LECTURE 1

What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is a program that:

 Acts as a bridge between user and hardware.

 Exists in all smart devices: laptops, tablets, smartphones, routers, etc.

🔧 Role of an OS (Technical View)

 OS is a resource manager.

 Manages:

o CPU

o Memory

o Storage

o Input/Output Devices

o Files

🧠 Computer System Organization

 A system has:

o One or more CPUs

o Device controllers (for disk, audio, video, etc.)

o Shared memory and common bus

Startup process:

1. Bootstrap program (in ROM/EEPROM) runs.

2. Sets up system.

3. Loads the OS kernel into memory.

🔁 System Boot & Interrupts

 After loading, kernel starts system processes (daemons).

 On UNIX, it starts with init process.

 System then waits for events (interrupts):

 o Hardware interrupts (via bus)

o Software interrupts (system calls)

 CPU:

1. Pauses

2. Goes to Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)

3. Handles it, then returns to previous task

 Return address saved on system stack

 If CPU state changes, it's saved & restored for smooth continuation

💾 Storage Structure

 CPU executes from main memory (RAM), usually DRAM

 ROM/EEPROM hold static code (e.g., bootstrap)

 Memory = bytes with unique addresses

 CPU uses load/store instructions to move data

Execution cycle:
Fetch ➝ Decode ➝ Execute ➝ Store result

Main Memory:

 Limited & volatile

 Needs Secondary storage (like hard disks)

Storage Hierarchy (fastest to slowest):

 Registers → Cache → RAM → Disk → Tape

 Faster = more expensive and volatile

 SSDs are faster & nonvolatile

 Flash is slower than DRAM

 NVRAM uses batteries for backup

🔌 I/O Structure

 Devices managed by:

 o Device controllers (control data transfer to local buffer)

o Device drivers (interface with OS)

How I/O works:

1. Driver sets up the controller

2. Controller transfers data

3. Signals completion via interrupt

✅ For large data: DMA (Direct Memory Access) handles block transfers with less CPU work

🧩 Components of a Computer System

1. Hardware:

o CPU, memory, I/O devices

2. Operating System:

o Coordinates hardware

3. Application Programs:

o Web browsers, games, databases, etc.

4. Users:

o People, other machines

🧮 Basic CPU Components

Component Function

PC Holds address of next instruction

IR Holds current instruction

Registers Temporary data & variables

ALU Performs arithmetic & logic

SP Points to stack (stores procedure data)

PSW Control bits incl. mode bit

MAR Holds address to access memory

MDR Holds data to store/load

Component Function

👥 Two Views of the OS

1. User View

 Designed for single-user convenience

 Focus: Ease of use, performance

 Not focused on resource sharing

2. System View

 OS = resource manager

 Manages hardware/software resources

 Decides between tasks & manages execution

🤔 What Do Operating Systems Do?

It depends on the system:

 Personal devices: Focus on usability, not efficiency

 Mainframes: Must manage many users

 Workstations: Dedicated, but still share servers

 Handheld devices: Limited resources, must save battery

 Embedded systems: Often no user interface

LECTURE 2&3

🧠 Types of Operating Systems

 Single User System

 Batch System

 Multiprogrammed System

 Time Sharing System

 Real-Time System
👤 Single User Systems

 Only one person can use it at a time.

 Example: Early personal computers

 It's interactive – you can directly use the software.

 Main goal: Convenience and responsiveness

o Easy to use

o Friendly interface (graphics)

🔸 Types of Single User Systems

1. Single User, Single Task

o Handles one application for one user at a time.

o Example: Older mobile phones

2. Single User, Multiple Tasks

o Designed for one user but can run multiple applications.

o Example: Using internet, downloading, and listening to music at once

🔁 Multiprogrammed System

 Runs multiple programs at the same time

 All programs stay in main memory

 OS picks one job, runs it

 If a job needs I/O (input/output), CPU switches to another job

 CPU is never idle—always doing something

📦 Batch Processing System

 No direct user interaction

 Users prepare their job off-line (e.g., punch cards)

 Job given to operator, not directly to computer

 OS treats job as a unit: has instructions, data, etc.

