solar energy laboratory report.

Bachelor of science with education Physical- Option.

NAME: YIGA HUSSEIN

REG. NO: 2201200282. SUBJECT CODE: PHY3205.

ST. NO: 2022/U/00282.

YEAR OF STUDY: THREE(3)

SIGN: …………………………………………………….

APRIL 7, 2025
Experiment to analyze the Solar Panel Performance in single, Series and Parallel Connections.

Aims:

1. To determine the voltage, current, and power output for modules in which the cells are
connected in circuit wired in single, series and parallel under same test conditions.
2. To determine what combination of series and parallel circuits the individual cells or modules
should be wired.

Apparatus:

Two photovoltaic panels, sunlight, connecting wires with alligator clips, Rheostat, and two
multimeters.

Set up of experiment.

1. Theory of experiment.

Solar panels convert sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic (PV) cells. The performance of
these panels can be evaluated based on their voltage, current, and power output.

Variations in Silicon(Si) materials used to make solar cells each with advantages and disadvantages.

Monocrystalline Silicon (Mono-Si): Made from a single continuous crystal structure

 Advantages: High efficiency (20-25%), long lifespan (25+ years), space-efficient.

 Disadvantages: Expensive, high silicon wastage during manufacturing.

Polycrystalline Silicon (Poly-Si): Made from multiple silicon crystals.

 Advantages: Lower cost, easier to manufacture.

 Disadvantages: Lower efficiency (15-20%), requires more space.

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) (Thin-Film): Non-crystalline, deposited as a thin film on substrates

Disadvantages: Lowest efficiency (7-10%), faster degradation.

Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) Silicon: An improved version of mono-Si with an extra
passivation layer.

 Advantages: Higher efficiency (22-25%), better low-light and high-temperature performance.

 Disadvantages: More expensive, additional processing required.

The two primary configurations for connecting solar panels are: Series Connection where Voltages add
up, while the current remains the same as the lowest-rated panel. Parallel Connection, in which
currents add up, while the voltage remains the same as the lowest-rated panel. The figure below
shows series connection on the left and parallel connection on the right

Series connection: This kind of circuit consists of panels(positive to negative) connection, meaning
that the same current flows through each component since there is only one path for the current.

Let’s assume i resistors(solar cells), R1, R2, ..., Ri connected in series with a voltage source V.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the sum of voltage drops across all elements in a closed loop must
equal the total supplied voltage:

V=V1+V2+⋯+Vi where Vi is the voltage drop across the ith resistor

Ohm’s Law states that the voltage drop across a resistor is given by:

Vi=IRi

Substituting this into Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

V=IR1+IR2+⋯+IRn

V=I(R1+R2+⋯+Rn)
V
I= where the equivalent resistance of the series combination is: Req=R1+R2+⋯+Rn
R eqm

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From the derivation, it is clear that current I, does not depend on individual resistances but only on

I1= I2= ⋯ =Ii = I

Contrary, in parallel connection:

Their positive terminals are connected together, and their negative terminals are also connected
together. This configuration allows multiple current paths while maintaining the same voltage across
each solar cell.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states: "The sum of the voltage drops around any closed loop in a circuit must
be zero."

V1 = V2 = V3= ⋯ = Vn = Vs or V1 - V2 = V2 - V3 = ⋯ Vn-1 = Vn = 0 where Vs is the voltage produced

Since each solar cell in a parallel connection is connected across the same two points, the voltage
across each branch must be equal.

Thus, the voltage across the entire parallel network of solar cells is the same as the voltage of a single
solar cell: Vparallel = Vs

Itotal = I1 + I2 + ⋯+ In
Across each terminal of the parallel cells, the current in the circuit divides, so the total current in the
circuit is:
Vs
Where I = and RL is the load resistance subjected on the cells
RL

If a load is connected across the parallel solar cells, the total current flowing through the load is given
by Ohm’s Law:
V¿
I total=
RL

These equations show that the current produced by each cell in parallel connection is different and
must be smaller than the total current of the individual solar cells. The total current is higher than in
series connection but the voltage is lower compared to series connection.

The power (P), delivered by a solar cell (or any electrical component) is given by: P=V⋅I

Where V is the voltage across the solar cell, and I is the current flowing through the solar cell.

The Maximum Power Point (MPP) is the point where the product of voltage and current is maximized
for a given solar cell or array of cells.

Series Connection of Solar Cells:

 Let Vs be the voltage and Is the current for each individual solar cell.

