INDEX

S. No Topic Page No
Week 1
1 Introduction 1
2 Basic Concept of Switches 16
3 Device Physics I 31
4 Device Physics II 47
5 Device Physics III 61
6 Device Physics IV 77
7 Application and Analysis of Switches I 97
8 Application and Analysis of Switches II 113
9 Single Phase Converter 131
10 Single Phase Converter II 148
Week 2
11 Single Phase Converters III 168
12 Three Phase Converter I 187
13 Three Phase Converters II 202
14 Multipulse Converters II 217
Week 3
15 Effect of Source Inductance and PWM Rectifiers 235
16 PWM Rectifiers II 251
17 PWM Rectifiers III and Power Factor Improvement Techniques 264
18 PWM Rectifiers IV and Power Factor Improvement Techniques II 279
Power Factor Improvement Techniques III and Non Isolated DC- DC
19 Converters 295
Week 4
20 Non Isolated DC- DC Converters II 310
21 Non Isolated and Isolated DC- DC Converters and Choppers 331
22 Isolated DC-DC Converters and Choppers 349
23 Isolated DC- DC Converters Part II 364
24 Isolated DC- DC Converters III 382
Week 5
25 Isolated DC- DC Converters IV and VSI & CSI 399
26 VSI &CSI 415
27 VSI & CSI II and MLI 429
28 PWM Techniques II & MLI 444
Week 6
29 MLI II & ZSI 459
30 ZSI II and Space Vector Modulation (SVM) 472
31 SVM II and AC to AC Converters 487
32 SVM III and AC to AC Converters 501
Week 7
33 Cycloconverters and Matrix Converters 521
34 Matrix Converter II 535
35 Matrix Converter III and Power Quality Mitigation Devices 550
36 Power Quality Mitigation Devices II 569
Week 8
37 Linear and Non Linear Control in Power Electronics 586
38 Linear and Non Linear Control in Power Electronics II 601
39 Non-Linear Control in Power Electronics 616
40 Application and Conclusion 637
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 01
Introduction

Welcome to the advance power electronics and control. Today, we will have introductory
sessions on it. In the due course of time, we shall discuss about the application of the control
in the power electronics and its utilities. So our course content we shall discuss today actually
introduction of the course and what would be covered here in this content. Thereafter, power
electronics concepts, why power electronics is one of the fundamental courses in electrical
engineering.

And various finest applications and what is this future scope and advantages. Then, of course
you know power electronics is it can be visualized as a few switches. So first of course we
have to take it out the power electronic switches. You know the electronic switches and there
will be a difference of the power electronic switches mainly based on the rating and the
control.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:34)

Then, accordingly, we have to go for the selection of the switches depending on the various
considerations. In a particular application or particular topology, we have to choose a
particular switch, that selection of switching also will be learned here. There are classification

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of the switching and generic switching converter and we will discuss different kinds of
switches followed by a matrix converter that will be a bi-directional AC to AC converter.

Now, why power electronics? The problem of electrical engineering is that you require a
variable voltage DC for various applications. Unfortunately, you do not have a DC
transformer. Thus, to get a different voltage level from a fixed DC voltage, you require to
have a power electronics utilities. Same way, when you are actually running an AC motor or
drive, then it is a constant frequency operations.

So it will be run close to its synchronous speed depending on the pole and the frequency. As
long as the frequency is constant, so mach ine will run near to this synchronous speed. So it is
not possible to have a variable speed operation within a wide range with keeping the load
torque constant and there also it finds a huge application.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:08)

For this and you can see that actually it takes input for physics, so all the devices wide
bandgap devices now it is coming we shall see. Of course, we require the input from the
maths, we required inputs from the circuit theory, we required inputs from the basic
electronics, we require to take inputs from the power system and control is a very important
features of it.

And this root is quite strong and of course the computer applications and ultimately these are
the symbols of the few power electronic switches and output of the applications will be the
power quality. The power quality issues come because of the power electronics and

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ultimately power quality deteriorated by use of the power electronics only. Thereafter, we
will find solution in the power electronics that is the beauty of it.

And also nowadays actually we have a distributed generation of the solar and the wind and
the other things, so renewable energy since you have a variable speed applications or a
variable output voltage application. Renewable energy is one of the applications of the power
electronics. Most of the energy consumed in the world around 70% of the energy consumed
in the world is electrical energy in the motor drive.

So here also it finds its huge applications because we require variable speed motor drive for
the different applications and also it is picking up and that is hybrid electric vehicles because
of the pollution and all those things. Hybrid electric vehicle or normal electric vehicles both
we would find a huge application of the power electronics. So these are the actually the basis
or roots of the power electronics and these are the outcome of the power electronics and these
are all advanced applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:07)

Now power electronic essentially processes the energy, it does the cooking. You have a raw
power which your utility cannot take like raw vegetable you cannot take, we have a raw
power which we cannot take, we require to process the power according to the order
requirement and so that it can fit to the right kind of application and right kind of utility and
gives us the desired results.

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So what essentially it does, it does efficiently, it does flexibly, it gives a wide range of control
and other variations. Typically, it involves change of voltage and current or frequency or
power and generally conversion we wish to achieve in and around 90% that is one of the
biggest challenge. We have a non-power electronic waste solutions, their efficiency is
mechanical power system.

Their efficiency is quite low and it is quite slow in operation. For this reason, you know we
required to see these aspects, sustainability, environmental footprint, so we should have
actually all the pollution to be controlled, energy efficiency, energy saved is energy earned
and available flexibility so that same machine can be operated in a different more different
zone of operations.

You may not require multiple machines to do the different kind of job and the modern living
that is we require modern living and we are getting shortage of the energy. So this is an
quality of life comes into the picture that is greatly enhanced with the use of the power
electronics.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:08)

So let us see the chronological advancement of the power electronics. So it is not new, Tesla
and this actually famous debate on AC and DC transmissions and you know we unfortunately
had our DC machines and we found that you know generations of AC is bettered and
transmission distribution of AC is better because of this actually use of the transformer and
thus we required to use.

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Because we produce AC and we consume DC to mismatch to actually to fit the gap initially
we had mercury arc rectifier. So we required to rectify it and feed it to the DC load or DC
machines or DC light. So gradually it has deceivers been phased out but in older Calcutta
days actually we had DC connections for quite long time. Now this has a prolonged life span
you know.

Till actually 50 years this was the only sole process of converting AC to DC but efficiency
level was quite low and required huge maintenance and thereafter so forth this is we are
writing is a prehistory or it is a pre-historical age for power electronics, not of course for the
human being. Though, thereafter power diode and thyristors were invented. That is a huge
jump in the technology.

And it was invented around 1957 so and that continued to middle of this actually 1970 and
power electronics finds its application most of the AC to DC conversion. Thereafter, we will
finally discuss little later that thyristor based types are basically half controlled devices, you
can control its turn on but turn off it is not actually very easy, we require an external circuit to
turn it off.

So for this reason actually we are looking for a full controlled devices and thus from the
middle of the 70s and this is an actual research starts in power electronics and its application
and its devices, that was in middle of 70s. There we had a different devices like GTO, power
MOSFET, thyristors and also digital control comes into the pictures and that actually reduces
the basically the uncertainty issues of the analog control.

