SEMANTICS

Class DN423101 - Group 2:

1. Hồ Minh Anh
2. Phan Lê
3. Nguyễn Thanh Thúy My Ly
4. Hà Trà Phương Thảo
5. Trần Hồng Tính
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UNIT 10. SENSE RELATIONS
IDENTITY AND SIMILARITY OF SENSE

1. You should understand these terms and concepts from this unit:
 SYNONYMY/SYNONYM: is the relationship between two predicates that have
the same sense. (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007)
Example:
 In many dialects, big and large are synonyms.
 In many dialects, mercury and quicksilver are synonyms.
Synonymy is a relation between predicates and not between words (i.e., word-forms)
(Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007).
The definition of synonymy as a relationship between the senses of words requires a
clear separation of all the different senses of a word, even though some of these senses
may be quite closely related (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007).

 PARAPHRASE: A sentence that expresses the same proposition as another

sentence is a paraphrase of that sentence (assuming the same referents for any
referring expressions involved). Paraphrase is to sentences (on individual
interpretations) as synonymy is to predicates (though some semanticists talk loosely
of synonymy in the case of sentences as well). (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007)

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Example:
 Bachelors prefer redhaired girls is a paraphrase of Girls with red hair are
preferred by unmarried men.

 HYPONYMY/HYPONYM: is a sense relation between predicates (or sometimes

longer phrases) such that the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is included in the
meaning of the other (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007).
Example:
 The meaning of red is included in the meaning of scarlet. Red is the
superordinate term; scarlet is a hyponym of red (scarlet is a kind of red).
 The meaning of flower is included in the meaning of rose. Flower is the
superordinate term; rose is a hyponym of flower (rose is a kind of flower).

 SUPERORDINATE TERM: is a more general or inclusive word that encompasses

more specific terms (hyponyms) within a particular category. It represents a broader
concept, while hyponyms provide more detailed or specific meanings within that
category.
Example:
 Superordinate term: “Red” (a broad category of color)
 Hyponyms: “Scarlet”, “Crimson” (more specific shades of red)
In general, superordinate terms are more abstract and general, while hyponyms are more
precise and detailed.

 CO-HYPONYMS: John Saeed’s Semantics (2015) discusses co-hyponyms as

words that share the same superordinate terms (hypernym) but differ in meaning.
Example: “dog” and “cat” are co-hyponyms under the hypernym “animal”.
Saeed notes that co-hyponyms are often incompatible; asserting one typically implies
the negation of the other. For instance, stating “His car isn’t red, it’s blue” implies that
‘red’ and ‘blue’ are mutually exclusive options within the color taxonomy.

 SYMMETRICAL HYPONYMY: Symmetrical hyponymy refers to a special case

of hyponymy where two words are mutually hyponyms of each other. This means
that if word X is a hyponym of word Y, and word Y is also a hyponym of word X,

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 then X and Y are considered synonyms. In other words, synonymy is a special case
of hyponymy where the relationship is symmetrical (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith,
2007).
Example:
 Quicksilver ↔ Mercury (Both refer to the same chemical element, Hg)
 Father ↔ Dad (Both mean the same but differ in formality)
In these cases, both words carry the same meaning, and neither is broader or more
inclusive than the other. However, true symmetrical hyponymy is rare because most
words differ in nuance, connotation, or usage.

 ENTAILMENT: refers to a relationship between propositions (or sentences) where

the truth of one proposition (X) necessarily implies the truth of another proposition
(Y). If X is true, then Y must also be true.
Example:
 “John killed Bill” entails “Bill died” because if the first sentence is true, then
the second sentence must also be true.
 “John ate all the kippers” entails “Someone ate something” because the first
sentence logically implies the second.
Entailment is a one-way relationship (not necessarily reversible), unlike paraphrase,
which involves mutual entailment (both sentences must be true in the same conditions).
Two sentences may be said to be PARAPHRASES of each other if and only if they have
exactly the same set of ENTAILMENTS (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007).
Example:
 John and Mary are twins entails Mary and John are twins;
 Mary and John are twins entails John and Mary are twins.
=> Therefore, John and Mary are twins is a paraphrase of Mary and John are twins

 TRANSITIVE RELATION: refers to a logical relationship in which the entailment

of one proposition by another can be extended to a third proposition. This means that
if proposition X entails proposition Y, and proposition Y entails proposition Z, then
proposition X must also entail proposition Z.