 The total voltage across the series-connected solar cells is the sum of the voltages of each
individual cell:

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 Vseries = n⋅Vs where n is number of solar cells

The current remains the same as for a single cell, since current in a series connection is constant:
Iseries= Is

The total power output for the series connection can be expressed as:

Pseries = Vseries⋅Iseries= (n⋅Vs)⋅Is = n⋅Vs Is

At the maximum power point (MPP), the voltage and current for each solar cell are given by their
respective MPP values, Vs,mp

Thus, for n cells connected in series is Vseries, mp = n⋅Vs,mp

Iseries, mp=Is,mp

The maximum power output for the series connection is then:

Pseries, max=Vseries, mp⋅Iseries, mp=n⋅Vs,mp⋅Is,mp

Parallel Connection of Solar Cells:

 Let Vs be the voltage and Is the current for each individual solar cell.

 The voltage across all parallel-connected solar cells is the same as the voltage of a single solar
cell: Vparallel=Vs

The total current is the sum of the currents of each individual cell:

Iparallel=n⋅Is

The total power output for the parallel connection can be expressed as:

Pparallel=Vparallel⋅Iparallel=Vs⋅(n⋅Is)=n⋅Vs⋅Is

At the maximum power point (MPP), the voltage and current for each solar cell are given by their
respective MPP values, Vs,mp.

Thus, for nnn cells connected in parallel:

Vparallel, mp=Vs,mp

Iparallel, mp=n⋅Is,mp

The maximum power output for the parallel connection is then:

Pparallel, max=Vparallel, mp⋅Iparallel, mp = Vs,mp⋅(n⋅Is,mp)

The power is therefore expected to increase from zero up to maximum and then drops back to zero
due to short circuit current and short circuit voltages that is to say;

P = IV where

a. current became zero at the open-circuit voltage (Voc) and,

b. voltage reading is zero initially at the short-circuit current (Isc)

V = IR so, increase in resistance increases the potential difference across the rheostat hence
power output until a point when resistance becomes much reducing current to hence power to a short
circuit voltage (Voc).

At this point, the panel operates with an optimal balance of current and voltage to deliver the highest
possible power output.

When a solar panel operates in the lower voltage range, it behaves like a current source. The current
should remain nearly constant because the generated photocurrent is primarily determined by the
intensity of sunlight and not by the voltage across the panel. The solar cells provide their maximum
current (short-circuit current ISC ) with minimal voltage.

As the voltage increases further, the current therefore should start to decrease rapidly due to high
resistance. This happens because the internal resistance of the solar panel and the recombination of
charge carriers increase.

Eventually, the current drops to zero because the electrical load prevents current flow called open-
circuit voltage (VOC).

When graphs of current against Voltage, the (I-V) characteristic curve and power(P) are plotted for
single solar panel, series and parallel connection the graph below is expected under optimum
conditions.

Series connections are used to increase the voltage output of a solar array, while parallel connections
are used to increase the current output as evidenced by the derivations above for same current in
series and similar voltage in parallel, however it is centrally for both cases of voltage and current
respectively.

The maximum power point for the parallel connection is shifted towards a higher current compared to
the single cell. The power is increased because even if the voltage is the same, the current is higher.

The power output of a solar panel is influenced by several factors, which can either enhance or reduce
its efficiency in converting sunlight into electricity. These factors can be classified into environmental
and technical categories like solar irradiance, Temperature, Angle of incidence(tilt angle), Dust and

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dirt accumulation, shade, age and degradation, panel orientation, Serie and parallel connection,
among other factors.

2. Procedure of experiment:
2.1 Part I: Single Photovoltaic Cell
a) Using a solar panel, rheostat, and wires with alligator clips, the circuit was connected as shown
in the setup diagram.
b) Variable resistor was adjusted to zero ohms (when voltage reading was zero initially) and the
short-circuit current (Isc) was recorded.
c) Gradually, the resistance was increased while recording the corresponding current and voltage
readings until the maximum resistance setting was reached ( reached as zero) and the results
tabulated.
d) The rheostat was disconnected from the test circuit (current became zero) and the open-circuit
voltage was recorded as (Voc).
e) Using the collected data, the (graph of I against v) I-V curve was plotted on graph paper. Aswell,
the graph of the power curve was plotted and was used to find the coordinate for the maximum
power point (P) on the I-V curve.
f) The power, voltage, and current at the maximum power point for the single cell I-V curve was
determined.
2.2 Part II: Series and parallel Connection.

g) Steps a) to d) were repeated for two photovoltaic cells connected in series by joining positive
end of one cell to the negative end of another.

h) Steps a) to d) were repeated for two photovoltaic cells connected in parallel in which positive
terminal of the panel was connected to positive of another, similarly negative terminal to negative of
another panel.

i) On the same graph, I-V characteristic curves (current against voltage) for two cells connected in
series and then parallel were plotted. A new power curve on this same graph was drawn and used to
find the x-coordinate(voltage) for maximum power point on the series circuit I-V curve.

j) On the same graph, I-V characteristic curve (current against voltage) for two cells connected in
parallel was plotted. A new power curve on this same graph was drawn and used to find the x-
coordinate(voltage) for maximum power point on the parallel circuit I-V curve.

k) The power, voltage, and current at the maximum power point(P) for the I-V curves were then
determined for single cell, parallel circuit, and series circuit

l) The results from part I and part II were analyzed and what happened to the voltage, and
amperage when in parallel circuit identified and discussed.

m) The condition(s) when it would be useful to connect the photovoltaic cell in series and parallel
were analyzed.