🔹 How It Works:
  Multiple jobs stored in memory

 Run in First Come First Served order

 After job ends:

o Memory is freed

o Output goes to a file or printer (spool)

Time Sharing System

 Advanced version of multiprogramming

 CPU switches quickly between jobs

 Each process gets a small amount of CPU time = Time Slice

 This way, multiple users/programs can work at once

⚙️Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

 Designed for real-time applications

 Processes data immediately as it arrives—no delays

 Used in:

o Scientific labs

o Medical systems

o Industrial machines

o Displays

🚨 If output isn’t on time → It becomes useless

LECTURE 4

🎯 Goals of an Operating System (OS)

The OS is designed to manage computer resources and ensure smooth functioning. Key
functions include:

1. Memory Management

2. Processor Management
 3. Device Management

4. File Management

5. Security

🧠 Memory Management

 Keeps track of which part of RAM is in use and by which process.

 In multiprogramming, decides:

o Which process gets memory

o How much memory it gets

 Allocates memory when needed.

 Frees memory when it's no longer in use.

Processor Management

 Monitors the CPU and the status of all processes.

 Managed by a program called the Traffic Controller.

 Assigns CPU to processes as needed.

 Releases the CPU when it's no longer needed by a process.

💽 Device Management

 Keeps track of all hardware devices (printers, disks, etc.).

 Managed by the I/O Controller.

 Determines:

o Which process gets access to which device

o For how long

 Allocates and deallocates devices efficiently.

📁 File Management

 Manages data files: their location, usage, and status.

 These services together form the File System.

 Controls who gets file access.

  Allocates and deallocates file-related resources.

🔐 Other Key Activities

 Security: Protects data and programs using passwords or other methods.

 System Performance Control: Tracks response times for system services.

 Job Accounting: Logs how much time and resources each job/user consumes.

 Error Detection:

o Produces error messages, logs (dumps), and traces.

 Software Coordination:

o Coordinates tools like compilers and assemblers for different users.

LECTURE 5

Operating System Services

The OS provides various services to both users and programs.

💬 1. User Interface (UI)

Allows users to interact with the OS.

 Command-Line Interface (CLI):

Type commands (e.g., using a terminal).

 Graphical User Interface (GUI):

Use mouse/keyboard to interact with windows, icons, menus.

 Batch Interface:
Commands are written in a file and run automatically.
Example: A backup.bat file copies documents to a folder daily without user action.

⚙️2. Program Execution

 OS loads programs into memory and runs them.

 It handles normal and abnormal (error) terminations.

3. I/O Operations

 Programs need to read/write data or use hardware (like printers).

  Users can’t directly access hardware – OS handles all I/O. Example: When printing, OS
formats and sends data to the printer properly.

📂 4. File System Manipulation

 Programs can:

o Create, delete, read, write files

o Search for and view file info

 OS manages file permissions to protect data. Example: Set a file so only you can open it.

🔄 5. Communications

 Programs share info through:

o Shared Memory: Access same memory.

o Message Passing: Send/receive messages via OS. Example: WhatsApp messages

go through servers between devices.

❗ 6. Error Detection

 OS constantly checks for:

o Hardware issues (e.g., power loss)

o I/O problems (e.g., printer out of paper)

o Software bugs (e.g., high memory use)

 Takes actions like showing error messages or stopping faulty programs. Example: If a
printer runs out of paper, OS alerts the user.

Other Important Functions

⚖️Resource Allocation

 OS shares CPU, memory, storage, devices fairly among users/programs.

 Uses techniques like CPU scheduling. Example: Running Word and Spotify at the same
time – OS balances both.

📊 Accounting

 Tracks resource usage per user/program.

o Used for billing or analyzing usage. Example: In a shared system, OS logs who
used how much CPU/storage.
🔐 Protection and Security

 Protection: Prevents programs/users from accessing each other’s data.

 Security: Defends against external threats (e.g., hackers). Example: OS uses passwords
and monitors for suspicious activity.

LECTURE 6A

🧑‍💻 User and Operating-System Interface

How Users Interact with the OS

Users can interact with the OS in two main ways:

 CLI (Command-Line Interface)

Type-based. User writes commands manually (e.g., rm file.txt).

 GUI (Graphical User Interface)

Visual interface using mouse/touchscreen (icons, windows, etc.).

🐚 Command Interpreter (Shell)

 Lets users run commands.

 Could be built into the kernel or run as a separate program.

 In UNIX/Linux, shells include:

o Bourne Shell

o C Shell

o Korn Shell

✅ Most commands are external programs, not part of the shell itself.

💡 Example:
When you type rm file.txt, the shell:

1. Finds the rm program

2. Loads it into memory

3. Runs it with file.txt as input

🛠 This setup lets users add new commands easily by writing new programs.
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

 Easier and more visual interaction.