And so this is microprocessors, DSP, all those things gradually incorporated. Now we have
IGBT, MOSFET, thyristors, IGCTs. Now we are going for the silicon carbide-based devices,
so that will be the other fourth phase rather. So and here we are using a PGA, DSP and all
those actually programming logic and thus control and the device go hand-in-hand to give a
better quality of life.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:27)

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Now what are the challenges? Why we require to use? Challenge is we have to take a device
which can handle more amount of the power in less volume. So we talk about the power
densities. We want the megawatt level power handling capability for per CC something like
that and also highly reliable in extreme environmental conditions. So we should see that you
know it can be usable like you know we can use a power electronics device sub-Saharan
actually in Siberia or sub-Saharan Africa.

So in Siberia it has to operate -50 degree centigrade and sub-Saharan Africa and also it will
heat up and temperature can go as high as 20 degree centigrade. So within a whole range
whether it is possible to operate, if it is a military application that require more stringent
condition if it is a space application that require more stringent conditions. All those
application power electronics finds its place suitably.

And thereafter, lower magnetic emissions, this is one of the challenges, nowadays actually
what happened we have a EMI, EMC problems that is called electromagnetic interference
and electromagnetic compatibility. We will see that we will use actually huge, we use find lot
of application of the electromagnetism and that will generate a considerable amount of
electromagnetic noises that require to suppress because it will otherwise interface with the
communication and also it is hazardous for the human being a life.

So we require to find it out that lower magnetic emission and we require to something like
modular turn-key system, it will be a compact, you fit into them before a motor something a
box of small size and that will do everything, that is the concept. So for this, modular turn-

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key systems we are looking for and higher level of integration, many devices can be
compacted in a single entity.

And also lower costs throughout the life and we will have a large mean breakdown time.
These are the actually the challenges that power electronic devices required to achieve and
that will be effectively controlled by a control system.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:06)

So see that this is a motivation of the power electronic for the future researcher. So this is the
renewable energies, avionics and high speed train like bullet trains and there actually we have
critical issues, we have to harvest most of the power from renewable energy sources and also
you require to have very effective ways and nowadays actually the people flies, we expect
that every 10 years the number of passenger is going to be doubled.

So we require to make our sky more safer, cheaper for added value to the system and power
electronics required to do that and there lies a challenge. Same way we require to have fast
transport system and the modern transport system. There we will find a lot of applications of
the power electronics and also we have an environmental harshness. So you may have
actually thunderstorm, we may have something one line has been collapsed.

So power require to submit so we can use the flexible AC transmission system to deal with
that thing even if there is a damage with undamaged line we can have for time being we can
handle a huge amount of power. So these are the actually the motivations where you can

7
work and power electronics can give a very effective solution to this problem. So from there
we are gradually looking to the paradigm shift of the research.

So you have to do the since we are engineer we require to do the application specific
research. We will take a problem, gradually we will have a top-down approach and we will
go to the devices. So we will see that in a courses, will see that how we design actually power
electronics converter or inverter and so paradigms shift in research, handbook of calculations.
Thereafter, it has to qualify different testing conditions.

Then only we have to find it logic behind it and apart from that physics of failure and design
and reliability, this is something we require to test, we require to design a system that is quite
reliable. So we require to take the main breakdown time to some level that is also a challenge.
It is not that it is working today, it required to work another 10 years at least because if you
talk about let us say solid state transformer.

One lifespan of the transformer is 40 years, so same way we can expect when we talk about
the solid state transformer that transformer also lasts for during this period that is a huge
challenge and the huge scope of research for the future researcher. For more reliable cost-
effective power electronic system can deliver those conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:02)

Now these are actually the devices, of course today is 2018 and this data has been taken on
2015. So these are called high bandgap devices. High bandgap devices can handle huge
voltages and power. So for this you can see that now actually all the research is shifted to the

8
silicon carbide waste devices. Gradually, may be after 10 years we will be frequently using
those devices.

And thus take a look of this matrix, you know silicon IGBT is a solutions of the lower end
solutions and we have a super junction MOSFET and these are the actually the voltage ranges
that is still available now and you know these are the high end solution, ultimately this is
actually the current can be put into the y-axis that should become power. So you can see that
the silicon carbide you know actually it taking our whole shot up actually sets for high end
solutions and which can handle which amount of the voltage.

Thus, future lies on this silicon carbide based device, GaN based device for high switching
frequencies, for low voltage applications and also super junction MOSFETs so which can be
suitably preferred on the lower or middle level voltages. Now we have find that power
electronics finds its application. We already discussed, let us put into the perspectives.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:55)

Power electronics since why I required power electronics because you know we do not have a
DC transformer. So for this reason high frequency power conversion DC to DC conversion,
there is a transformer but that is high frequency transformer for this reason it will be quite
compact and there are inverters. Since you have a solar panel or you have a DC source, from
there adjustable speed AC drive, so for this reason you require inverter.

Thereafter, low frequency power conversion mostly basically the line rectifiers and there we
still use a mostly the thyristors because till now power rating of the thyristor is quite highest

9
and it will be naturally commuted it with that but problem lies the power quality is a greatest
casualty when you use actually line rectifiers, for this reason we are gradually looking for the
active filters.

Distributed power system nowadays actually with advent of the distributed generations, we
have a high penetration of the solar in different rooftops or different solar cells been placed in
different locations as well as wind. So distributed power system is one of the area and where
we require to handle and monitor power to it and so there is a huge application of the power
electronics.

And power devices also one of the area of power electronics so which suitable use of the
power electronics devices and research on it because we are not researching on. We are
basically using from the application point of view but someone required to do this research
otherwise our requirement will not be fulfilled because they will do their design from their
fundamentals but our requirement is something else, so we have to match that bridge.

Again, we require HVDC transmissions, high voltage or extra high voltage DC transmissions,
there also we find lot of power electronics application, also HVAC applications where we use
high voltage, high power rated inverters and one aspect is the power quality because of we
require to have adjustable speed drive and other issues that will corrupt the power for this
power quality problem has pops in and that required to be actually modified or mitigated.

And thus power quality problem also actually solution lies with the power electronics. Even
though cause of this power quality is power electronics and solution of the power quality is
also the power electronics and definitely the power factor connections, harmonic reductions
and it can be done in active and passive filtering and passive filtering is done by the
combination of LC filters.

And there are lot of disadvantages of it, it may actually interact with the lines frequency and
may cause a resonance and also actually direct itself with the time because of the capacitor
value gradually decreases. Due to that actually nowadays actually trend towards is through
the active filtering with STATCOM, so that solution also provided by the power electronics.
So power electronics has a huge scope and applications for the modern days and for giving a
better quality of life to the human being.

10
We have seen that power electronics takes input from the maths; power electronics takes
input from the physics. If you combine maths and physics, its control, ultimately device
required to be control and there all the control techniques which you have studied will be
applied. One of the greatest applications of the control system is the power electronics. So
power electronics researcher or the practitioner has to have a very sound knowledge in
control.

And for this we club these two entities together, we do not want to teach power electronics
and the control in other entity, it is basically application of the control system in power
electronics.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:20)

So switching power converter must be suitably designed and controlled in order to supply the
required voltage current and other requirement and for this reason we require to be effectively
control it and it is a feedback control and different kind of control technique is possible and
we will find that actually. They can be design and serve as a clean interface between the load
and the electrical utility.

Therefore, there must be a switching power converter pulse behaves almost as a pure
electrical utility for the resistive load and is one of the application of it. Control is required to
smoothening the power flow because you may have some kind of problem, environmental
problem, any hazards that has to come into it and power electronics devices has to overcome
it, ultimately brain will be the control to mitigate that problem.

