect
of frequency, phase and propagation direction. This process of induced emission of
photons caused by the incident photon is called stimulated emission.

2.7 Einstein’s A and B coefficients derivation

Einstein derived an expression that relates the rate of absorption, spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission. Consider two energy levels E1 and E2 with
population N1 and N2 in an atomic system. At thermal equilibrium, E2 is greater than E1
and N2 is smaller than N1.

Stimulated absorption: The atom in the ground state E1 absorbs energy density of
incident radiation ρ(ν) and goes to the excited state E2 as shown in Fig. 1.4.
2.4 The
number of induced absorption transition per unit time R12= N1B12ρ(ν)…………….(1.1)
where B12 - probability of absorption transition per unit time

N1 - number of atoms per unit volume of the medium

ρ(ν) - energy density of incident radiation

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4 Stimulated Absorption
(a) Atom before absorption of photon energy
(b) Atom after absorption of photon energy

Spontaneous emission: The atom passes from higher energy state E2 to lower
energy state E1 spontaneously by emitting a photon of energy h ν . This is a
downward transition as shown in Fig. 1.5.
2.5
The average number of atoms undergoing spontaneous transition to state E1 per
unit time is given by
R21(sp) = A21N2………….(1.2)
where A21 - probability of spontaneous emission transition per unit time
N2 - number of atoms per unit volume of the medium

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5 Spontaneous emission
(a) Atoms before spontaneous emission
(b) Atoms after spontaneous emission
 2.6

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.6 Stimulated emission
(a) Atom before stimulation
(b) Atom after stimulated by photon energy
 −𝐸 −𝐸
𝑁 = 𝑁 exp 𝑁 = 𝑁 exp
𝑘 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇

−𝐸 −𝐸
𝑁 𝑁 exp exp 𝐸 −𝐸
𝑘 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇
= = = exp
𝑁 −𝐸 −𝐸 𝑘 𝑇
𝑁 exp exp
𝑘 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇
𝑁 ℎν
= exp … … … . . 1.6
𝑁 𝑘 𝑇
(∵ 𝐸 −𝐸 = ℎ𝜈)
Substitute Eqn. (1.6) in Eqn. (1.5), we get

𝐴 1
𝜌 𝜈 = .
𝐵 𝑁 𝐵
𝑁 . 𝐵 −1

𝐴 1 𝐴 1
𝜌 𝜈 = . = . ..............(1.7)
𝐵 𝐵 ℎν 𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 exp −1 𝑒 −1
𝑘 𝑇 𝐵
The above equation is in good agreement with Planck’s radiation law,
8𝜋ℎν 1
𝜌 𝜈 = ……………(1.8)
𝑐
𝑒 −1
Comparing Eqns. (1.7) and (1.8), we get

𝐴 8𝜋ℎν 𝐵
= and =1 or 𝐵 =𝐵
𝐵 𝑐 𝐵

Results
i. Macroscopic approximation of a complex, stochastic quantum mechanical process.
ii. Govern the rates of absorption / emission of photons by atoms / molecules.
iii. Absorption and spontaneous emission are the intrinsic properties of transitions in
a material.
iv. The stimulated emission rate is same as absorption rate (B12 = B21).
A21
v. Since the ratio ( ) is proportional to ν3, the spontaneous emission increases
B21
rapidly with energy difference between two states.
A21
vi. If ( << 1) the stimulated emission will be predominant in producing laser
B21
beam.

2.7.1
1.5.1 Ratio of magnitudes of stimulated to spontaneous emission rates
From Eqns. (1.2) and (1.3) we have R21(sp) = A21N2 and R21(st) = N2B21 ρ(ν)
respectively. Dividing Eqn. (1.3) by Eqn. (1.2) we obtain
 𝑅 ( ) 𝐵
= 𝜌 𝜈 … … … … . (1.9)
𝑅 ( ) 𝐴
Rearranging Eqn. (1.7) we have,

𝐵 1
𝜌 𝜈 =
𝐴 𝐵
𝑒 −1
𝐵
Since, 𝐵 = 𝐵

𝐵 1
𝜌 𝜈 = ……. 1.10
𝐴
𝑒 −1
Comparing Eqns. (1.9) and (1.10) we get

𝑅 ( ) 1
=
𝑅 ( )
𝑒 −1
In a simpler way the ratio can be written as

𝑅 ( ) 𝐵 1
=𝑅= 𝜌 𝜈 =
𝑅 ( ) 𝐴
𝑒 −1
To increase the number of coherent photons, stimulated emission should dominate
over spontaneous emission. An artificial condition called population inversion is
necessary. To achieve this, there should be more atoms present in the higher energy
level than in the lower energy level.

2.8 COMPONENTS OF LASER

The essential components of a laser are
a. An active medium
b. A pumping source
c. An optical resonator
Active medium: The active medium is the material in which laser action takes
place. It may be a solid or liquid or gas.
Pumping source: Pumping source is a device by which population inversion is
achieved in the active medium.
Optical Resonator or Resonant cavity: An optical resonator consists of a pair of
reflecting surfaces in which one is fully reflecting M1 and the other is partially
reflecting M2 as shown in Fig. 2.7. Optical resonator helps to further intensify and
amplify the radiations. For sustained and amplified output radiation, a part of the
output energy should be fed back into the system. This is achieved by keeping the
active material in the resonating cavity which can be as simple as a pair of mirrors.
The photons generated due to laser transitions between the energy states of active
material are bounced back and forth between two reflecting surfaces. This will
induce more and more stimulated transition leading to laser action.

Fig. 2.7 Optical Resonator

2.8.1 POPULATION INVERSION

The establishment of a situation in which the number of atoms (N2) in the excited
state (E2) is greater than the number of atoms (N1) in the ground state (E1) is called
population inversion. This phenomenon is shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Population Inversion

2.9 PUMPING METHODS
The process of creating a population inversion is called Pumping. The commonly
used methods for pumping action are:

i. Optical pumping

ii. Electrical discharge method

iii. Direct conversion

iv. Inelastic atom–atom collision

v. Chemical reaction

i. Optical pumping (by photons)

In this type, the atoms are excited with the help of photons emitted by an external
optical source as depicted in Fig. 2.9. The atoms absorb energy from the photons
and reach the excited state. This method is called optical pumping.

Example: Ruby-laser and Nd-YAG laser (Solid state laser).

Fig. 2.9 Optical Pumping

ii. Electrical discharge method (by electrons)

Here, the electrons are accelerated to very high velocities due to strong electrical
field. These accelerated electrons collide with gas atoms and the gas atoms are
raised to excited states. This method is called electrical discharge method.