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This shows that entailment is a transitive relation, as the entailment transfers from X →
Y and Y → Z, leading to X → Z.
Example:
 X: Some boys ran down the street entails; Y: Some kids ran down the street.
 Y: Some kids ran down the street entails; Z: Some kids went down the street.
=> Therefore, X: Some boys ran down the street entails Z: Some kids went down
the street.

 BASIC RULE OF SENSE INCLUSION: describes the entailment relationship

between sentences based on hyponymy. Specifically, if two sentences are identical
except that one contains a word X and the other a word Y, and X is a hyponym of Y,
then the sentence with X entails the sentence with Y.
Example:
 Sentence A: “Henry was chewing a tulip.”
 Sentence B: “Henry was chewing a flower.”
=> Here, “tulip” is a hyponym for “flower.” According to the Basic Rule of Sense
Inclusion, Sentence A entails Sentence B because chewing a tulip implies chewing a
flower.
However, The Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion does not work in all cases. There are
systematic exceptions when certain logical words, such as “not” and “all”, are involved.
For instance 1:
 Sentence C: “Henry was not chewing a tulip.”
 Sentence D: “Henry was not chewing a flower.”
=> In this case, Sentence D entails Sentence C because if Henry was not chewing a
flower, he was certainly not chewing a tulip. Thus, the entailment direction reverses in
negative sentences.
For instance 2:
 Sentence A: Henry chewed up all my tulips.
 Sentence B: Henry chewed up all my flowers.

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=> In this case, Sentence A does not entail Sentence B because tulips are a type of flower,
but “all my flowers” includes other flowers as well. If Henry chewed up all the tulips
but left some other flowers (e.g., roses), then Sentence A can be true while Sentence B is
false. Thus, the Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion fails when “all” is involved since the truth
of B depends on whether the broader category (flowers) is fully covered.

 SENSE RELATIONS: refer to the various ways in which words or lexical items
relate to each other based on their meanings. Understanding these relationships is
crucial for grasping how meaning is structured and conveyed in a language. Key
types of sense relations include synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy,
homonymy, and meronymy.

2. Do you think it is easier to learn words as unique items, or as part of a system

involving various kinds of sense relationships? That is, is it easier to learn words
when we can relate them in systematic ways or when we learn them separately?
Briefly explain.
It is generally easier to learn words as part of a system involving various kinds of
sense relationships rather than as isolated items. When words are connected through
relationships such as synonym, hyponymy,… learners can form associations that
enhance memory and understanding.
Example: If a learner knows the word “dog”, they can more easily remember related
words like “animal” (superordinate term), “puppy” (hyponym), and “bark” (associated
action). This systematic approach helps learners organize vocabulary in meaningful
ways, making recall faster and improving language comprehension.
On the other hand, learning words in isolation can be inefficient because there is
no context or framework to reinforce memory. Words may be forgotten more easily
without meaningful connections to other words.
Thus, learning vocabulary through sense relations provides a more structured and
effective way to expand language skills.

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3. What is meant by synonymy? Why is it difficult to define this term? Do most
synonyms have identical or just similar meanings (or senses)? Do you think true
synonymy exists? Try to support your answer with appropriate examples.
Synonymy in semantics refers to the relationship between words that have the same
or nearly the same meaning. Words that are synonyms can often be used interchangeably
in certain contexts without significantly changing the meaning of a sentence.
However, defining synonymy is difficult because very few words have identical
meanings in all contexts. Most synonyms differ in aspects such as connotation, formality,
or usage.
Example: “big” and “large” are synonyms, but we say “big mistake” rather than “large
mistake”. Similarly, “buy” and “purchase” have the same core meaning, but “purchase”
sounds more formal.
Because of these subtle differences, most synonyms are not exact but rather have
similar meanings with variations in nuance.
True synonymy, where two words can always replace each other in every context
without any difference in meaning, is extremely rare. One possible example is
“quicksilver” and “mercury,” both referring to the same chemical element (Hg).
However, even in this case, “quicksilver” is more poetic or archaic, while “mercury” is
the standard scientific term.
Therefore, while many words have similar meanings, true synonymy is rare due to
variations in context, style, and connotation.
Here are more examples that illustrate different types of synonymy and the challenges
of true synonymy:
a. Near-synonyms with slight differences in connotation or usage:
• “Begin” vs. “Commence” → Both mean “to start,” but “commence” is more formal.
• “End” vs. “Terminate” → “Terminate” is often used in legal or professional contexts
(e.g., “terminate a contract”).
• “Child” vs. “Kid” → “Kid” is more informal, while “child” is neutral or formal.