11
(Refer Slide Time: 23:25)

So this is actually the device rating that we can talk about today. You can see that SCR has
huge voltage rating and it is available and it can operate actually 12 kV and 1.5 kilo ampere
of current. Thus, you multiply this power rating goes as high as actually MVA or mega volt
rating. So you can see gradually you know so thereafter but it is a half controlled device, you
can turn it on or turn off, has to have a complicated process.

So for this reason we have GTO and that is basically that both turn on and turn off can be
controlled but problem lies you know rating till GTO is half of the rating of the thyristors.
Thereafter, same way we have IGBT, if you wish to choose a higher voltage rating then
current rating required to be low, so either we requite for the higher application we require to
paralleling of the IGBTs or we require to use IGBT with high current rating, we have to put it
to the multi-level inverter format.

So this is the power diagram of this devices till now available. Of course, we expect that this
situation will change drastically once we will have a silicon carbide-based devices. Now let
us very briefly tell you that what I am going to cover in this course. So this is the introduction
classes.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:26)

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Next class, actually I will take it out the basic concept of the switches. Thereafter, I will
devote some time on the device physics, those who have done the basic power electronics
courses, they have already done this course but we require to little actually brush up of this
courses and characteristics of the switches and switch application. Then, we will go to the
single phase converter, three phase converter and thereafter we will go to the multiple
converter, effect of the source impedance.

And then we will see that this is all are AC to DC conversion mainly. So PWM converter,
thereafter we will see that selective harmonic eliminations, power factor improvement and
the power quality issues and then from this point onward we shall go for the DC to DC
converter. Till now, it was AC to DC. Now from this onward, it will be DC to DC converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:21)

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So we will have a different kind of isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converter, Cuk
converter, Flyback converter. Thereafter, we will give an introduction to the SMPS according
to its application. So we will find that what kind of topologies will be suitable for what kind
of applications. Then, we shall go for the inverter application, that is basically DC to AC
application from this point onward.

So they will have a voltage source inverter, credit source inverter. Then, PWM technique and
we will have different topologies of the inverter that is multi-level inverter, jet source
inverter. Now we will come to the control aspect of it that is space vector-based modulation
technique, introduction to the AC to AC converter. Then, we will see that matrix converter,
Z-source converter.

And then at last, we will discuss about the power quality mitigation device, passive filter,
active filter, hybrid filter, UPQC.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:25)

And then actually we shall discuss about the control part of it. So linear control of the power
electronics that will be introduction of it. You know thereafter we will devote much time on
the nonlinear control of the power electronics, application of the power electronics in
renewable energy and drive, power electronics converter for the renewable and alternative
energy, grid interaction, islanding protection, EMI and power control, power electronics for
the energy storage for ultra capacitors, flywheels, batteries these will be discussed.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:00)

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Now these are actually the books that you can refer, student may be allowed to contact me for
any further discussions or any further queries. We shall continue with the next class with the
devices and from the next class onwards, we shall go to deep into the power electronics
control and its devices. Thank you so much for your kind attention.

15
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 02
Basic Concept of Switches

Welcome to our second lecture on advance power electronics and control and this class we
will discuss about the basic concept of switches. First, let us understand why power
electronics is preferred? You know let us see that there is a very one simple example you
know.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:46)

We want actually a buck operation 9 volt to 3 volt. Of course, you can use a voltage divider
circuit and we can calculate actually what is the amount of the actually power to be dissipated
here and accordingly we can choose the resistances and that will give you the desired actual
dissipation but what happen you know this solution is quite lossy. So you require to put this
resistance.

Since current will be the same so 33% will be actually dissipated here, 66% will be dissipated
across the internal resistance. So efficiency of the system only will be close to 33% maximum
and so what you can understand it is quite disadvantageous. Now let us consider a switch,
mechanical switch let us first conceptualize and which is getting on and off.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:54)

16
So we will on for the interval of T/3 and will keep it off for the rest of the interval. So what
happen you know you can take the time average of it and you can get the voltage. So that
voltage will be around 3 volt. So what happened here, why it is advantageous, it is because
one switch is on so across the switch there is no power drop and just reverse because voltage
across the switch idealized to be 0.

Though power electronics devices will have some losses, that is different issue and this
reverse happens when actually switch is open. Total voltage will come across the switches, so
no current will flow and also power losses to the switches is 0. So for this reason, you know
of course is not possible to mechanical switch to operate in such a fast fashion and for this
reason we require to use a power electronic switches and if operated very fast, then we can
see that we can get an average value of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:26)

17
So for this reason and whether it will give precisely 3 volt, that is also a very big challenge
and therefore this control aspects comes into the picture, you will have a control mechanism
that will ensure that you are getting a that is a voltage level what has been prescribed up to a
precision which the customer asked for and of course here since there is a lot of switching
will have a high frequencies and that can be easily smooth out by putting a low pass filter.

Since these frequencies can be as high as in the range of the megahertz in case of the soft
switching converter, that we will come later what we mean by the soft switching converter.
So this is the average value of it, this is a time interval and to create 3 volt will be actually
passing to the low pass filter to suppress the high frequencies and feedback is also required to
give a precise control of this actually the converter.

Now same way when you require a wide range of speed variation, so think about electric
locomotives.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:02)

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And now what we can do is basically you know that actually one control is called V/f control.
So what happen if you control V/f essentially you make flux constant. So torque will be
proportional to only the current. So if you keep the torque constant current also remains
constant, so what happen you know you can keep this ratio constant and why the frequency.
So you can get for the induction machine a various rated speed at different frequencies, in
that way you can change.

So what you can do here, first of all you have a constant supply, constant frequency supply
50 Hertz then you will be fitting to the front end converter that will give you the DC.
Thereafter, you will have a variable frequency converter and that will give you a AC with a
variable frequencies ranging from 10 to let say 50 Hertz and of course it is possible to go
higher, that discussion will be taking later.

So then that will be fitted to the AC motor and AC motor itself is a low-pass filter because it
has a huge amount of the inductor present into the system and that will actually truncate the
high frequency ripple and thus you can get a wide range of variation of the speed from this
putting a variable frequency controller. So it will can precisely actually you can set that speed
and precisely you can operate by a basically it can be a commanded system.

This is an open loop operation, if you take feedback of it, then you can ensure that it is
actually rotating at the desired speed.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:08)

19
So traditionally motor system run nearly at a constant speed that is what I was saying because
you have a constant frequency supply and for example flow rate of the pump is controlled by
actually by wasting a portion of the input energy across a rotating or throttling valve. This
waste is eliminated by adjustable speed drive, adjustable pure electric dive as shown below
by efficiently controlling this motor speed.

Here is the pump speed by means of the power electronics and we control and energy is
saved that is more important. When you require to have a reduced throughput, you can give a
variable frequency supply and V/f ratio can we control accordingly, so it will run less and the
throughput will be less, in that way you can control it. So instead of wasting energy, you will
be feeding less energy to the motor. Now what are the desired characteristics of the
electronics or the power electronic switches?
(Refer Slide Time: 08:08)

20
So an electronic switch, what is the difference between mechanical switch and electronic
switch, mechanical switch is basically a switch we have metal conductors and is slow in
operation and an electronic switch will be in a fast in operation. Electronic switch is
characterized having two states, on and off state. Ideally, being either short or the open
circuit. When it is closed, it is short. When it is open circuit, so no current flows when
actually it is open circuited.