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 3. Results.

Tables of results

let voltage be V , Power be P, and current be I

Part I: Single Photovoltaic Cell

b) Isc = 0.57 ± 0.01A

d) Voc = 18.5 ± 0.1V

V ± 0.1(V) I ± 0.01(A) P ± 0.20(W)

0.0 0.57 0.00

4.0 0.50 2.00

8.0 0.45 3.60

12.0 0.38 4.56

15.0 0.32 4.80

17.0 0.28 4.76

18.0 0.20 3.60

18.5 0.00 0.00

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 Part II: Series Connection

Isc = 0.57 A

Voc = 37.5 V

Table of results

V ± 0.1(V) I ± 0.01(A) P ±0.20(W)

0.0 0.57 0.00

10.0 0.50 5.00

20.0 0.45 9.00

28.0 0.38 10.64

32.0 0.32 10.24

35.0 0.28 9.80

37.0 0.20 7.40

37.5 0.00 0.00

Parallel Connection

Isc = 1.08 A

Voc = 18.5 V

Table of results

V ±0.1(V) I ± 0.01 (A) P ±0.20(W)

0.0 1.08 0.00

5.0 1.00 5.00

10.0 0.90 9.00

14.0 0.78 10.92

16.5 0.68 11.22

17.5 0.55 9.63

18.0 0.45 8.10

18.5 0.00 0.00

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 4. Discussion of results.

The images below were the ratings of the solar panels.

Error analysis

Error in power(P)

Part I: Single Photovoltaic Cell.

From the graph, current decreases gradually from short circuit current of 0.57 ±0.01A up to a certain
point of 0.28 ±0.01A and 17.0 ±0.1V then decreases steeply with a small change in voltage to open
circuit voltage of 18.5 ±0.1V. This shape of the graph slightly agrees with the theoretical flamework
where it is almost constant at first then steeply for I-V characteristic curve due to increase in load
resistance of rheostat.

As the current decreases, power output increases steeply from 0W due to zero load applied up to
maximum value of 0.48 ±0.20W, the maximum experimental power output of the solar panel then
decreases steeply to zero due to no current flow attributed to maximum load resistance.

f) From the graph, at maximum power point on I-V curve yields, Voltage (V) = 16.6 ±0.1V.

current(I) = 0.29 ±0.01A

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 power(P) = 2.9 ±0.20W

Part II: Series Connection.

From the graph, current decreases gradually from short circuit current of 0.57±0.01A up to a certain
point of 0.28 ±0.01A and 35.0 ±0.20V then decreases steeply with a small change in voltage to open
circuit voltage of 37.5 ±0.1V which agrees with theory of experiment. This shape of the graph agrees
with the theoretical flamework of I-V characteristic curve due to increase in load resistance of
rheostat.

As the current decreases, power output increases gradually from zero due to zero load applied up to
maximum value of 4.8 ±0.20W, the maximum experimental power output of the solar panel then
decreases steeply to zero due to no current flow attributed to maximum load resistance.

k) From the graph, at maximum power point on I-V curve yields, Voltage (V) = 28.5 ±0.1V.

current(I) = 0.38 ±0.01A

power(P) = 3.8 ±0.20W

parallel Connection.

From the graph, current decreases gradually from short circuit current of 1.08 ±0.01A up to a certain
point of 0.68 ±0.01A and 16.5 ±0.01V then decreases steeply with a small change in voltage to open
circuit voltage of 18.5V. This shape of the graph agrees with the theoretical flamework of I-V
characteristic curve due to increase in load resistance of rheostat.

As the current decreases, power output increases gradually from zero due to zero load applied up to
maximum value of 0.48 ±0.20W, the maximum experimental power output of the solar panel then
decreases steeply to zero due to no current flow attributed to maximum load resistance.

k) From the graph, at maximum power point on I-V curve yields, Voltage (V) = 16.4±0.1V.

current(I) = 0.69±0.01A

power(P) = 6.9±0.20W

5. Sources of errors

Taking readings from the multimeters with allot of precision to accumulated errors that affected the
results.