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b. Context-dependent synonyms:
• “Sick” vs. “Ill” → In general, they mean the same, but “ill” is more formal, and
“sick” is more common in everyday speech.
• “Job” vs. “Occupation” → “Job” is commonly used in casual conversations, while
“occupation” is used in official contexts (e.g., forms, documents).
c. Synonyms with slight differences in intensity:
• “Happy” vs. “Ecstatic” → “Ecstatic” is a stronger emotion than “happy.”
• “Cold” vs. “Freezing” → “Freezing” is an extreme version of “cold.”
d. Rare cases of true synonymy:
• “Fried potato slices” vs. “Potato chips” (in American English) → These always refer
to the same thing.
• “Cease” vs. “Stop” (in most cases) → They are often interchangeable, but “cease”
is slightly more formal.
Even in cases where words appear to be perfect synonyms, small differences in
connotation, formality, or frequency of use often prevent true synonymy.

4. Identify in the following sentences the pairs of words in upper-case letters which
appear to share the same (or nearly the same) sense. In some (or all) cases it may
be difficult to decide, so be ready to explain the difficulty.
a. Fred always sleeps on the SOFA/COUCH
 These words are synonyms and can generally be used interchangeably.
 They both refer to a piece of furniture designed for seating multiple people.
 No significant difference in meaning, though "sofa" is slightly more formal, and
"couch" is more common in casual speech.
Example:
 She bought a new sofa for the living room.
 He lay down on the couch to take a nap.
→ "Sofa" and "couch" can be used interchangeably without changing the meaning.

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b. The neighbours have a BIG/LARGE family
 These are near-perfect synonyms.
 They both indicate size or quantity. "Big" is more commonly used in everyday
speech, while "large" might be used in more formal contexts.
 No significant difference in meaning in this sentence. They are interchangeable
in this context.
Example:
 They live in a big house near the beach.
 This restaurant serves large portions of food.
→ "Big" is often used in everyday communication, while "large" can appear in more
formal writing.
c. The winning horse TROTTED/RAN to the finish line
 These words are not exact synonyms.
 "Trotted" refers to a specific gait (a medium-speed movement for a horse), while
"ran" is a more general term for fast movement.
 The difficulty is that all trotting involves movement, but not all running involves
trotting.
Example:
 The horse trotted around the racetrack before the race began.
 She ran as fast as she could to catch the bus.
→ "Trotted" refers to a type of horse trotting, while "ran" is a general term for running
fast.
d. This table is very SMOOTH/FLAT
 These words are related but not exact synonyms.
 "Smooth" describes texture (i.e., lacking roughness), while "flat" refers to shape
(i.e., lacking height or bumps).
 A surface can be both smooth and flat, but they are not interchangeable in all
cases.
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Example:
 This wooden table has a very smooth surface.
 The road ahead is completely flat, with no hills.
→ "Smooth" describes a texture that is not rough, while "flat" describes a shape that
has no heights or concavities.
e. That is a very HIGH/TALL building
 These words are similar but not always interchangeable.
 "Tall" is usually used for things with a narrow vertical dimension (e.g., buildings,
trees, people), while "high" refers to altitude or distance from the ground.
 A "high building" might refer to elevation, whereas a "tall building" refers to its
vertical height.
Example:
 The airplane is flying at a very high altitude.
 That is the tallest building in the city.
→ "High" refers to height above the ground, while "tall" describes vertical height.
f. That is a very FLAT/SLIPPERY road
 These words are not synonyms.
 "Flat" refers to a lack of elevation or bumps, while "slippery" describes a surface
that causes loss of traction.
 A road can be both flat and slippery, but these words describe different qualities.
Example:
 The surface of the lake was perfectly flat and calm.
 Be careful! The floor is slippery because of the spilled water.
→ "Flat" describes a flat surface (bề mặt phẳng), while "slippery" describes a surface
that is slippery (bề mặt dễ trơn trượt).
Summary:
 Same (or nearly the same) sense: SOFA/COUCH; BIG/LARGE.