And when the short circuited, voltage across the switch should be equal to zero. That is the
ideal characteristics of the switch. If switch is ideal, either the switch voltage or the switch
current is zero making the power absorption to the switch is zero. So we should try to achieve
that. Unfortunately, power electronic devices actually lacks this feature.

The particular switching devices used in a power electronic circuit depends on the existing
state of device and the technology, that we will see little later what does it mean by that.
Therefore, semiconductor devices are usually modeled as ideal switches. So the circuit
behavior can be emphasized. Switches are modeled as short circuit when on and when off it
is open circuit.

Transition between the states are usually assumed to be instantaneous but effects of non-ideal
switching are discussed and it will be actually put into the appropriate application later. So of
course first power electronics device is essentially is a diode that we are using pretty long
time that you use for the rectifier operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:10)

21
This is actually the diode and generally it is put into the heat sink. So for the power
dissipations and generally it will have a voltage stop but something please keep in mind
power diode will have a power drop more than 0.7 volt because it has a one extra positive n
layer. So this is actually actual figure of the diode. This is the symbol and this is actually the
V-I characteristics of the diode.

And you know that actually it will almost conducting for the 0.7 volt considering that it is a
power diode. So this rating is almost close to zero and this is actually the coordinate of
operation, it will block in reverse direction and current can flow in either in this direction. So
it is a one quadrant operation and this is the signal its turn-off characteristics. Once it is on,
current was flowing thereafter you initiate a change in voltage.

So then what happened, gradually current will come to zero but still it does not have a voltage
breaking capability. How fast is getting a voltage breaking capability based on that there are
different kinds of diode. So this is called trr reverse recovery time, shorter the reverse
recovery time fast will be the diode put into the operation. Now this is the thyristor, this is
actually one small thyristors.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:56)

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Thyristors and diodes are almost same features but thyristor has got a control. So what
happened here, once actually it has been triggered by the gate then only current flows,
otherwise it has got a forward blocking capability which was absent in case of the diode.
Diode crosses this threshold voltage then only it start conducting but it has got a forward
blocking capability for this is an operation almost same. It conducts i in this direction.

It can block this direction as well as this direction but this direction is controlled blocking
forward direction. So we have another variant of the thyristors that is called gate turnoff
thyristors, since turn on can be done by the thyristors, so turnoff in different manner but there
are possible solutions given by this another device called GTO. So there what happened if by
injecting negative current you can also turn off these devices.

So for this reason this is called GTO and similarly you got a MCT and it is MOS controlled
thyristors. So there also you can turn it off.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:26)

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Now there is a transistors, transistors basically BJT, it has seen a lowest power BJTs. Signal
level BJT has shown lot of applications for many years but in power electronics it is quite
short lived because you know actually BJT will have same characteristics of this actually
normal signal BJT but what current flows basically you know in active region IC=beta*IB
but problem lies you know since value of the IC is quite high.

And beta’s value is around 50 to 100, so IB also require to be quite high and it is very
difficult to get that huge amount of the power dissipation in the actually the base part of the
circuit. It has to sink that amount of current and for this reason you know actually for the high
frequency applications and the low power applications, we found one solution that is
basically MOSFET.

Different kind of MOSFET is possible, one advantage is that actually here charge is
introduced is that MOSFET is essentially a voltage controlled current device. So what
happened you know when actually you got positive pulses so you have a induced negative
charges, so it make a channel and through this channel current will flow and there can be a
normally on MOSFET and normally off MOSFET.

And one of the basic advantage of is that actually if you applied the DC voltage, so there is a
((capacitive effect)) (15:02) the current should be very low and due to that actually there is a
less consumption of the gate driver circuit but however the current carrying capability
depends on the channel width and thus you know we have found that you know actually
current handling capability of this MOSFET quite low.

24
And gate part of this MOSFETs and the BJT has been combined by Baliga one of the Indian
scientist ((in GE)) (15:36). So he came out with a solution of the IGBT. So IGBT has an
advantage of huge current carrying capability and also the advantage of the actually the
MOSFET gate driver circuit. It incorporates both and thus it becomes a quite famous and that
itself actually phase out the BJT.

Invent of the IGBT basically the cause of phasing out of the BJT. So BJT we would not be
discuss very much. In high frequency lower power application, we will be discussing
MOSFETs for that control devices and for the little low frequency and high power devices
we shall talk about IGBTs.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:26)

Now switching selections that is quite important. In previous class, I have shown that you
know what are the different voltage level and the power level, from there what are the
devices we will choose and here also this features quite important. While selection of the
switch, we require the voltage and the current level. There is a safe zone of operation that will
be prescribed in your data sheet.

Unless you are walking with a device say you are starting working with SIC, it does not have
a data sheet and somehow you managed from the manufacturer to get the devices. So that is
different issue, otherwise we will have a data sheet. So from there actually voltage and the
current levels will be prescribed and we required to choose actually we have to see that what
are the desired voltage and current level.

25
And accordingly we have to choose a factor of safety, more the factor of safety you will find
that actually more will be the mean breakdown time that means actually it will be expected to
leave longer but of course the penalty have to pay by the cost. Since the rating will be higher,
the cost of the devices is going to be higher and also switching characteristics. If it is a high
frequency applications, then you know diode trr required to be considered, we require to
choose a fast diode that is fast recovery diode, so that has to be considered.

And also on-off control, for example if you have actually line commutated devices like you
are applying for the line voltage to the rectifier or line voltage converter operation where your
devices like thyristors will be naturally commutated without external circuits that is one of
the features.

So whether the device has on-off control or it has only on control or off control, what is a
stress coming out across the switches when you are actually turning on or turning off the
devices so and it required to be smoothened in wide manner. So then snubber comes into the
picture to actually reduce the stress across it. Switching speed, so every device will have a
prescribed dv/dt and di/dt.

Please understand that once you track it on, it is not an instantaneous phenomena even if it is
a microsecond or nanosecond. So there is a speed to ramp on. So this ramp on time you know
so there will be a dv/dt as well as di/dt. So maximum value of dv/dt and di/dt will be
prescribed in your data sheets by the kind of devices you are choosing.

You have to find it out what is the rate of dv/dt in your circuit and di/dt in your circuit
accordingly you will select the switch. That is also one of the important parameter to absorb
unassociated power losses. So that is the important feature we want an efficiency to be more
than 90% for the power electronics devices. So accordingly we required to choose that
particular device that gives you the least power drop.

Now once a power electronic devices is operating, full control devices will have a three
losses, turn on loss, turn off loss and the conduction loss and we have to find it out which loss
predominant in these sector and we have to attack that part of it and get it reduced and we

26
will get the desired efficiencies. When selecting suitable switching devices, first
consideration is the required operating point of turn on and turn off characteristics.

So we will find out the safe operating region in between and from there we will be deriving
the switches. I am giving one example here.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:01)

Let us see in the figure 1 has 2 switches, S1 on and connects the source Vs as 24 volt to the
currents of that is it is carrying a load current of 2 ampere, it is desired to open switch S1 to
disconnect Vs from the current source. This requires a second switch S2 to close to provide a
path for current of i0 as in a figure B. At the later time, S1 must reclose and S2 must open to
restore the circuit to the original condition.