 First popular on Apple Macintosh (1980s) and Windows (MS-DOS with GUI).

 Touchscreen GUIs used on mobile devices.

 Modern UNIX/Linux supports GUIs like:

o CDE

o X-Windows

o KDE

o GNOME (all open-source)

👩‍💻 CLI is preferred by:

 System admins & advanced users

 Faster, powerful, supports automation via scripts

👨‍🎓 GUI is better for:

 General users who prefer visual navigation

📌 Note: UI is separate from the OS's core – making the interface "user-friendly" is not the OS's
primary job.

⚙️System Calls

System calls = The way programs request services from the OS.

🧑‍💻 Written mostly in C/C++, sometimes Assembly.

📄 Example: Copying One File to Another

Involves several system calls:

1. Get file names (ask user or open file menu)

2. Open input file

3. Create output file (ask if file already exists)

4. Read & write between files (with error checks)

5. Close both files

 6. Display completion message

7. Terminate program

🧰 APIs (Application Programming Interfaces)

APIs simplify system call usage. Examples:

 Windows API

 POSIX API (for UNIX/Linux/macOS)

 Java API

📦 Example:
CreateProcess() (Windows API) → Internally calls NTCreateProcess() in the kernel.

❓ Why Use APIs Instead of Direct System Calls?

 🔁 Portability – Code runs on different systems if the API is supported.

 ✅ Simplicity – Easier for developers.

 📏 Standardization – APIs are easier to maintain and understand.

🔄 How APIs Work

 Run-time libraries link API functions to system calls.

 System-call interface maps API calls to the correct system call using a unique ID.

📤 How Parameters Are Passed to the OS

System calls often need details like:

 File name

 Memory address

 Buffer size

📦 These can be passed in 3 ways:

1. Registers

o Fast, but limited space.

2. Memory block/table

o Store all data in memory, then pass a pointer to the OS.

 o Common in Linux & Solaris.

3. Stack

o Push all details onto the stack, no space limit.

LECTURE 6B

🧠 What is a System Call in OS?

A system call is a programmatic way for a program to request a service from the operating
system’s kernel.

 Acts as a bridge between a user program and the OS.

 Exposes OS functionalities through APIs (Application Programming Interfaces).

 It's the only way to enter kernel mode.

📄 Example of System Call

Imagine a program that copies data from one file to another:

1. Display a message on screen → System call for output

2. Read input from keyboard (file names) → System call for input

3. Open input file

4. Create output file

5. Read → Write loop

6. Close both files

👉 All of these steps involve system calls.

How System Calls Work (Architecture)

1. 🔁 Program runs in user mode

2. 📞 A system call is made → Triggers kernel mode

3. 🛠 OS does the requested task (e.g., file read)

4. 🔚 Returns control back to user mode and resumes program

❓ Why Do We Need System Calls?

System calls are essential for:

 🔁 Reading/writing files

 📁 Creating/deleting files

 👶 Creating/managing processes

 🌐 Network communications

 Accessing hardware (printer, scanner, etc.)

🧩 Types of System Calls

1️⃣ Process Control

Manage processes.

Functions:

 create, terminate process

 load, execute program

 wait, signal

 allocate, free memory

 end, abort

2️⃣ File Management

Work with files.

Functions:

 Create/delete/open/close file

 Read/write/reposition

 Get/set file attributes

3️⃣ Device Management

Handle hardware devices.

Functions:

 Request/release device

 Attach/detach device
  Get/set device attributes

4️⃣ Information Maintenance

Exchange info between OS and programs.

Functions:

 Get/set date and time

 Get/set process/device attributes

5️⃣ Communication

Inter-process communication (IPC).

Functions:

 Create/delete communication links

 Send/receive messages

 Transfer status info

 Attach/detach remote devices

📥 Rules for Passing Parameters to System Calls

1. Parameters can be passed through:

o Registers

o Stacks

o Memory blocks (address passed in register)

2. OS handles popping/pushing if using stack.

🔧 Important System Calls

Call Function

wait() Suspends current process until a child process finishes.

fork() Creates a new process (child) identical to the parent.

exec() Replaces current process code with a new program.

kill() Sends a signal to a process (not always termination).

exit() Terminates process and frees resources.

Call Function

LECTURE 9

PROCESS

 A process is a running program.