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  Unclear sense: HIGH/TALL.
 Related, but Different Sense: TROTTED/RAN; SMOOTH/FLAT;
FLAT/SLIPPERY.

5. Synonyms usually share some but not all senses. This becomes evident in certain
of their uses. For each apparent synonym pair below supply sentences in which the
two words can be used interchangeably without altering the sense of the sentence,
and then give another sentence using one of the words in a different sense (where
no interchange is possible with the same meaning).
a. small/little
 Interchangeable: She bought a small/little puppy from the pet store.
 Different sense: She still has a little hope left. (Cannot replace with "small")
b. hard/difficult
 Interchangeable: This is a very hard/difficult test.
 Different sense: The ground was frozen and hard after the snowstorm. (Cannot
replace with "difficult")
c. long/extended
 Interchangeable: They had a long/extended conversation about the project.
 Different sense: The deadline was extended by two weeks. (Cannot replace with
"long")
d. lady/woman
 Interchangeable: A lady/woman entered the store and asked for assistance.
 Different sense: She always behaves like a proper lady. (Cannot replace with
"woman")
e. cheap/ inexpensive
 Interchangeable: I bought a cheap/inexpensive jacket at the sale.
 Different sense: That was a cheap excuse. (Cannot replace with "inexpensive")

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f. bright/ well-lit
 Interchangeable: The kitchen is bright/well-lit during the day.
 Different sense: He is a very bright student. (Cannot replace with "well-lit")
g. sad/ dejected
 Interchangeable: She looked sad/dejected after losing the game.
 Different sense: The movie had a sad ending. ("Dejected" does not fit here.)
h. rob/ steal
 Interchangeable: The criminals planned to rob/steal from the bank.
 Different sense: He stole my watch. ("Rob" cannot replace "steal" because "rob"
requires a person or place as an object.)
i. Do the same for the synonym pairs you identified in 4 above.
 sofa/ couch
 Interchangeable: She sat on the sofa/couch to watch TV.
 big/ large
 Interchangeable: They have a big/large family.
 trotted/ran
 Interchangeable: The horse trotted/ran across the field.
 Different sense: The child ran to his mother. ("Trotted" does not fit.)
 smooth/flat
 Interchangeable: The surface of the table is smooth/flat.
 Different sense: Her skin feels very smooth. ("Flat" does not work.)
 high/tall
 Interchangeable: That is a very high/tall building.
 Different sense: The airplane is flying at a high altitude. ("Tall" does not fit.)
 flat/slippery
 Interchangeable (though rare): Be careful; the road is flat/slippery when wet.
(Though not perfect, it could work in specific contexts.)
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  Different sense: His explanation felt slippery, as if he was hiding something.
("Flat" does not work.)

6. A special kind of synonymy falls under the heading of euphemism, whereby a

culturally or socially disagreeable word is replaced by a more agreeable one with
essentially (though not exactly) the same meaning. For each term below try to find
several euphemisms which are less harsh, offensive, or explicit. For item (h) try to
think of several additional examples.

a. War: Conflict, military operation, armed intervention, engagement, peacekeeping

mission.
b. Crazy: Disturbed, mentally unwell, eccentric, unconventional, emotionally
challenged, unique thinker.
c. Damn: Darn, dang, shoot, heck, fudge.
d. Fired from a job: Laid off, let go, downsized, made redundant, workforce reduction.
e. Blind: Visually impaired, sightless, partially sighted, low vision.
f. Toilet: Powder room, restroom, washroom, lavatory, facilities.
g. Poor: Disadvantaged, underprivileged, financially struggling, less fortunate.
h. Crippled: Handicapped, physically challenged, differently abled, mobility impaired,
disabled.
i. Stupid: Slow learner, intellectually challenged, lacking common sense, not the
sharpest tool in the shed.
j. (Additional examples): Deaf (hearing impaired), old (senior, elderly), fat (plus-
sized, full-figured), short (vertically challenged).