Example: Argon laser and CO2 laser (Gas lasers).

iii. Direct conversion

The combination of electrons and holes takes place in semiconductors due to supply
of electrical energy. The electrical energy is directly converted into light energy as
2.10 This method is called direct conversion.
seen in Fig. 1.10.

Example: Gallium arsenide [GaAs] Semiconductor laser

Fig. 2.10 Direct Conversion

iv. Inelastic atom–atom collisions

In this type of pumping, a combination of two types of gases say A and B are used.
Both are having same or nearly excited states. During the first step, A-atoms get
excited due to collision with accelerated electrons. This excited A* atoms now collide
with B-atoms. Now B-atoms reach excited B* due to gain of energy. This method is
called inelastic atom-atom collision.
𝑒 ∗ + 𝐴 → 𝐴∗
𝐴∗ + 𝐵 → 𝐵∗

Examples: He–Ne laser and CO2 laser.

v. Chemical reactions

Due to chemical reactions, the atoms in the ground state move to the excited state.
Example: Dye laser.
2.9.1 OPTICAL AMPLIFICATION / PRINCIPLE OF
LASER
Let us consider an assembly with more number of excited atoms. When the first
excited atom undergoes stimulated emission due to an incident photon, a coherent
photon is emitted. Both the incident photon and emitted photon move in the same
direction with same frequency, phase and energy. These two coherent photons
induce two excited atoms to produce four coherent photons and the four coherent
photons produce eight coherent photons due to stimulated emission of four excited
atoms. This process continues as a chain reaction for the emission of more and
more number of coherent photons to produce a powerful laser beam as shown in
Fig. 2.11. Hence, a laser beam is a powerful one due to production of large number
of coherent photons by stimulated emission of excited atoms.

Fig. 2.11 Optical Amplification

2.10 TYPES OF LASERS

Lasers are classified into five major categories based on the type of active medium.
They are:
Gas laser : He–Ne laser, CO2 laser
Solid state laser : Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser
Liquid laser : Europium Chelate laser
Semiconductor laser: GaAs laser, InP laser
Dye and chemical laser: Rhodamine 6G laser
2.11 DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTORS
In some semiconductors like germanium and silicon, most of the energy is released
in the form of heat during the recombination process. They are called indirect
band gap semiconductors.
But in the case of other semiconductors such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) the energy
is released in the form of light during the recombination process. They are called
direct band gap semiconductors.

2.12 SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS

Semiconductors can also be used to generate laser beam. It is a most compact laser.
When a forward bias is applied to a p–n junction of a semiconductor, holes are
injected from p-region into n-region and electrons from n-region to p-region. The
electrons and holes recombine and release of energy takes place near the junction
region. Semiconductor lasers are classified into
i. Homojunction laser
ii. Heterojunction laser

Homojunction laser: When a p–n junction is formed by a single crystalline

material, it is known as Homojunction laser. Example: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).

Heterojunction laser: When a p–n junction has one material on one side and a
different material on the other side, it is called Heterojunction laser. Example:
Heterojunction laser is formed between GaAs and Ga-Al-As.

2.13 HOMOJUNCTION SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

It is a specially fabricated p–n junction device which emits coherent light under
forward biased condition.
2.13.1 Principle
The electron in conduction band combines with hole in the valence band and
produces energy in the form of a light. This photon induces another electron from
conduction band to move to the valence band and stimulate the emission of coherent
photons.

2.13.2 Construction
A narrow p–n junction made from single crystalline Gallium Arsenide is the active
medium. The ends of the junction diode are well-polished and made parallel to each
other. It acts as an optical resonator. As the refractive index of Gallium Arsenide is
high, external mirrors are not needed. The remaining two faces are roughened to
eliminate lasing action in these directions. The p–n junction is forward-biased as
shown in Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12 Homojunction semiconductor laser

2.13.3 Working
Population inversion is achieved by heavily doped p and n regions. Before biasing,

Fermi level lies within valence band of the p region and within the conduction band of

the n region as shown in Fig. 2.13. When the junction is forward biased with the

voltage nearly equal to the band gap voltage, electrons are injected from n region

and holes are injected from p region get accumulate on either side of p–n junction

and hence an active region is developed.

When a radiation having frequency ν is incident at this region, recombination of an

electron and hole is started and hence a photon of energy E = hν is released. This

photon induces the injected charge carriers to emit photons. These photons are

reflected back and forth at the junction and hence more recombination process

takes place. As a result, large numbers of photons are produced due to increase in

the rate of recombination process as shown in Fig. 2.14. Here the emitted photons

have the same phase and frequency of the inducing photon. Hence, an intense,

coherent beam of LASER emerges out from the partially reflecting face of the p–n

junction.

Wavelength of the emitted radiation depends on the band gap of the GaAs

semiconductor material and the concentration of donor and acceptor atoms in the

semiconductor. The wavelength of the emitted laser is in near IR region.

hc
E g  h   1.44 eV

hc
  8626  10 10 m
Eg
p type n type

Ec
Eg
Ev Conduction band
Fermi level
Valence band
Ec
Eg
Fig. 1.13
2.13 Before biasing
p – type n- type

Ec

Laser Fermi level

Fermi level Laser
Ev

Fig. 2.14 After biasing

2.13.4 Characteristics
Type : Homojunction semiconductor laser
Active medium :p−n junction
Active centre :Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method : Direct conversion method
Optical resonator : Polished p−n junction
Power output :1 mW
Nature of output : Pulsed or continuous
Output Wavelength :8400 Å to 8600 Å

2.13.5 Advantages
i. Low cost.
ii. It is easy to manufacture the diode.
iii. High efficiency, powerful and coherent than LED.
iv. Simple arrangement and compact.
v. Less power requirement for operation.
vi. Output can be easily modulated by controlling the junction current.

2.13.6 Disadvantages
i. Large threshold current density.
ii. Pulsed mode output only.
iii. Larger beam has large divergence.
iv. Poor coherence and stability.
v. Poor electromagnetic field confinement.
vi. Low power output.

2.13.7 Applications
It is used
i. in fibre optic communication.
ii. in laser diodes (Laser diodes are more powerful and coherent than LED).
iii. in laser printers.
iv. in recording and reading data in CDs and DVDs.
v. in bar code reading.
vi. as a pain killer.

vii. to heal wounds due to infra-red radiation.

2.14 HETEROJUNCTION SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

2.14.1 Principle
The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band and
produces energy in the form of light. This photon induces another electron from
conduction band to move to the valence band and stimulate the emission of
coherent photons.