This cycle will repeat in some frequency, we require for the compactness and other issues
that frequency to be around as high has 200 kilohertz. So determine the kind of device
required for the each switch and the maximum voltage and current required for the each of
the element.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:03)

27
You can see that actually for switch S1, we require to when it is closed it has to carry a
current of i0 but you take some factor of safety. Similarly, when it is off, it has to block that
voltage. So it has to block the voltage Vs and similarly for S2, what happened, S2 is opened
then it has to block the voltage of -Vs and it will carry the current of i0. So thus what we can
visualize you know from these characteristics what kind of device I require.

So you know you see that this voltage has to block the forward voltage, so we cannot use
diode here. So it has to use active devices and since it is a high frequency application I told
you, you know that one of the solution is actually the MOSFET gives you the maximum
efficiency. So for this reason you will get a MOSFET, generally MOSFET comes with the
body diode, anti-parallel diode.

So what happened, so you can see that these characteristics can be achieved by it. Once it is
on, it will carry the current of i0. Once it is off, it can block it. Same way for S2, what
happened here in S2, S2 will carry the current positive direction unidirectional and it has to
block the reverse voltage. So for this is not you know diode in anti-parallel from this point
this node point of view this configuration will be more suitable.

Of course, you know we can do something. If current is high and you know that actually this
gives you a 0.7 volt drop, so power losses around 1.4 watt. Instead of that why cannot we use
devices which will only have Rd on. Rd on is generally MOSFET of very low value. So then
it becomes a synchronous buck converter. So accordingly what happened, you can reduce the
loss as well as control.

28
Because you cannot control the diode, diode will conduct the moment it is off but you can
control the current of these devices. So for this reason, if it is a synchronous operation and we
require to reduce the losses and in a more compact control most of the MOSFET driver will
have since these two devices will have complementary logics which does not contend. It is
very easier to actually have that kind of logic.

And for this reason, will prefer a synchronous rectification. So this is the one of the example
how we will choose a device.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:23)

So this is a classification of the devices, uncontrolled turn on and turn off that is diode. If the
voltage between actually cathode and anode, anode is more than cathode it will conduct,
otherwise it will block. If it is suitable for your application, use diode that is the simplest
because it does not require any control. It will be automatically allow which is something like
a valve, it will allow the current to pass in one direction and it will block to another direction.

Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off, once you want to control and get it open and
then putting off it does not require, you may have a natural commutations or natural off, then
you use SCR. Once you require both, controlled turn on and controlled turn off then use
either of these devices depending on the rating frequencies and the power levels. BJT is
nowadays is obsolete because of this actually high power requirement in the best driver or the
great driver circuits.

29
But these entities are pretty frequently used in our power electronics devices. The continuous
gate signal is required BJT though it has been disconnected which is now no longer used
MOSFET but yes theoretically yes MOSFET and IGBT. Power dissipation of MOSFET is
the least because you know it induces a channel and that way actually power flow. So power
dissipation across the control devices require a least power in case of the MOSFET thereafter
IGBT.

And pulse gate requirement is SCR, GTO and MCT. So you can give me the pulse, it will be
turned on but turn off cannot be done in case of the SCR. In GTO, you can actually put it off
by negative pulses but it does not require any power in between for this is in power handling
capability of this devices is quite high but limitation is that it is high frequency operation. It
cannot go for the high frequency.

GTO is a full controlled device but problem lies it has frequency limited to the around 500
Hertz and same way for MCT. Now based on bipolar voltage withstanding capability, so it
can withstand the bidirectional voltage and block and allow. So this is SCR and GTO. We
will come little later that is actually MOSFETs comes with the body diode so for this reason
it does not have a bipolar withstanding capability.

Unipolar voltage withstanding capability is BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, MCT. So if you
require a unipolar voltage blocking, then you can have a plenty of choice and if you want
actually bidirectional current capability, so then you have to use a TRIAC or will show at one
different configuration on the matrix converter. Then, unidirectional current capability that
can be done on SCR, GTO, MOSFET, IGBT MCT as well as diode.

These are the few actually take away today's class about this devices. So we have to choose a
device based on this actually the applications. So this is a different way to find it out devices
which will be suitable for our applications, one of the classifications based on these
classifications. Thank you for your attention. We are looking forward to device applications
in next class also. Thank you.

30
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 03
Device Physics I

Welcome to our lectures on advance power electronics control. Today is our third lecture, we
will continue with our device physics. That is the components we will discuss today is that
SCS and power diode. So this will be actually all the devices that is going to be covered
within subsequent two classes. That is basically you know from the 50 years rather we are
using diode.

But we will see that this is power diode that power handling capability of this diode at least
actually 1000 times higher or maybe 10 to the power 6 times higher. So this will be called a
power diode. Thereafter, we will see that you know thyristors is a unique combination that is
a 2 PN junction diode has been connected in series and it forms unique features and thus it
will be a semi controlled device.

It turn on can be controlled but turn off cannot be controlled. Thereafter, bidirectional
thyristors when you put actually two anti-parallel thyristors in a same package, essentially it
becomes a TRIAC but power handling capability of the TRIAC essentially is very less and
nowadays it is getting almost phased out with the advent of the matrix converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:48)

31
Thereafter, GTO since thyristor does not have a turn off capability, it require an external
procedure to turn on that is called commutations and we can turn off a kind of thyristors with
negative gate current so that will be GTO that will also be covered. Thereafter, BJT this is
also power BJT because in analog electronics we have studied BJT but that power handling
capability is quite low in watt.

It should be in a kilowatt or megawatt but it has shown a very little life span. Nowadays, it is
not been used because of the high gate current requirement and instead of that we have a
power MOSFET and also it has got a power handling in the range of the kilowatt level. So
these are the conventional devices that we use. Apart from that, you know we have now few
modern devices that is IGBT.

IGBT is discovered by one Indian ((in GE)) (02:50) so from there actually dimension of the
power electronics changes because it combines the actual utility of the BJT and MOSFETs
and it came out with a unique feature which has a low gate dissipation and high current
handling capability. Thereafter, SIC, TH, MCT, IGCT is one of the advancement over the
IGBT and thereafter COOLMOS, etc.

And we are also now actually reaching out for the silicon carbide-based devices or high
bandwidth devices. Let us now talk about the power diode in details. So difference is that you
know we have this power diode has to have a block, huge amount of voltages than the
conventional diode which we have studied in the analog electronics. For this reason, you
know you will find that n layer is stretched. It is not that only in PN junction you can find that
-n and the +n.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:52)

32
And for ((this reason)) (03:53) drift region and thus you know what we assume for the silicon
diode that actually it will have a forward drop voltage of 0.7 volt, instead of that it will be
higher because of this actually drift region is higher and that gives the actually higher reverse
blocking capability but also it gives a higher conduction loss. So the thickness of the n-drift
region depends on the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode.

So this drift region determines the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode. The function is to
absorb the depletion layers, the reverse versus the PN junction and it is lightly doped it will
add significant ohmic resistance for this I was telling that actually drop will be higher to the
diode when it is forward biased. For higher breakdown voltage, the drift region will be wide
so this region will be wider if required to have a higher reverse blocking voltage.

And n-drift region is absent for low signal diode which we have studied in analog electronics.
Now this is the symbol of the diode. You are quite familiar from the analog electronics.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:09)

33
And you know this is the structures, this is a PN junction in between you have extra layer that
is you might have seen, this is -drift region, -n layer has been put inside it to give you a
reverse voltage blocking capability and this is basically the forward characteristics of the
diode, it is same but this voltage may not be actually 0.7, it is generally higher depending on
which amount of the blocking capability that diode have.