 When you write a program (like in a text file) and then run it—that running version is
the process.

 It performs all tasks written in the program.

PROCESS LIFE CYCLE

A process goes through 5 main states:

1. Start – When the process is first created.

2. Ready – Waiting to be assigned to the CPU.

3. Running – Actively being executed by the CPU.

4. Waiting – Waiting for some resource (e.g., user input or file access).

5. Terminated – Finished execution and stopped.

THREAD

 A thread is the smallest part of a process that can run.

 A process can have multiple threads (like mini-processes within it).

 Multitasking: running multiple processes at once.

 Multithreading: running multiple threads (sub-tasks) at once inside a process.

Example:

 Watching a video while it's still downloading – both actions happen together using
threads.

 Used heavily in animation and media applications.

PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK (PCB)

The PCB is a special structure the operating system uses to keep track of each process.
It stores all info about a process, such as:

Key Information in a PCB:

1. Process State – e.g., Ready, Running, Waiting.

2. Privileges – What system resources it can use.

3. Process ID (PID) – Unique ID for each process.

4. Pointer – Link to its parent process.

5. Program Counter – Points to the next instruction to execute.

6. CPU Registers – Stores current data needed to keep process running.

7. Scheduling Info – Process priority, etc.

8. Memory Info – Page tables, memory usage, etc.

9. Accounting Info – CPU time used, time limits, execution ID.

10. I/O Info – List of input/output devices used.

LECTURE 10

1. What is a Process?

 A process = a program in execution.

 It includes:

o Text Section: The actual code.

o Program Counter & CPU Registers: Show the current activity.

o Process Stack: Temporary data like parameters and return addresses.

o Data Section: Global variables.

2. Process ≠ Program

 Program = passive (stored on disk).

 Process = active (executing).

3. Example:
  Two users running the same web browser = two separate processes.

4. Process States

 New: Being created.

 Ready: Waiting for CPU.

 Running: Instructions are executing.

 Waiting: Waiting for an event (e.g., I/O).

 Terminated: Finished executing.

5. Process Control Block (PCB)

Holds all info about a process:

 State

 Program Counter

 CPU Registers

 Scheduling Info (e.g., priority)

 Memory Management Info (page tables, etc.)

 Accounting Info (CPU time used)

 I/O Info (open files, devices)

6. Threads

 Smallest execution unit.

 A process can have multiple threads (lightweight processes).

 Used to improve performance through parallelism.

7. Process Scheduling

 Goal: Maximize CPU use and responsiveness.

 Scheduler chooses which process runs next.

Types of Scheduling Queues:

 Job Queue: All system processes.

 Ready Queue: Loaded in memory, ready to run.

  Device Queue: Waiting for I/O devices.

8. Schedulers

 Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler):

Picks jobs from storage to load into memory. Controls multiprogramming.

 Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler):

Picks one process from the ready queue to run next.

9. Context Switch

 Happens when CPU switches from one process to another.

 Saves the state of the current process in its PCB and loads the next one.

 Takes a few milliseconds but doesn't do actual "work" — it's overhead.

10. Process Operations

 Creation: Parent creates a child process (tree-like structure).

 Termination: Child or parent process finishes.

11. Interprocess Communication (IPC)

 Needed when processes share data or collaborate.

 Independent Process: Doesn’t affect others.

 Cooperating Process: Can be affected or affect others.

Reasons for IPC:

 Information sharing

 Speedup via parallelism

 Modularity

 User convenience

IPC Models:

 Shared Memory: Processes read/write in the same memory region.

 Message Passing: Processes send/receive messages.

Message vs Shared Memory:

 Shared memory is faster but more complex.

  Message passing is easier in distributed systems.

12. Producer-Consumer Problem

 Common example of cooperating processes.

 One process produces data (producer), another uses it (consumer).

 Requires a buffer and synchronization.

Buffer Types:

 Unbounded: Infinite size, only consumer waits.

 Bounded: Fixed size, both may need to wait.

LECTURE 11

Process Synchronization – Overview

What is it?

 It's about managing access to shared resources when multiple processes run at the
same time.

 Prevents data inconsistency when two or more processes access shared data.

 Ensures that cooperating processes run in a synchronized way.

Producer-Consumer Problem (Classic Example)

 Problem:

o One process (Producer) puts items into a fixed-size buffer.

o Another process (Consumer) removes items from the buffer to use.

o Rule: They cannot access the buffer at the same time.