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7. Sometimes synonyms can have either positive or negative connotations, as shown
by the first set below. Try to complete the other examples. A thesaurus may be
helpful.

NEUTRAL TERM POSITIVE NEGATIVE

careful scrupulous keep a sharp eye on

save money be frugal be miserly

reserved shy reclusive

level headed careful dull

curious inquisitive nosy

slow deliberate lagging

laugh chuckle snicker

talk converse gossip

old mature decrepit

young inexperienced immature

8. What is a paraphrase? How are the notions of synonymy and paraphrase

distinguished in semantics?

 PARAPHRASE: A sentence that expresses the same proposition as another

sentence is a paraphrase of that sentence (assuming the same referents for any
referring expressions involved). Paraphrase is to sentences (on individual
interpretations) as synonymy is to predicates (though some semanticists talk loosely
of synonymy in the case of sentences as well). (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007)

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Example:
 She bought a new car last week.

→ Paraphrase: Last week, she purchased a new automobile.

In semantics, synonymy and paraphrase both describe relationships of meaning but
operate at different levels:
 Synonymy:
 It is a relationship between predicates or word senses.
 Synonymy indicates that two predicates (or their senses) have the same
meaning in all contexts. For example, "begin" and "start" are often
synonymous.
 Distinguishing between different senses of a word is crucial for identifying
synonymy, as words can have multiple, related meanings.
 Paraphrase:
 It applies to sentences rather than individual words or predicates.
 Two sentences are paraphrases if they express the same proposition while
possibly using different structures or words. For instance, "She closed the
door" and "The door was closed by her" are paraphrases.
 Paraphrase reflects equivalence of meaning at the sentential level,
regardless of differences in syntax or style.
 Key Differences Between Synonymy and Paraphrase

Feature Synonymy Paraphrase

A relation between predicates A relation between sentences

Definition
(meanings of words). expressing the same proposition.

Word-level (specifically,
Scope Sentence-level.
predicate-level).

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 Words with the same meaning
Truth Paraphrases must have the same
may not always be fully
Conditions truth conditions.
interchangeable.

"She closed the door" and "The

Buy and purchase are
Example door was closed by her" are
synonyms.
paraphrases

9. Supply as many paraphrases as you can for each of the following sentences.
Remember that each paraphrase must have the same set of entailments as the
original sentence.

a. I gave the book to my friend.

 I gave my friend the book.
 I handed the book to my friend.
 I presented my friend with the book.
 My friend received the book from me.
 The book was given to my friend by me.
b. Your child took out the garbage.
 Your child took the garbage out.
 Your child removed the garbage.
 The garbage was taken out by your child.
 Your child carried the garbage outside.
 Your child disposed of the garbage.
c. It is likely that Fred will win the race.
 Fred is likely to win the race.
 There is a good chance that Fred will win the race.
 Fred has a high probability of winning the race.
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  Fred will probably win the race.
d. John is easy to please.
 It is easy to please John.
 Pleasing John is not difficult.
 Making John happy is simple.
 John can be pleased easily.
e. The sales clerk received the money from me.
 I received the money from the sales clerk.
 The money was received by the sales clerk from me.
 The sales clerk got the money from me.
 The sales clerk was given the money by me.
f. Some students have a job.
 Certain students are employed.
 A few students work.
 Not all students are unemployed.
 Not all students have a job.

10. What is meant by hyponymy? When predicates are organized according to

their hyponymic relationships with each other the resulting tree diagram is
sometimes called a taxonomy.

 HYPONYMY is a sense relation between predicates (or sometimes longer phrases)

such that the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is included in the meaning of the
other. (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007)
Example: "dog" is a hyponym of "animal," and "rose" is a hyponym of "flower."
When predicates are organized according to their hyponymic relationships with each
other the resulting tree diagram is sometimes called a taxonomy.

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Example of a Taxonomy (Tree Diagram):

Orange

Citrus

Lemon
Fruits

Berry Strawberry

 "Fruit" is the superordinate (hypernym).