2.14.2 Construction
There are five layers in the heterojunction semiconductor laser as shown in Fig.
2.15. A layer of narrow band gap p–type GaAs (third layer) is sandwiched between
the layers of p–type GaAlAs (second layer) and n–type GaAlAs (fourth layer) which
have a wider energy gap and a lower refractive index than GaAs. The active region
is GaAs where the laser emission takes place. The first layer is the contact layer
made of p–type GaAs and the fifth layer is the substrate made of n–type GaAs.
Forward-biasing is given using the upper and lower electrodes.

Fig. 2.15 Heterojunction Semiconductor Laser

2.14.3 Working
The principle of working of heterojunction laser is the same as that of homojunction
laser. When the diode is suitably forward biased, electrons from fourth layer and
holes from second layer are injected into the third layer, thereby creating an active
region. Now population inversion is achieved. Some of the injected charge carriers
recombine and produce spontaneously emitted photons. These photons stimulate the
injected charge carriers to emit photons. The emitted photons are subjected to
reflect back and forth at the junction and hence coherent photon density is amplified
inside the active medium. Finally, an intense, coherent beam of LASER emerges out
from the p–n junction of active region as shown in Fig. 2.16.
The band gap difference prevents the diffusion of injected charge carriers. Thus, the
active region is very narrow. The change in refractive index of the layers is
responsible for the confinement of injected charge carriers in the active region
(between the layers 3 and 4). Since the active region is few microns wide, the
threshold current density is drastically reduced. In this type of laser high power
output, narrow spectral width, higher efficiency and high coherence can be achieved.
It is highly stable and has longer life. The wavelength emitted is 8014 Å.

hc
E g  h   1.55 eV

hc
  8014  10 10 m
Eg

2nd layer p type Active region 4th layer n type

Fig. 2.16 Energy level diagram

2.14.4 Characteristics
Type : Heterojunction semiconductor laser
Active medium : p−n junction (with various layers)
Active centre : Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method : Direct conversion method
Optical resonator : Polished p−n junction
Power output : 10 mW
Nature of output : Continuous wave
Output Wavelength : 8014 Å

2.14.5 Advantages
i. Very narrow beam with high coherence and monochromaticity is achieved.
ii. Continuous wave operation is possible.
iii. Carrier and optical confinement can be achieved simultaneously.
iv. High output power can be achieved even with low operating current.
v. Threshold current density is very low at room temperature.
vi. These are highly stable with longer life.

2.14.6 Disadvantages
i. Cost is higher than homojunction laser.
ii. Growing different layers of p–n junction is difficult.

2.14.7 Applications
i. It is used as optical source in fibre optic communication.
ii. It is used in CD reading or Writing data and in laser printers.
iii. It is used in holography.
2.15 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF LASERS
Laser is an optical device that generates intense beam of coherent monochromatic
light by stimulated emission of radiation. It has various unique properties such as
coherence, monochromacity, directionality, and high intensity. Because of these
unique properties, lasers are used in various applications like medicine,
communications, industries, science and technology, and military. Some engineering
applications are:

 Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a Compact Disc
(CD).

 Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-ROM.

 Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the
atmosphere.

 Lasers helps in determining the rate of rotation of the earth accurately.

 Lasers are used in computer printers.

 Lasers are used for producing three-dimensional pictures in space without the
use of lens.

 Lasers are used for detecting earthquakes and underwater nuclear blasts.
 A GaAs diode laser can be used to setup an invisible fence to protect an area.

2.15.1 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF LASERS IN DATA

STORAGE - COMPACT DISC
CD stores the data in digital form represented by a series of 1s and 0s. The 0s are
represented by tiny bumps and the 1s as flat areas. Such millions of bumps and flats
areas are present in a standard size CD.

A CD is made from 1.2 mm thick, pure plastic and weighs 15–20 grams. From the
center outward components are at the center (spindle) hole, the first-transition area
(clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror
band), the information (data) area, and the rim as seen in Fig. 2.17.
 Fig 2.17 CD burning process using a laser beam

A CD is made up of a polycarbonate plastic known as Polymethyl Meta acrylic. The

surface of the CD is coated with a thin layer of Aluminum to make it reflective, and
is protected by a film of lacquer that is normally spin coated directly on top of the
reflective layer, upon which the label print is applied.

CD Burning: CD writer is used to burn the CD to record the data in the digital
format. The CD burner darkens microscopic areas in the reflective side of the ‘Blank
CD’. During burning, both reflective and non reflective areas are created in the CD
that can be interpreted as 1 and 0 by the CD player. The CD burner has a laser
assembly similar to the CD reader. But the laser is ‘Write Laser’ with high power
around 40 mW. The write laser interacts with the CD and alters its surface.
 Fig 2.18 CD reading process using a laser beam

CD Reading: The bumps and flat areas are present on the reflective side of the CD
which is arranged in continuous tracks. These tracks measures about 0.5 microns
and can stretch about 5 km. During CD reading, a ‘Read laser beam’ passes over the
flat area in the track as shown in Fig. 2.18. The laser beam will reflect back which will
be passed onto a photo sensor assembly. The Photo sensor interprets the reflected
laser light as 1. When the laser light bounce back from the bumps, the photo sensor
will not get it and the CD player recognize it as 0.

The bumps are arranged spirally starting from the centre of the CD to the periphery.
The motor in CD player spins the CD in a steady speed. The laser assembly of the
CD player moves from the center to the periphery of the CD at a steady speed to
retrieve the data. The CD player shows a slow spinning speed as the laser assembly
move outwards to keep the bumps moving past the laser at a constant rate. The
digital information retrieved by the photo sensor will be then converted into audio or
video by the amplifier circuit.

Rewritable CD: It is designed for ‘Write and Erase’ functions so that it is easy to
erase the old data and record new data over it. Unlike the readable CD, the
Rewritable CD has a’ Phase change compound ‘coated in its reflective surface. This
phase change substance is the compound of silver, antimony, tellurium and indium.

te
600 degree) it
This compound changes its physical state on heating depending on the temperature
applied. When the temperature rises above its melting point, around 600 °C, it
changes to liquid form and in below its crystallization point, around 200 °C, it
becomes solid. Unlike the ordinary CD, in Rewritable CD, the bumps are represented
by the phase changes in the compound. When it is in the ‘Crystalline form’, it
remains translucent so that laser light can reflect back. When the compound
becomes ‘Amorphous’ due to melting, it becomes non translucent and laser light will
not reflect back. These changes during melting can ‘lock’ the phase change in place.