We refer to the data sheet then we will find out and this is basically the Avalanche
breakdown and this VBR in this power diode we generally assume to be about more than 500
volt because it will be used for this power electronics purposes. So mostly in a rectifier cases,
so actually for the 3 phase voltage which is required to be rectified so peak inverse voltage
comings out to be around 600 volt for the 3 phase voltages.

So accordingly we require to choose the rating of the reverse effect breakdown voltage and
this is actually the ideal characteristics of the switching characteristics. Diode essentially is an
uncontrolled device, it has reverse blocking capability which has been shown by this line and
it will conduct into the forward region, this is the mode of operation. It does not have forward
blocking capability and the reverse current flow capability.

So it has a forward conduction capability and the reverse blocking capability. This is the
characteristics of the diode. Anywhere you require this kind of characteristics; you can
suitably place a diode instead of any control switches.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:52)

34
So let us see that you know we have a different kind of diode where we will find that it is a
normal diode that will be used for the rectifier operation mainly. Most of the power actually
from AC to DC you actually use rectifications but power qualities and issues still we use that
and for this reason we have a different kind of diode and for this we require to understand
actually dynamic characteristics of the diode.

So what happened when you apply a point of voltage builder, current also builds up and there
is a rate of change of the forward voltage current and that will pick up. So in this region you
can see that the voltage is also building up, current is also building up because it has got a
junction capacitance, so current will also build up. So in this region you know actually diode
will give you a voltage drop, power drop across this diode.

That is called the turn-on loss of the diode. Thereafter, what happen once it reaches through
the voltage then voltage will fall and ultimately you know when voltage becomes zero to
when voltage falls down to its actually forward blocking voltage let say 0.7 or 0.8 volt or
more than that depending on the amount of the depletion layer, so this time is called t2. By
the time you know actually, current will be actually to its saturated value or whatever the
rated current it will flow.

And it will continue thereafter once you decided to actually take steps to reduce the voltage,
then definitely actually you can find essentially here current become zero but even though the
current becomes zero it does not have a reverse blocking capability because of the trap charge

35
into the PN junction diode and you know since there is extra substrate present, it will take
considerable more amount of time to actually drain out the charges from the trap region.

For this reason, you know actually you have to apply a reverse voltage; this is called reverse
recovery voltage VRR. Then, actually this trap charges will come out gradually, ultimately
current will flow in the negative direction for the short duration of the time and ultimately
again it will go out and this time you know actually total time it is called the trr and it will
have a leakage.

Thereafter, after trr leakage current will flow through it and leakage current should be
actually one-fourth of this actually the maximum reverse current flows. So it should be
around 25%. So this is the actually the characteristics of the diode. So let us get familiar with
the few terms that is trr that is reverse recovery time measured at the time between the initial
zero crossing of the diode current to the same time.

When this current reaches 20% of the peak reverse current and that is assumed to be basically
the leakage current of the diode and IRR maximum reverse current that will be also specified
on a data sheet, will show it and you know trr is a major fundamental parameter of the diode
for different applications. If you are using a diode for SMPS kind of applications and which
is for choosing frequency is very high and thus require very fast reverse or very small reverse
recovery time.

So we have to choose a fast diode. Similarly, diode is using for rectification operation of the
50 Hertz or 60 Hertz supply. You can afford to take a slow device, slow diode or a snappy
diode and if you require extremely fast devices almost zero on in level of the nanoseconds
then Schottky diode will be preferred but of course higher will be the power of blocking
capability.

So trap charge will be there and higher will be your value of the trr and also now your drop
conduction drop will also increase if it has a higher PIV or peak inversion voltage and ta is a
time between the zero crossing and the maximum reverse current and that is due to the charge
stored in the depletion region of the junction and tb is the time is where actually the time
reverses.

36
This is basically the two times ta and tb, so we have to find it out the maximum power
reverse current trr is 25% of the maximum reverse current and IRR is due to the charge stored
in depletion region or bulk semiconductor material.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:42)

So let us see, so this much is ta and this much is tb and if this recovery is this kind of thing, it
takes actually considerable amount of time, then we call it is soft recovery and stress across
this diode is less and diode will have a less conduction loss also, so but you will have a higher
value of trr but if you want actually very fast recovery for high frequency applications then
what happened you know tb is considerably low.

Ratio of ta and tb is basically one of the measurement of the diode’s promptness but problem
lies, there is a two problem if you require to have a fast higher recovery voltage, you cannot
do anything, you require to choose this kind of diode. It will have a high EMI, EMC problem
as well as you know actually cost of the diode definitely will be more. Apart from that
actually the stress across this diode also will be higher.

So we have another diode that is called Schottky diode which has extremely low or almost
zero turn off time. Reverse blocking capability is extremely low compared to the power
diodes.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:11)

37
So these diodes are used where low forward voltage drop usually 0.3 volt is needed in low
output voltage circuit. So these diodes are limited to their blocking capabilities of the voltage
in the range of 50 to 100 volt whereas actually you will find that power diode can easily
block 1000 volts. As compared to the PN junction diode, it has lower cut in a voltage, higher
reverse leakage current that is we guess you know they will find that leakage current will be
little higher and two times higher than the normal power diode of the same rating.

Higher operating frequency, you can operate for the SMPS and other applications. So this is
one of the applications. So this is basically the PN junction diode and this is a Schottky diode
and this drop will be instead of 0.7, it will be around 3 to 4 volt and PN junction will have a
0.7 volt and one of the advantages is that it has got a fastest recovery except SIC. So how you
will categorize fast diode and the slow diode?
(Refer Slide Time: 14:26)

38
So fast recovery diode actually will go from this point to this point, so basically this is the
region you know this is the current, if you integrate over time, this is the charge. Ultimately,
your depletion region should hold very less amount of charge that is the only solution to
provide a fast recovery and that is used for the high frequency application. So if you integrate
over it though this gives you the charge.

So this is used for the high frequency circuit in a combination with the controllable switch by
a small reverse recovery time is needed at power level of the several hundred volt and several
hundred amperes of diodes, trr having times less than the microsecond. We shall see the
dataset in a normal rectification operation, what kind of trr you will get it and another is that
low frequency diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

39
Low frequency diode is normally used for the rectifier operations and we want actually lower
conduction loss because it can carry then higher current and drop will be lower but it will
have a soft recovery or a slow recovery. So the on state voltage of the diode is designed to be
low as possible as a consequence it has larger trr which are acceptable for the line frequency
applications in 50 hertz or 60 hertz depending on the countries you are using.

These diodes are available with a blocking voltage of ratings of the several kilovolts and the
current ratings of the several kilo amperes. Moreover, they can be connected in series and
parallel to satisfy the voltage and the current requirement.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:17)

So this is the data sheets of one of the power diode in a nominal power rating not very high
rating. So you can see that what are the parameter will be given, you know this is the current
carrying capability of this diode is only 1 ampere to 3 ampere and at a temperature of the still
75 degree centigrade there is no thermal runaway or the thermal breakdown and one aspect is
that surge current capability.