 "Citrus" and "Berry" are co-hyponyms under "Fruit."
 "Orange" and "Lemon" are hyponyms under "Citrus."
 "Strawberry" is a hyponym under "Berry."

11. Organize each of the following groups of words into a taxonomy in which the
superordinate terms and their hyponyms are properly arranged with respect to
each other. Be sure to identify which terms are superordinate and which are
hyponyms (and which are co-hyponyms). Identify any problems you might have in
organizing the data, and supply additional data if you can think of them. It may be
helpful to sketch a tree diagram. Are you aware of any other disciplines in which
such taxonomies are used?
a. hammer, screwdriver, wrench, awl, tool, pliers
 Superordinate: Tool
 Hyponyms (Types of Tools):
 Hammer
 Screwdriver
 Wrench
 Awl
 Plier
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Explain:
 Tool is the general term.
 Hammer, screwdriver, wrench, awl, and pliers are all co-hyponyms under tool.
 Awl is more specialized and could also be classified under cutting or puncturing
tools.
Tree diagram:

Tool

Hammer Screwdriver Wrench Awl Plier

b. carpenter, electrician, craftsman, plumber

 Superordinate: Craftsman
 Hyponyms (Types of Craftsmen):
 Carpenter
 Electrician
 Plumber
Explain:
 Craftsman is the general term.
 Carpenter, electrician, and plumber are co-hyponyms under craftsman.
 Craftsman often implies someone skilled in making things by hand, while
electrician and plumber are more specialized technical trades.
Tree diagram:

Craftsman

Carpenter Electrician Plumber

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c. mammal, human, animal, amphibian, reptile, frog, snake
 Superordinate: Animal
 Hyponyms (Types of Animals):
 Mammal
+ Human
 Amphibian
+ Frog
 Reptile
+ Snake
Explain:
 Animal is the general term.
 Mammal, amphibian, and reptile are co-hyponyms under animal.
 Human is a specific type of mammal.
 Frog is a type of amphibian, and snake is a type of reptile.
 This classification aligns with biological taxonomy.
Tree diagram:
Animal

Mammal Amphibian Reptile

Human Frog Snake

d. shatter, crack, break, smash, fracture

 Superordinate: Break
 Hyponyms (Types of Breaking):

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  Shatter
 Crack
 Smash
 Fracture
Explain:
 Break is the general term.
 Shatter, crack, smash, and fracture are co-hyponyms but differ in meaning:
 Shatter → break into many small pieces.
 Crack → develop a split without fully breaking.
 Smash → break forcefully and suddenly.
 Fracture → typically refers to bones or rigid structures.
 This taxonomy is useful in linguistics and material sciences.
Tree diagram:
Break

Shatter Crack Smash Fracture

e. man, woman, husband, bachelor, wife, human, widow

 Superordinate: Human
 Hyponyms (Types of Humans by Gender):
 Man
+ Husband
+ Bachelor
 Woman
+ Wife
+ Widow

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Explain:
 Human is the most general category.
 Man and woman are co-hyponyms under human.
 Husband, bachelor, wife, and widow are more specific roles based on marital
status.
 Bachelor and widow are defined by social/legal status rather than inherent
biological traits.
Tree diagram:

Husband

Man

Bachelor

Human

Wife

Woman

Widow

12. Explain what it means to say that hyponymy involves entailment.

Because the notion of hyponymy, which involves meaning inclusion between
individual predicates, can be extended to a particular kind of meaning inclusion between
propositions in a language involving truth conditions called ‘entailment’. (line 12, page
111).
(James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, Michael B. Smith (2007), Unit 10 Sense
Relations (1) Identity And Similarity of sense, SEMANTICS a coursebook, p. 111.)
Example: I have a hard working day (X) entails I am exhausted energy (Y).

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13. For each sentence below give another sentence which the first one entails and
then give one which the first does NOT entail.

a. John is a bachelor
 Entails: He is older 22 ages
 Not entailed: He is under 18 years old.
b. John is a widower
 Entails: Her husband died.
 Not entails: Her husband is alive.
c. Mary is divorced
 Entails: Mary and her husband do not live together.
 Not Entails: Mary still lives with her husband.
d. This is tulip
 Entails: Tulip is from Holland.
 Not entails: Tulip is from Vietnam.