The erasing process changes the crystalline and amorphous states of the compound
through melting. The high temperature from the Laser beam will change the states
of the compound so that the data in the form of translucent and non translucent
areas in the reflective layer will be erased. During writing, the high power laser
beam melts points corresponding to the bumps of the conventional CD. They block
the read laser so that it will not reflect. These non reflective melted points remain as
opaque and represent 0s and the crystalline reflective areas represent 1s.

DVDs (digital video, or versatile, discs) work similarly, but they use a shorter-
wavelength, red laser, to read smaller spots, so the discs can hold enough
information to play a digitized motion picture. A newer generation of discs called
Blu-ray uses blue-light lasers to read and store data at an even higher density as
shown in Fig. 2.19.

Fig 2.19 Comparisons of CD, DVD and Blu-ray discs

 FIBRE OPTICS
2.16 INTRODUCTION TO FIBRE OPTICS
Fibre optics is a branch of physics deals with the propagation (transmission and
reception) of data, voice, and images by the passage of light through thin,
transparent fibre. In telecommunications, fibre optic technology has virtually
replaced copper wire in long-distance telephone lines, and it is used to link
computers within local area networks. Fibre optics is also the basis of the
fibrescopes used in examining internal parts of the body (endoscopy) or inspecting
the interiors of manufactured structural products.

We know, as the light wave frequency is 1015 Hz, they cannot be used for
communications in open atmosphere like radio and microwaves. A suitable medium
is required to send information carrying light wave which led to the invention of a
new medium called optical fibre. The optical fibres act as a guiding medium to the
light wave.

The light is propagated through the fibres by the principle of total internal reflection
as in Fig. 2.20. Optical fibres have more advantages than the conventional copper
cables such as no leakage of energy from one channel to the other, more number of
channels for propagation, very thin in size and more flexibility.

Fig. 2.20 Light Propagation in Optical Fibre

They are used for transmitting voice, images and other data at close to the velocity of
light. After the invention of optical fibres, there is a fast development in the medical
and engineering and technology fields.

2.17 STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRE

An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss materials such as

silica glass. It has a central core in which the light is guided, embedded in an outer
cladding of slightly lower refractive index (Fig. 2.21). The cladding is enclosed by a
thick polyurethane jacket which acts as a protective layer to protect the fibre from
moisture and abrasion. Light rays incident on the core-cladding boundary at angles
greater than the critical angle undergo total internal reflection and are guided through
the core without refraction. Rays of greater inclination to the fibre axis lose part of
their power into the cladding at each reflection and are not guided.

Fig. 2.21 Optical fibre cross section

2.18 PRINCIPLE OF PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH

OPTICAL FIBRE

The principle of propagation of light through optical fibre is Total Internal Reflection.
In Fig. 2.22, two rays entering the core reaches out the other end of the fibre after
multiple reflections by the principle of total internal reflection.
 Fig. 2.22 Optical fibre – Propagation of light

2.19 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The required conditions for Total Internal Reflection to take place are:

 The light ray should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
n1 > n2 , where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of denser and rarer medium.

 The angle of incidence at the core must be greater than the critical angle.

2.19.1 PROPAGATION THEORY

 In Fig. 2.23, a ray of light travels from denser medium (n1) to rarer medium (n2).
The angle of incidence of the light ray is less than the critical angle (θc) and
hence the ray is refracted away from the normal in rarer medium. Now imagine
what happens as the incident angle is increased. This causes θ2 to increase.

 When the angle of refraction of the ray is 90°, the corresponding angle of
incidence is called critical angle (θc). The refracted ray is along the core-cladding
interface as shown in Fig. 2.24.

 When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is
totally internally reflected in the denser medium itself as shown in Fig. 2.25. This
is called total internal reflection which is the principle of the propagation of light
through the core of the optical fibre.
 Fig. 2.23 Incident ray refracted into rarer medium

Fig. 2.24 Ray travels along the interface

1.19.2 CRITICAL ANGLE

The incident angle θ1 that produces an angle of refraction of 90ο is called the critical
angle, θc .
𝒏𝟐
𝜃 = sin 𝟏
𝒏𝟏

Fig. 2.25 Ray is totally internally reflected

Snell’s law states the relationship between angles and indices of refraction. It is
given by n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2.
When the incident angle equals the critical angle (θ1 = θc ), the angle of refraction is
90ο (θ2 = 90ο). Since sin 90ο = 1, Snell’s law in this case becomes n1 sin θ1 = n2.
The critical angle (θc) is given by
𝟏
𝒏𝟐
𝜽𝒄 = sin
𝒏𝟏

2.20 NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Consider a cylindrical fibre having core of refractive index n1, cladding of refractive
index n2 and n0 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium (air) as shown in
Fig. 1.26.
2.26 Incident ray AO enters the core at an angle θ0. Then the ray gets refracted
along OB at an angle θr, which then falls at critical angle of incidence θc = 90 – θr on
the interface between core and cladding. The ray then moves along BC.

Fig. 2.26 Propagation of light

Any ray which enters into the core at an angle of incidence less than θ0 will have
refractive angle less than θc. Applying Snell's law at the point O,
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛 sin 𝜃

𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑛
𝑛
sin 𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝜃 (1.11)
𝑛
 Applying Snell’s law at point B,
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° − 𝜃 = 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛90°
𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑛

𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ……….. 1.12
𝑛
Substituting Eqn. (1.12) in Eqn. (1.11)we get,

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1− =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 = … … … . (1.13)
𝒏𝟎
If the surrounding medium is air, n0 = 1,

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 = 𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 … … … (1.14)
or

𝟏
𝜽𝟎 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 … … . . . (1.15)

where, 𝜃 - Acceptance Angle of the fibre

2.20.1 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Definition: The maximum angle at which light suffers Total Internal Reflection.
The maximum angle at which a ray of light can enter through one end of the fiber
and still be totally internally reflected.
Rays enter through the cone shown in Fig. 2.26
1.26 is subjected to total internal
reflection in the cone and reaches the other end of the fibre. Hence, this cone is
called acceptance cone.