Using solar panels of different ratings affected the theoretical background of the experiment since the
theory only based an assumption that the solar panels are of the same ratings that was not the case.

Over rounding off of the values during calculations and graphing might have accumulated the errors in
the final results.

Solar Irradiance: The changes in the amount of sunlight due to cloudy weather altered the amount of
sunlight with time. Since more sunlight means more power output, it had a great impact to reduce
the power output of the solar panels.

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Temperature: High temperatures reduce the efficiency of solar panels by lowering the voltage. Cooler
temperatures are generally better for solar panel performance.

Angle of Incidence (Tilt Angle): The solar panels were placed horizontally on the ground during the
experiment, since the angle at which sunlight strikes the panel affects how much light is absorbed, this
reduced the power output in all the experiments.

Dust and dirt accumulation: Dust and dirt on the panel surface block sunlight, since they were not
cleaned first and they were transported in dusty road, this reduced power output.

Shade: The experiment was at some point subjected to partial shading on a solar panel due to the
plants, this might have significantly reduced its power output due to the way cells are connected.

Solar panel orientation: The solar panels were not placed in a right direction where the panel should
face. Since orientation influences how much sunlight it receives, this reduced the current and voltage
outputs.

Efficiency of the Solar Panel was low: The quality of the solar cells determines how much sunlight is
converted into electricity. These solar panels used were of low efficiency producing less power that
increased error in measurements of values.

Resistance of wires: Every solar panel has some internal resistance, connecting many wires on the
circuit caused an additional power loss.

Temperature of the environment: Each solar panel had a low temperature coefficient that indicates
how its output reduces with temperature. The experiment was conducted when the temperatures
were very high this reduced voltage and power output.

6. Conclusion
 Solving the first aim to determine voltage, current, and power output of modules, the
experimental results, showed that allot of current was produced in the parallel arrangement of solar
panels as 1.08 ±0.01A than series and single solar panel that produced 0.57 ±0.01A. Allot of voltage
of 37.5 ±0.1V was produced in series connection as compared to single and parallel connection of
18.5 ±0.1V. The power output is 4.8 ±0.20W, 10.64 ±0.20W, and 11.22 ±0.20W for single, series and
parallel connections respectively. The power output is nearly the same for both configurations (series
and parallel), with slight variations due to system efficiency. This solves the first aim.
 Solving second aim, of determining what combination of series and parallel circuits the
individual cells or modules should be wired, the series connection resulted in a higher voltage, it
makes it ideal for higher-voltage applications such as grid-tied systems. The parallel connection
resulted in a higher current, making it more suitable for direct battery charging and low-voltage
applications. The choice of connection therefore should depend on the specific application
requirements, whether voltage priority (series) or current priority (parallel) is needed. This solves the
second aim together with part m) of the experimental procedure in part II.
 From the experimental results therefore, the current remains the same for both single and
series connection with 0.57 ±0.01A in both cases. Similarly, voltage for both single and parallel
connection is almost the same for both single and parallel connection with 16.6±0.1V and 16.4 ±0.1V
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respectively which agrees with the theory of the experiment in both cases. The slight difference in
voltage may be attributed to different ratings of the solar panels. This solves part l) of the
experimental procedure in part II.

7. Recommendations

Panels should be used in the experiment ideally when they are facing south in the Northern
Hemisphere for maximum exposure.

Using of solar panels of the same rating to minimize assumptions due to unequal resistances,
materials used to make them, power output, temperature coefficient, among other factors.

Reducing the number of connecting wires lowers internal resistance thence improving performance of
solar panels.

Ensuring uniform illumination for accurate measurements through avoiding shade on the solar panels
for optimal performance.

For more accurate results, experiments should include testing solar panels under different irradiance
levels and with more solar panels to analyze variations in efficiency.

Regular cleaning of the solar panels before being connected for experimentation helps maintain
efficiency throughout the use.

The solar panels should be properly tilted based on the location to increase power output following
the direction of the sun or use of sunlight track systems to maximize efficiency.

Performing experiment when the sunlight is of maximum intensity shall greatly maximize Solar panels
power output in the experiment.

8. References

Messenger, R. A., & Ventre, J. (2010). Photovoltaic systems engineering (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.

Green, M. A. (2005). Third generation photovoltaics: Advanced solar energy conversion. Berlin,
Germany: Springer-Verlag.

Luque, A., & Hegedus, S. (2011). Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering (2nd ed.).
Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Durgin, M. W. (2013). Understanding photovoltaic systems. Clifton Park, NY: Cengage Learning.

Boxwell, M. (2020). Solar electricity handbook: A simple, practical guide to solar energy – designing
and installing photovoltaic solar electric systems (2020 ed.). Warwickshire, UK: Greenstream
Publishing.

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