14. Hyponymy and synonymy refer to relations between pairs of words, while
entailment and paraphrase refer to relations between pairs of sentences. Supply the
correct terms in the blanks.
 Hyponymy is to entailment as synonymy is to paraphrase (page 113, line 19)
(James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, Michael B. Smith (2007). Unit 10 Sense
Relations (1) Identity And Similarity of sense. SEMANTICS a coursebook, p. 113.)
Example:
 Hyponymy is to entail.
+ Hyponymy: “Cat” is a hyponym of "animal" because a cat is a specific type
of animal. (according to Oxford dictionary)
+ Entailment: John has a cat entails John has an animal.

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  Synonymy is to paraphrase
+ Synonymy: "Big" and "large" are synonyms because they have similar
meanings. (according to the Oxford dictionary).
+ Paraphrase:
Sentence 1: "The house is big."
Sentence 2: "The house is large."
These sentences are paraphrases of each other because they express the same meaning
using different words.

15. What does the Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion have to say about the entailment
relationship between the following two sentences?
a. Mary bought a house
b. Mary bought a building
The Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion posits that if the meaning of one word is
included in another (i.e., a hyponym-hypernym relationship), then a sentence containing
the more specific term (hyponym) should entail a sentence with the more general term
(hypernym). [SEMANTICS a coursebook, p.113]. In this case, since "house" is a
hyponym of "building," the sentence "Mary bought a house" entails "Mary bought a
building."

16. Why does the Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion NOT work for the following pairs
of sentences? How must it be amended to work here?
a. Mary did not buy a house
b. Mary did not buy a building
c. Mary bought all the houses in town
d. Mary bought all the buildings in town
The Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion fails in these cases because of negation and
quantification, which alter entailment relations.

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  The first pair of sentences (a and b) encounters a negation issue. Normally, "Mary
bought a house" entails "Mary bought a building" because a house is a type of
building. However, negation reverses entailment: "Mary did not buy a house"
does NOT entail "Mary did not buy a building" since she could have bought a
different type of building.
 The second pair of sentences (c and d) comes across a quantification issue. While
"Mary bought all the houses in town" means she purchased every house, the latter
implies she purchased houses, offices, schools, etc. Thus, the first does not entail
the second because there could be non-house buildings left unpurchased.
Amendment: To work correctly, the rule must account for logical scope.
 Negation rule: A negative statement about a more specific category does not
necessarily mean the same statement is true for a broader category. For example,
“Tom does not own a cat” does not entail “Tom does not own a pet” because he
could own a dog, bird, or fish.
 Universal Quantification Rule: If something is true for ALL members of a specific
category (x), it does not necessarily mean it is also true for all members of a
broader category (y). For instance, "John read all the novels in the library" does
not imply “John read all the books in the library” because the library also contains
textbooks, encyclopedias, and biographies, which John may not have read.
In general, sense inclusion works only in affirmative existential statements and not under
negation or universal quantification.

17. Consider the following pair of sentences. Is there any entailment relation
existing between them? Explain why or why not.
a. Mary bought a big house
b. Mary bought a big building
While "house" is a hyponym of "building," the inclusion relationship is disrupted
by the adjective "big," which introduces a subjective and context-dependent
interpretation of size. Therefore, the Basic Rule of Sense Inclusion does not hold in this
case, and neither sentence entails the other.

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  The adjective 'big' is relative: What is considered big for a house might not be big
for a building in general. A big house could still be small compared to a big office
building or big skyscraper. This in turn means "big house" does not necessarily
fit within the category of "big building."
 Lack of directional entailment: “If Mary bought a big house,” it does not
necessarily mean she bought a big building, because the size might not be big
relative to all buildings. “If Mary bought a big building”, it does not necessarily
mean it was a house—it could be a factory, an office, or a warehouse.

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REFERENCES
1. Hurford, J. R., Heasley, B., & Smith, M. B. (2007). Semantics: A Coursebook
(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2. Saeed, J. I. (2015). Semantics (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.

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