2.20.2 NUMERICAL APERTURE

Definition: Sine of the optical fibre acceptance angle. It gives the light gathering
capability of the fibre.
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … . . (1.16)
Substituting eqn. (1.13) in eqn. (1.16)

𝒏 𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 =
𝒏𝟎
If the surrounding medium is air, then n0 = 1,

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 −𝑛 (1.17)

2.20.3 FRACTIONAL INDEX CHANGE (FIC) (Δ)

Definition: Ratio of the difference of refractive indices of core and cladding to the
refractive index of core.
𝑛 −𝑛
Δ= (1.18)
𝑛
𝑛 Δ=𝑛 −𝑛 (1.19)

We know that

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 −𝑛 (1.20)

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 + 𝑛 (𝑛 − 𝑛 ) (1.21)

Substituting eqn. (2.9) in eqn. (2.11), we have

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 + 𝑛 (𝑛 Δ)

If 𝑛 ≅ 𝑛 ,
𝑁𝐴 = 2𝑛 ∆ (1.22)
2.21 FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION

Fig. 2.35 Fibre optic communication system

1. One of the main advantage of optical fibre is communication. Like all other
communication system, the primary objective of optical fiber communication
system also is to transfer the signal containing information (voice, data, and
video) from the source to the destination.
2. The general block diagram of optical fiber communication system is shown in the
Fig. 2.35.
3. The source provides information in the form of electrical signal to the transmitter.
4. The electrical stage of the transmitter drives an optical source to produce
modulated light wave carrier.
5. Semiconductor LASERs or LEDs are usually used as optical source here.
6. The information carrying light wave then passes through the transmission
medium i.e. optical fiber cables in this system.
7. Now it reaches to the receiver stage where the optical detector demodulates the
optical carrier and gives an electrical output signal to the electrical stage.
8. The common types of optical detectors used are photodiodes (p-i-n, avalanche),
phototransistors, photoconductors etc.
9. Finally the electrical stage gets the real information back and gives it to the
concerned destination.

2.22 FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS

Fibre optic sensor is a transducer which converts any form of signal into optical signal
in a measureable form as shown in Fig. 2.36. It is used to measure parameters like
displacement, pressure, temperature, phase etc.

Fig. 2.36 Fibre Optic Sensor

Types of Fibre Optic Sensors
The two types of fibre optic sensors are:
(a) Intrinsic sensors (or) Active sensors.
(b) Extrinsic sensors (or) Passive sensors.
(a) Intrinsic Sensor (or) Active Sensor
If the measuring parameter directly acts on the fibre, then produces the change in
the amount of optical signal passing through it, then the sensor is known as Intrinsic
sensor (or) Active sensor.
Example: Temperature Sensor, Pressure Sensor, Liquid Level Sensor, Intensity
Sensor, Phase Sensor, Polarization Sensor and Wavelength sensor.
(b) Extrinsic Sensor (or) Passive Sensor
If the measuring parameter does not directly act on the fibre, but it just transmits the
optical signal and the fibre acts as a guiding medium, then the sensor is known as
Extrinsic sensor (or) Passive sensor.
Example: Displacement Sensor, Laser Doppler Velocimeter Sensor, Liquid level
sensor
2.22.1 INTRINSIC SENSOR OR ACTIVE SENSOR -
(TEMPERATURE / PRESSURE SENSOR)
Light from a laser source passes through a beam splitter which is a
partially silvered mirror inclined exactly at 45 as shown in Fig. 1.37. The
beam is made to fall on a glass plate inclined at an angle of 45° with respect
to the direction of the laser beam.
The light is split into two equal beams of equal intensity after
passing through the partially silvered mirror. One of the beam after
condensing through lens L1 is passed through reference fibre, whereas the
other beam after condensing through lens L3 is passed through the test fibre
which is subjected to the environment for which the parameter is to be
measured (temperature, pressure). Separate lens system L2 is provided to
collect the light beam.
The reference fibre and the test fibre should be symmetrical in
dimension and material. The path travelled by the two beams should be of
the same distance before the test fibre is subjected to temperature or
pressure i.e., the parameter which is to be measured.

Fig. 2.37 Active sensor (Temperature / Pressure) sensor

The two beams after passing through the reference and test fibres produce a path
difference, when the test fibre is subjected to temperature or pressure. Thus change
in temperature/pressure can be accurately measured with the help of interference
pattern formed by the two beams due to path difference.

2.22.2 EXTRINSIC SENSOR OR PASSIVE SENSOR -

(DISPLACEMENT SENSOR)
In Extrinsic sensor, two separate fibres of same dimension and materials are used.
One of the fibre is used for transmitting the light to the moving object and the other
one to receive the reflected light from the object as shown in Fig. 2.38 i.e.,
transmitting fibre is coupled to the laser source and receiving fibre is coupled to the
detector.
The light from the source is incident on the object after passing through the
transmitting fibre. After reflection from the object it undergoes a change in its
intensity and reaches the receiving fibre, where its intensity is detected by a
detector.

Fig. 2.38 Displacement sensor

Based on the intensity of light received, the displacement of the object can be
measured. If the intensity received is more, then the object moves towards the
sensor and if the intensity is less, then the object moves away from sensor. If the
intensity remains constant, then the object is immobile. Thus from the intensity of
light received, the displacement of the object can be measured.
 Key Points to Remember - LASER
The term ‘LASER’ is an acronym of ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation’.
Characteristics of a laser beam are
• High directionality
• High intensity
• High monochromaticity
• High degree of coherence
Planck’s radiation law,

8𝜋ℎν 1
𝜌 =
𝑐𝑒 −1
Active medium is the material in which laser action takes place. It may
be a solid or liquid or gas.
Pumping source is a device by which population inversion is achieved
in the active medium.
Making the number of atoms (N2) in the excited state is greater than
the number of atoms (N1) in the ground state is called population
inversion.
In some semiconductors like germanium and silicon, most of the
energy is released in the form of heat during the recombination
process. They are called as indirect band gap semiconductors.
In the case of other semiconductors such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
the energy is released in the form of light during the recombination
process. They are called as direct band gap semiconductors.
Key Points to Remember – Fibre Optics

The principle of propagation of light through the optical fiber is Total

Internal Reflection.
When the angle of refraction of the ray is 90°, the corresponding
angle of incidence is called Critical angle θc.
Acceptance angle of the fiber,

𝟏
𝜽𝟎 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐

Numerical Aperture is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle of

the fiber. It gives the light gathering capability of the fiber.

𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 =
𝒏𝟎
The
Fibreattenuation loss,
optic communication system consists of Transmitter Block, Receiver
Block and Optical Fibre.
𝟏𝟎 𝒊𝒏 𝑷
Fibre optic sensor is 𝜶a =transducer
𝒍𝒐𝒈 which converts
𝒅𝑩/𝒌𝒎any form of signal into
𝑳
optical signal in a measureable form 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕

When the radius of curvature of the bend is greater compared to the

radius of the fiber, then the bend is called as macroscopic bend.
If the measuring environment directly acts on the fiber, then the
sensor is known as Intrinsic sensor (or) Active sensor.
In extrinsic or passive sensor, separate sensing element is used and
the fiber acts as a guiding medium.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS - LASER
1. A semiconductor diode laser has a peak emission wavelengthof 1.55 μm. Find
its band gap in eV. (K3,CO3)
GIVEN DATA
Wavelength (λ) = 1.55 x 10−6 mm
Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625 x 10−34Js
Velocity of light (c) = 3 x 108 m/s
SOLUTION

Energy gap Eg= = 6.625x10-34x3x108 / (1.55 x 10-6) = 0.8014 eV

2. A solid state laser emits a photon of wavelength 7800×10−10 m of power

20 mW. Calculate the number of photons emitted in 10 ns. (K3,CO3)
GIVEN DATA
Wavelength λ = 7800 x 10−10 m, time t =10 x 10−9 s, Power P = 20 x 10−3 W
SOLUTION

Energy gap Eg= = 6.625x10-34x3x108 / (7800 x 10-10 ) = 2.548 x 10-19 J

Total energy emitted in 10 x 10–9 second = Power x Time = 20 x 10–3 x10 x 10–9
= 200 x 10-12 J
TotalEnergy 200  10 12
Number of photons emitted in 10 ns  
Energy of aphoton 2.548  10 19
 7.849  10 8 photons
Number of photons emitted in 10 ns = 7.849 x 108 photons

3. What is the ratio of the stimulated emission to spontaneous emission at

temperature of 250°C for the sodium D line? (λ = 590nm)
(K3,CO3)
GIVEN DATA
Boltzmann constant (k ) = 1.38 x 10-23JK-1
Temperature (T ) = 250°C = 250 + 273 = 523 K
Wavelength(λ) = 590 x 10−9m
Planck’sconstant (h) = 6.625 x 10−34Js
Frequency = Velocity / Wavelength

(K3,CO3)

(K3,CO3)
 SOLVED PROBLEMS – Fibre Optics
1. Compute the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle of an optical
fibre from the following data (K3, CO3)

Refractive index of the core n1 = 1.55

Refractive index of the cladding n2 = 1.50

and surrounding medium (air) n0 = 1

Solution

Numerical aperture of an optical fibre is given by

Acceptance angle (θA) is given by

(K3,CO3)
3. Calculate the numerical aperture of an optical fibre whose core and
cladding are made of materials of refractive indices 1.6 and 1.5
respectively. (K3, CO1)
(K3,CO3)
Solution
NA = n1 − n 2

NA = 1.6 − 1.5
= 0.55677

4. An optical fibre of core and cladding materials of refractive indices 1.6

and 1.45 respectively. Calculate the angle of cone in which any light ray
that enters should undergo total internal reflection and get propagated
along the length of optical fibre. (K3, CO1)
(K3,CO3)
Solution
NA = n1 − n2

NA = 1.6 − 1.45

= 0.6764

Acceptance angle (θA) is given by

θ = sin (N. A)

θ = sin 0.6764 = 42.563°

∴ Angle of cone = 2θA= 2 42.563° = 85.126°

5. For 589 nm light, calculate the critical angle for the following materials
surrounded by air. (a) diamond, n = 2.419 (b) flint glass, n = 1.66 (c) ice,
n = 1.309. (K3, CO1)
(K3,CO3)
Solution
Sin(θC)= . For air, n2=1, so Sin(θC)=
(a) Diamond: n1=2.419, Sin(θC)=0.41, θC= 24.42°
(a) Flint glass: n1=1.66, Sin(θC)=0.60, θC= 37.04°
(a) ice : n1=1.309, Sin(θC)=0.76, θC= 49.81°
6. An optical fibre has a NA of 0.20 and a refractive index of cladding 1.59.
Determine the acceptance angle for the fibre in water which has a
refractive index of 1.33. (K3, CO1)
(K3,CO3)
Solution

When the fibre is in air n0 = 1

NA = n1 − n 2

When the fibre is in water n0 = 1.33

NA = n1 − n2 =0.20

n1 = N. A + n2 =1.6025

𝑛 −𝑛
𝑁𝐴 =
𝑛

1.605 − 1.59
= = 0.15
1.33

Acceptance angle θ = sin (N.A)= sin (0.15) = 86°

8.6˚
 VIDEO LINKS

LASERs
1. Introduction to Lasers
2. Stimulated Emission
3. Difference between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
4. Semiconductor laser construction
5. Principle of Semiconductor Laser
6. LASERs
FIBRE OPTICS
1. Structure of fiber
2. Total internal reflection
3. How cables work
4. How cables work
5. Snell’s law
6. Fundamentals of fiber/part 1
7. Fundamentals of fiber/part 2
8. Single mode fiber
9. Multimode fiber
10. Step index and graded index fiber
11. Complete 5min video about fiber
12. Attenuation and dispersion
13. Losses in fiber
14. Classification of Sensors : Active sensors and Passive Sensors
15. Active and Passive Sensors
 QUIZ

After completing the course, students are instructed to take

the following quiz to quantify their understanding of the
concepts on Laser and Fibre Optics.

1. https://forms.gle/njUCjGncv38GLh9p7
2. https://forms.gle/gTkXdYpV6v5Q8Lvd7
3. https://forms.gle/gKLx4pDp49s1vGC88
4. https://forms.gle/AUgVy55KskR57wA57

Results:

Repeat Learning: Score < 60%

Good: 60% ≤ Score ≤ 90%
Very Good: Score > 90%
 ASSIGNMENT
Instruction to students
Q. No 1 to 10- Attend the problems by choosing from the given category I to V
Q. No 11- Attend compulsorily
(DATE OF SUBMISSION ON OR BEFORE: 20.02.2025)

Q. Knowledge
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS Marks CO Category
No. level

1. Draw the flow chart for laser action. 5 K3 CO3

I
A 10 mW laser has a beam diameter of 1.6
mm. Calculate its intensity of the light
2. 5 K3 CO3
assuming that it has uniform intensity
across the beam.

In a He-Ne laser system, the two energy

levels of Ne involved in lasing action have
energy values of 20.66 eV and 18.7˚C
levels. Population inversion occurs
between these two levels. what will be the
3. 5 K2 CO3
wavelength of the laser beam produced?
what will be the population of the
metastable energy level with respect to
upper excited level at room temperature
(27˚C) ? II

Determine the acceptance angle of an

optical fibre whose core and cladding
refractive indices are 1.65 and 1.50,
respectively. This optical fibre is immersed
4. 5 K3 CO3
in a liquid of refractive index 1.33. Can a
light incident at an angle 30° propagates
through the optical fibre? Justify your
answer.