Surge current capability is quite high, it is as high as 200 ampere and you know there is
power dissipation and you know this power dissipation can be as high as 6 watt, 6.25 watt
and you know this is the thermal resistance and junctional operating point can be -55 to 150
degree centigrade. Another important data is given that value of the trr, I am coming to this
little you can see that it is 1.5 microsecond.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:28)

40
And you know there is difference series depending on you can choose a different power
rating, you can see that this is basically the peak repetitive voltage if you apply for the
rectifier operation that is very important because you have a negative half cycle. So it can
block, it can start from actually the 50 to 1000 you can choose any diode depending on its
rating in between and so if you choose 5408, it has a blocking capability of the 1000 volt.

And maximum RMS rating will be 700 volt and reverse blocking capability will be same.
The peak voltage, peak repetitive voltage that will be 1000 volt and you can have a maximum
forward voltage at you can see that this is not actually 0.7 volt which you have assumed in
the actually analog electronics or the linear electronics diode. It is basically 1.2 volts, so it
gives you the considerable drop.

And we have a full leakage current of around 0.5 milliampere and you got a junctional
capacitance in the range of the 30 picofarad at 1 megahertz.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

41
So now let us see a fast diode okay. Generally, two anti-parallel diodes are connected in
series so forth this is and we have this kind of terminal. So you can have a 4 terminal, so
generally these diodes will have a series of MUR 16 thereafter some numbers, 10 is actually
will have a lower blocking capability and 60 will have a higher blocking capability. So
ultrafast diode, you have seen that you know in previous diode has a trr or reverse recovery
time in 1.5 or 1500 nanosecond, here it will have only 35 to 60 nanosecond.

Thus, it is a fast diode or fast recovery diode and find its application in SMPS or the any
application where high frequency demands. It has got a huge operating point; it can operate
as high as 175 degree centigrade. Popular package is this one and it meets actuals this is the
UL standard, UL actually the standard is used for the European Union for anyone is exporting
in a European Union, it has to meet this security standard of UL94.

Higher temperature glass passivated junction, for this it can operate at 175 degree centigrade
and high voltage capability, it can block as high voltage as 600 volt, leakage has been
specified even as high temperature 150 degree centigrade. Current derating both the cases of
the ambient temperature has been specified and one aspect is that now one of the standard
requirements of any modern country is that it should have a lead-free package.

You would also have a lead-free package for the environmental issues and weight is just you
can see that around 2 grams, quite light and all external surfaces corrosion free and lead
temperature of the soldering purpose and temperature while soldering can go to the actually
260 degree centigrade for the period of 10 seconds. No harm will be done on the diode.

42
(Refer Slide Time: 21:14)

So these are the few features I was talking about, as this number goes you know you can see
that power blocking capability increases. See that we had a blocking capability of the 1000
volts but anyway since it has a very fast recovery; it has only a power blocking capability of
only 600 volt. So for this reason while choosing a diode, you require to understand it. What is
another advantage of it?

It can handle huge current; you know it can handle 8 ampere of current or 16 ampere of
current. Now the peak forward current is basically the 16 ampere and negative repetitive peak
surge current can be as high as 100 ampere, it was same there but operating range is quite
high, it is -65 to 175 degree centigrade. So it is a quite suitable for high frequency
application.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:20)

43
And apart from that you know actually we have actually other data’s that is that is what the
important thing is that trr value is 35 or 25 nanoseconds depending on the forward current
and if it is 1 ampere current is flowing and di/dt is 50 ampere per microsecond then actually
you will have only 35 microsecond. If it is 0.5, then it will have actually 25 nanoseconds and
data’s are almost same for other values.

So these are basically the forward conduction voltage drop, you can see, it is just little above
0.7 volt. So thus it is an excellent diode, it is 0.895 and 0.975 for different junctional
temperature, higher junctional temperature will give you lower conduction loss that is the
advantage of it and this is basically the characteristics of this diode. Now we shall get
ventured into a controlled device.

But first we will go to the semi controlled device. Problem of diode is that it can block
reverse voltage and allow current to flow in forward conduction mode but it is quite
necessary for different application we required to have forward voltage carrying capability
and thus is necessitate or it is a controlled though it is semi controlled because you cannot
stop that switch but you can on it. So for this reason, actually one device was discovered 60
years ago in 1956.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:23)

44
So the thyristors is called half controlled device and as turn on time can be controlled only.
So you can control when to turn it on and it has got a forward blocking voltage capability and
we can say that power electronics era started with the invention of the thyristor. Thus, we get
into the venture into the power electronics when thyristors becomes fully functional and we
can play around thyristors in those days.

And there is many research because turning on can be controlled, turn off cannot be
controlled so how to turn off, so that was the main research in actually 60s. Thereafter, once
we come out with the different technique of turn off, then it has been applied to the different
topology apart from the controlled rectification operations and that was a domain of 70s.
Thereafter, full controlled device due to the Baliga and all IGBT came and thus different
application we do not use thyristors anymore.

And GTO came but still considering the power handling capability, no one cannot breach the
capability of the thyristors. Thyristors has got highest power handling capability as far as
current and voltage is concerned and also the less loss compared to the turn-on and turn-on
loss compared to any other devices as concerned. So these are the few information we shall
take it away.

It was the same lab where transistors were discovered. It was invented in 1956 in Bell
Laboratories and first came into the production after a year in 1957, so it is almost 60 years
and later after one year later the commercially it is available and it basically replaced all the

45
vacuum power devices. We had a thermionic emission-based control rectification and that
was removed and we came into the era of this power electronics from that point.

And it is used in high-power application due to its high power handling capability. We shall
continue with the thyristors in our next class. Thank you for your kind attentions. We shall
discuss thyristors in thorough and its characteristics and its applications, thereafter we will
switch over to the GTO and other devices. Thank you so much for your attention.

46
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 04
Device Physics II

Welcome to our second lecture on device physics and the fourth lecture of advance power
electronics and control. We shall continue with our discussion which was left you know
previous discussions that was thyristor.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:45)

So we have told that actually we have commercialized, this product is commercialized in

1960 and it has replaced thermionic-based emission switches like vacuum tubes and all and it
is used for the high power handling capabilities and true power electronics starts with the
inventions and application of the thyristors.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:09)

47
So what essentially thyristor is, thyristor is essentially we can think of that one PN junction
diode, another PN junction diode is connected in series. So essentially what happened, since
when you applied a voltage actually it is a VA is>VK or cathode. Then, these junctions you
know this J2 is automatically going to be reverse biased and this junction J1 and J3 is forward
biased and that gives features of forward blocking capability, so this device is normally off.

Why? If you apply a voltage VA>VK junction J2 is reverse biased; only leakage current will
flow. Similarly, if VK is>VA then naturally J3 and J1 are reverse biased and then also it will
be blocked but you can make it on with the external devices or external way. So forth this is
and you know you got a gate, you can inject external current that will basically break down
the junctional barrier object and it comes into the forward conduction mode.

Please mind it, never give a great trigger while VK is>VA, it may damage the thyristor. So
let us come into the discussions. The thyristor is a four-layer, you have a four-layer you can
name it p1 n1 p2 n2 like that. Three terminal devices you got anode, you got cathode and you
got gate which each layer consisting of alternatively PN type material. For example, PN, PN
the main terminals are labeled as anode and cathode across the full four layers.

And the control terminal is called gate and it is attached to the p-type terminal near to the
cathode. So this is the configuration of it and you know what happen if you actually truncate
the thyristors, then you can see two transistors, so it is said to be a two transistors model PNP
and NPN and in between they have got connections. So generally thyristor is analyzed by the
two transistors model for its turn-on applications.