 Goal: Make sure Producer doesn't add when the buffer is full, and Consumer doesn’t
remove when it's empty.

Solution Using Shared Memory

 Both processes share a common buffer stored in shared memory.

 They can run at the same time, but must coordinate access:

o Producer can add a new item while Consumer uses another.

 o But Consumer must wait if item not yet produced.

Two Types of Buffers

1. Unbounded Buffer

o No size limit.

o Producer can always add items.

o Consumer may have to wait for new data.

2. Bounded Buffer

o Fixed size.

o Producer waits if full.

o Consumer waits if empty.

Synchronizing with a Count Variable

 Use an integer count to track how many items are in the buffer.

 Initially: count = 0

 Producer: increases count after adding.

 Consumer: decreases count after removing.

Race Condition

 When multiple processes access and modify shared data at the same time.

 Outcome depends on the order of access.

 Can lead to incorrect or unpredictable results.

Critical Section Problem

 A critical section is the part of a program where shared resources are accessed.

 Only one process should be in its critical section at a time.

 Other processes must wait.

Requirements for a Good Solution to Critical Section Problem

1. Mutual Exclusion:

o One process at a time in the critical section.

 2. Progress:

o If no process is in the critical section, one that wants to enter should not wait
forever.

3. Bounded Waiting:

o A process waiting to enter must eventually get its turn—no infinite waiting.

👉 Assumes each process runs at nonzero speed, but we don’t assume which one is faster.

Peterson’s Solution

 Works for 2 processes only.

 Processes take turns entering the critical section.

 Uses shared variables and assumes atomic (uninterruptible) instructions like LOAD and
STORE.

LECTURE 12

🔐 Mutex Lock

 Mutex = MUTual EXclusion object.

 Used to allow multiple threads to share a resource, but not at the same time.

 How it works:

1. Mutex is created with a unique name.

2. A thread locks the mutex before using the resource.

3. It unlocks when finished so others can access.

🔁 Mutex Lock & Critical Region

 Critical region = Section of code that accesses shared resources.

 Use acquire() to lock the mutex.

 Use release() to unlock it.

⚙️Mutex Logic

 Has a boolean available:

o If true, acquire() locks it and sets it to false.

 o If false, the thread waits until it's true again.

🚦 Semaphores (by Dijkstra)

 A synchronization tool for managing concurrent processes.

 Two types:

o Counting Semaphore: Integer value; tracks multiple resources.

o Binary Semaphore: Only 0 or 1; simpler than counting.

🔄 Operations

 WAIT(S): If S > 0, decrement. If S ≤ 0, do nothing.

 SIGNAL(S): Always increments S.

❌ Deadlocks

🧠 Background

 Early OS: one program at a time → no deadlocks.

 Now: multiple programs, dynamic resource requests → potential for deadlocks.

📌 What is Deadlock?

 Several processes are stuck waiting forever on each other for resources.

💾 Examples of Resources:

 Printers, storage, files, database tables.

🔁 Resource Request Cycle

1. Request the resource.

2. Use it.

3. Release it.

🧩 Example

 Program 1 has resource A and wants B.

 Program 2 has B and wants A.

 Both are waiting on each other → deadlock.

🚗 Bridge Example
  One-way bridge → each car = process, each section = resource.

 Cars face each other → deadlock.

 Solution: back up (preempt), but starvation is possible.

🔍 Deadlock Characterization

A deadlock occurs only when all these four conditions are true:

1. Mutual Exclusion – resource held exclusively.

2. Hold and Wait – holding one, waiting for another.

3. No Preemption – resources released voluntarily.

4. Circular Wait – chain of waiting forming a loop.

🔄 Resource Allocation Graph (RAG)

 Purpose: Visual tool to track process-resource relationships.

 Nodes:

o Squares: Resource types (e.g. Printer)

o Circles: Processes

o Dots: Instances of resources (e.g. 2 printers = 2 dots)

🔁 Types of Edges

 Request Edge: From process → resource.

 Assignment Edge: From resource → process.

🔄 Edge Behavior

 A request edge becomes an assignment edge when the resource is granted.

🌀 Deadlock in RAG

 No cycles: No deadlock.

 Cycle + one instance/resource type: Deadlock exists.

 Cycle + multiple instances: Deadlock might exist.

📊 Summary

 No cycles ⇒ No deadlock
 Cycle exists ⇒

o One instance per resource → deadlock

o Multiple instances → possible deadlock