If a fibre has a core refractive index 1.45

and cladding refractive index is 1.447. Find
5. 5 K3 CO3 III
its numerical aperture, acceptance angle
and critical angle.
 ASSIGNMENT
Q. Knowledge Category
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS Marks CO
No. level

Find the ratio of population of higher

energy state to lower energy state. when
the optical pumping is used at 27 degree
6 5 K3 CO3 III
Celsius and photons of wavelength 6982
x 10-8 m are emitted.

A system has three energy levels E1, E2,

and E3. The energy levels E1 and E2 are
at 0 eV and 1.4 eV respectively. If the
7 5 K3 CO3
lasing action takes place from the energy
level E3 and E2, and emits a light of
wavelength 1.2 μm, find the value of E3. IV

Find the relative populations of the two

states in a laser that produces allied
8 5 K3 CO3
beam of wavelength 6943 Å at 300k and
500 K.

A step index in air has a numerical

aperture of 0.16, a core refractive index
9 5 K3 CO3
of 1.45. Determine its acceptance angle
and critical angle.

V
The angle of acceptance of an optical
fiber is 𝟑𝟎 when kept in air. Find the
10 acceptance angle when the same fiber is 5 K3 CO3
immersed in water of refractive index
1.33.

Elucidate the multifaceted applications of

Laser technology in revolutionizing
11 10 K2 CO3 Compulsory
communication system and streamlining
the data processing mechanism.
 Allotment Marks for Assignment

Course Outcomes:
On completion of this course, the students will be able to
CO3: Associate the basic principles of working of laser and their
applications in fiber optics

Correctness of Timely
Presentation Total (Marks)
the Content Submission

20 7 3 30
 Part A—Questions with Answers

1. What are the characteristics of laser light? (K2,CO3)

The characteristics of laser light are:
• Highly directional,
• Highly monochromatic,
• High intensity,
• Coherence and in-phase, and
• Less angular spread.

2. List out the important components of a laser. (K2,CO3)

The important components of laser are:
(i) Active medium,
(ii) Pumping system and
(iii) Optical resonator.

3. Can a two-level system be used for the production of laser? Why?

(K2,CO3)
A two-level system cannot be used for the production of laser since there should be
a meta-stable state for stimulated emission.

4. Define the term “stimulated emission”. (K2,CO3)

Stimulated emission is the process by which an atom or molecule in an excited state
undergoes a transition to the ground state when excited state is exposed to the
external radiation.

5. Narrate the principles of laser action. (K2,CO3)

The excited state atoms are stimulated by external energy source to make
transitions to the lower energy state. During transitions, the atoms emit coherent
photons in the direction as that of the incident photon. The released photons are
then used to stimulate the excited atoms and hence coherent photons are emitted in
the medium. The light is amplified by stimulated emission of radiation.
6. What are the conditions needed for laser action? (K2,CO3)
The two important conditions required for laser action are:
(i) Population inversion should be achieved, and
(ii) Stimulated emission should be predominant over spontaneous emission.

7. Define population inversion. (K2,CO3)

The establishment of a situation in which there are more number of atoms in the
excited state than the ground state is called population inversion.

8. What is pumping and metastable state? (K2,CO3)

Pumping Process: The process of raising more number of atoms to the excited
state artificially is called as pumping process.
Meta stable state: An energy level (or) state whose lifetime is greater than that of
hydrogen atom (10–8 sec), then the energy state is called meta stable state.

9. Mention the methods of achieving population inversion? (K2,CO3)

i. Optical pumping
ii. Electrical discharge method
iii. Direct conversion
iv. Inelastic atom–atom collision
v. Chemical reaction

10. What is the principle of semiconductor laser? (K2,CO3)

The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band and
produces energy in the form of a light. This photon induces another electron from
conduction band to move to the valence band and stimulates the emission of
coherent photons.

11. What are the advantages of hetero-junction semiconductor laser?

(K2,CO3)
The power output of heterojunction laser is very high when compared to that of
homo-junction laser.
The hetero-junction semiconductor laser produces continuous wave output but in
homo-junction the output wave is pulsed and will be continuous only for some time.
The hetero-junction laser has high directionality and high coherence but in homo-
junction, the beam has large divergence.

12. Mention the applications of laser in engineering and medicine.

(K2,CO3)
Engineering applications:
i. Welding
ii. Cutting
iii. Drilling
iv. Microelectronic application: It is used in making photo masks, writing and
reading CD’s and DVD’s, designing thin film circuits.
Medical applications:
i. Drill minute holes in cell walls of human body.
ii. Treat the detached retina.
iii. Carry out microsurgery and bloodless operations.
iv. Treat cancer and tumors in human beings and animals.

13. List the two major differences of homojunction and heterojunction

semiconductor lasers. (K2,CO3)
A homojunction uses the same semiconductor material with different doping on both
sides of the junction whereas a heterojunction uses two semiconductor materials
having different band gap energies on both sides of the junction.
Power output is low for homojunction and high for heterojunction laser.

14. What is meant by Cavity loss? (K2,CO3)

The optical cavities are also known as optical resonators are used to amplify the
light within the cavity, so the mirrors used are highly reflective. The loss of light
occurs in the resonating cavity during laser transition is called as cavity loss.
15.Why does cavity loss occur? (K2, CO3)
Losses inside an optical cavity is due to
i. Misalignment of the laser mirrors: When the optical cavity mirrors are not
exactly aligned perpendicular to the laser axis and symmetric, the radiation
within the cavity will not be limited during its path between the mirrors.
ii. Absorption and scattering losses in optical elements: Since optical
elements are not ideal, each interaction with optical element inside the cavity
cause some losses.
iii. Diffraction losses: Each time a laser beam passes through a limiting
aperture it diffracts, which causes some losses.

16. What are the conditions to be satisfied for total internal reflection?
(K2, CO3)
The conditions to be satisfied for observing total internal reflection are as follows
i. Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
ii. The angle of incidence θ1 on core should be greater than the critical angle θc,
i.e., θ1 >θc
iii. The refractive index of the core (n1) should be greater than the refractive index
of the cladding (n2). i.e. n1 > n2

17. Define critical angle (K2, CO3)

The incident angle θ1 that produces an angle of refraction of 90º is called the critical
𝟏 𝒏𝟐
angle, θc.𝜽𝒄 = sin 𝒏𝟏

18. Define acceptance angle. (K2, CO3)

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter into the
fibre so that it can have total internal reflection inside the fibre.

𝜽𝟎 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏
𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

19. Define Numerical aperture. (K2, CO3)

It is the light collecting efficiency of the fibre. It is the measure of the amount of
light rays that can be accepted by the fibre. It is equal to the sine of the acceptance

angle. 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟎 and 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

20. What is the basic principle of fibre optic sensor? (K2, CO3)

It measures change in parameters like temperature, pressure, displacement, phase

etc, by their influence on intensity of light passing through an optical fibre.

21. What are the different types of fibre optic sensors? (K2, CO3)
The different types of sensors are
(i) Intrinsic sensors (or) Active sensors
(ii) Extrinsic sensors (or) Passive sensors

22. Give the applications of fibre optic sensors. (K2, CO3)

Sensors are devices used to measure temperature, pressure, displacement, etc.,
accurately with the change in intensity of light produced by it, while passing through
an optical fibre.
 Part - B (Important Questions)
1. Differentiate spontaneous and stimulated emissions. Derive Einstein’s A and B
coefficients for lasing action. (K2,CO3)
2. For atomic transitions, derive Einstein’s relations and hence deduce the
expressions for the ratio of spontaneous emission rate to stimulated emission
rate. (K2,CO3)
3. Explain the principle, construction and working of homojunction semiconductor
diode laser with necessary diagrams. (K2,CO3)
4. Explain the principle, construction and working of hetero junction semiconductor
diode laser with necessary diagrams. (K2,CO3)
5. Explain the following with necessary diagram: (i) Optical resonating cavity (ii)
Optical amplification. (K2,CO3)
6. Compare a homojunction semiconductor laser with a heterojunction
semiconductor laser and detail their features. (K2,CO3)
7. Give a schematic sketch of normal and population inversion state of a laser and
obtain Einstein coefficients A and B. (K2,CO3)
8. Obtain the ratio of stimulated emission rate to stimulated absorption rate and
discuss population inversion. (K2,CO3)
9. Describe the propagation of light through an optical fibre. Derive an expression
for numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fibre. (K2,CO3)
10.Explain the construction and working of active and passive fibre optic sensors.
(K2, CO3)
11.Explain with a neat diagram, the working of displacement sensor and pressure
sensor. (K2, CO3)
 ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

NPTEL
1. Introduction to LASER
2. LASER: Fundamentals and Applications
3. Fibre Optics
4. Optical Communication
5. Optical Fibre Sensors
6. Fiber Optic Communication Technology
7. Fiber Optic Communication Systems and Techniques

Coursera
1. Light Emitting Diodes and Semiconductor Lasers
2. First Order Optical System Design
3. Optical Efficiency and Resolution
4. Active Optical Devices Specialization
5. Design of High-Performance Optical Systems -
6. Pressure, Force, Motion, and Humidity Sensors

SPIE
What are Lasers Good For?

UDEMY COURSES
Sensors: Everything You Need To Know
 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS
LASER

1. Creative Laser Applications for Business Owners and Entrepreneurs

2. Laser Tattoo Removal

3. Engrave T shirts with 2.5w laser engraver

4. Laser Pointer

5. Laser Engraver

6. World's first lecture delivered via hologram

FIBRE OPTICS

1. Active and Passive Remote Sensing

2. Low-cost optical fiber based temperature sensor for real-time health

monitoring of power transformers

3. Application Of Fibre-optic Technologies For Real-time Structural

Monitoring - The Monico EC Project

4. Sensors
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

LASER

1. Nd-YAG laser

2. Helium Neon Laser

3. Laser Surface Engineering with Laser surface hardening and laser

surface melting

4. Hologram

FIBRE OPTICS

1. How Does an Endoscope Work?

2. Optical fiber cables, how do they work?

PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS & REFERENCE
BOOKS
TEXTBOOKS
1. Neil W Ashcroft and N David Mermin, Solid State Physics, Harcourt
College Publishers,1976
2. M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “A text book of Engineering
Physics”, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2014.
3. David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Prentice-Hall (2004).
4. Thomas G. Wong, Introduction to Classical and Quantum Computing,
Rooted Grove (2022).
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R. A. Serway and J.W. Jewett, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Ninth
Edition, Cengage Learning, 2014.
2. Marikani, Materials Science, PHI Learning Private Limited, Eastern
Economy Edition, 2017.
3. R. Wolfson, Essential University Physics, Volume 1 and 2 with Mastering
Physics, Global Edition,3rd Edition, Pearson 2017.
4. B.K. Pandey and S. Chaturvedi, Engineering Physics, Cengage Learning
India, 2012.
5. Scott Aaronson, Quantum Computing Since Democritus, Cambridge
University Press (2014).
6. Mermin, N. David, Making better sense of quantum mechanics. Reports
on Progress in Physics 82.1 (2018): 012002.
7. Michael Nielsen, L. Isaac Chuang, Quantum Computation and Quantum
Information, Cambridge University Press (2010).
8. Physics for Computer Science and Information Technology Laboratory
Manual, R.M.K. Engineering College, 2022.
 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

S. Topics K CO
No. level

LEVEL I
Laser ignition system
1. K4 CO3
https://www.skyfilabs.com/project-ideas/laser-ignition-
system

LEVEL II

Laser Engraver using Arduino

2. K4 CO3
https://www.skyfilabs.com/project-ideas/laser-engraver-
using-arduino

LEVEI III

3. Optical Fibers and LEDs - Three Projects K4 CO3

https://www.instructables.com/Optical-Fibers-and-LEDs-
Three-Projects/

LEVEL IV
Total Internal Reflection
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SE0gDqBAom4 K4 CO3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GG-
Q1QlrZs&feature=youtu.be

LEVEL V
Students explore the fundamentals of a laser using a
computer model called the PhET simulator. Students
investigate the laser using a single atom for the active
5. medium, and observe how the three basic parts of the laser K4 CO3
produce laser light.
https://www.compadre.org/introphys/items/detail.cfm?ID=4
425
 Allocation Marks for Mini project

Students can do the mini project activity corresponding to each category and record
the video of this activity done at home and you can submit in GCR with explanation.

OR

Any other related mini project in this related topic

ALLOCATION OF MARKS
SCOPE AND RELEVANCE : 10
INNOVATION, PRESENTATION, CREATIVITY : 10
INTERPRETATION :5
RESULT :5
TOTAL MARKS : 30

Last date of submission – 21/02/2025

 Thank you

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