48
(Refer Slide Time: 04:31)

So different kind of thyristors appearance, this is the symbol of the thyristors. This anode,
cathode and gate and you will have a different kind of pictures which is basically the heat
sink, it required to put onto the heat sink. This is anode and ultimately it will be go into the
heat sink and will can tighten the screws and there is a different kind of segments and current
handling capabilities of the thyristors in fax devices, it can go as high as kilo ampere rating.

So power handling capabilities of these devices can go as high as you know megawatt level.
So this is the actually a truncated version of the thyristors. So we can visualize as two
transistors model, one is PNP; another is NPN where actually Ig is injected. Thus, you know
if you write the KCL from this point to this point, ultimately Ia becomes alpha Ig+ICB1, this
is basically the base current of transistor 1 and ICB2 is a base current of transistor 2.

And you will find that 1-alpha 1+alpha 2. Here this alpha 1 and alpha 2 are essentially are not
constant, this value can change depending on the value of injections of this value and
generally this value is alpha 2 generally changes and it may so happen that by changing this
value, this denominator can be made close to zero and thus high current will flow and we say
that thyristor is triggered or latched.

And it will continue to flow till some external action has been added to actually put it off or
commutation. Commutation itself is a big chapter of discussions but with the invention of the
GTOs and all those things there is literally phasing out. So let us come to the different layers
and its concentrations. So it is called p-emitter region.

49
(Refer Slide Time: 07:08)

This is called n-base region ((then again)) (07:09) it is called p-base region and it is n-emitter
region. So this is the model and a highly resistive region n-base region is present in all
thyristor to give a blocking capability and it is the region n-base and associated junction J2
which must support the large applied forward voltage that occurs when switch is off or the
forward blocking state or the non-conducting state, so this is the region.

High voltage thyristors generally made by diffusing aluminium or gallium into both the
surface to create p-doped region forming a deep junction in the n-base. So that will reduce the
all-state conduction loss.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:08)

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The higher forward blocking voltage of the thyristors, the thicker n-base region, it is basically
used; however, increasing the thickness of this resistive region will actually will reduce the
operations, reduce the faster operation that means it will slower the turn-on and the turn-off.
So it will take larger time to turn it on and require higher gate current and also you know you
have to do the commutation put it off when actually we may have a natural commutation.

In case of the rectifier operation, when you applied to the AC sources, you get a negative
voltage applied cathode to anode. So thus turn off also will be slower and it will be suitable
for the low frequency switching devices because most of the trap charge required to be
removed and that takes lot of time than the faster devices. So there are something we require
to trade it off, we have to put according to the applications.

So if the thyristors has a high blocking forward voltage generally it is very slower device and
switching time will be actually slow. Between forward blocking voltage rating and the
forward voltage drop during conduction should be kept in mind. Since high voltage thyristor
generally of the aluminum and the gallium drop surface, so that gives a higher voltage
blocking capability.

But it also increases the all-state conduction losses or the resistance of the devices. So we
have to trade it off. For this reason, we required to choose suitable devices. We should not
choose a high blocking thyristors where we will find pretty high conduction losses and
reverse you choose devices with a low conduction losses but it cannot sustain that forward
blocking capability or the reverse blocking capability.

Then, circuit will burn simply. So for this reason, designer has to judicially use these features
of the thyristor.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:24)

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Operation, when anode is positive potential that in VAK is positive with respect to the
cathode and no voltage is applied to the gate, it is said to be the forward blocking mode. The
junction J1 and J3 are the forward biased while junction J2 are reverse biased and J2 will
actually block the whole voltage. If VAK is increased beyond the breakdown voltage of BO
that has been prescribed in the data sheets for the thyristors, Avalanche breakdown of J2
takes place and thyristor start conducting.

But sometime it may damage the thyristors because you know when actually it start
conducting, current is also high and it has got a considerable voltage drop across the junction
and that if you properly heat is not dissipated this mode may damage the thyristor. If applied
a potential VG at the gate terminal with respect to the cathode, the breakdown of junctional
voltage J2 occurs at considerably lower voltage.

It can be as less than 10 times less or 20 times less depending on the amount of the current
you are injecting. By selecting the appropriate value of the VG, the thyristor can be switched
on on a sudden state.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:52)

52
So this is the I-V characteristics of the thyristors, once VG is zero, so this zone is called the
forward blocking region and the current leakage current will flow through it and thereafter
what happen forward leakage current will flow through it and thereafter when it will cross the
value of VBO, it will be triggered and current will flow from this. If you keep this value of
IG of some value let say here around half of the VBO or two third of the VBO, it can actually
come this point to this point.

And it will give you a drop of very small drop. Similarly, you can turn it on from the VBO,
again you please remember that IG2 should be much greater than IG1. So larger the gate
current, you get lower the forward blocking voltage. So apart from the gate triggering, there
is a different method of gate triggering, Avalanche breakdown that is actually high voltage
applied across the anode and cathode.

Dv/dt gate triggering if you apply high rate of change of voltage that also leads to the
triggering, for this reason it is not advisable to use thyristors in pulse kind of waveform. If
you have a square pulses which has a very high dv/dt which may falsely trigger the thyristors.
So for this reason, will not use it most of the cases and light activation thyristor there is a
special kind of thyristors when the depletion region can be actually reduced by activation of
the light or doping charges.

And high junction voltage and what we generally use is that gate triggering. Gate triggering is
something we use for the triggering thyristor that is a common mode of practice. A different

53
kind of gate triggering can be there that is RC or we can have a UJT based gate triggering
that different kind of gate triggering circuit may be used.

So characteristics of the thyristors let us come to it. So blocking occurs when reverse biased
current is applied depending on the gate current. When forward biased and the gate current is
applied, conduction takes place and it will be high current and actively it will be blocked by
the load of the system. Once turn on goes on, gate is no longer required. You can put up the
gate, so it will just require to turn it on.

Once it is turn on, gate circuit may be put off and thus you can avoid a constrained
dissipation of the current across the gate. Gate turn off when decreasing current goes to zero
because of the external power circuit also.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

Now this is actually the switching characteristics of the thyristors. So this is actually the
voltage across VAK that is anode to cathode voltage and it will drop. You can find that
current through the thyristor will take around 10% time to actually to its peak value, it would
whatever time it will take 0% to 10% or the leakage current you can assume to be 0% to 10%
of the load current or the final rated current, so that current is said to be td or the delay time.

Thereafter, you will have 10% to 90% we say that is a rise time, so faster is the rise time so
faster that will be a faster device. If rise time is slower, it will be slower device. Thereafter, it
takes you know some amount of time to actually settle down and tgt is a gate turn on time.

54
Similarly, we come to the reverse recovery time, reverse recovery time totally depends on the
current.

Reverse recovery time is the total current actually trr and this one is actually tgr and total
time is said to be the turn off time that is represented by the tq. Again, actually like that we
require it is a very important feature of the reverse recovery time. So for this reason, you
know when it will be off, when both are recover, the recovery time means actually it has got a
forward blocking capability.

But if you have a false triggering gate it will turn conduction. For this reason, we got a
forward recovery time or this total actually combines and then we can say that thyristor has
hold the forward blocking capability. So you have to wait till time trr+tgr.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:05)

So there are few important terms that is forward breakdown voltage VBO that is this has been
prescribed by your data sheet, it is done by the destructive test of the devices generally it does
not survive after the test. So we generally will do with the few samples and presented in the
data. So this is VBO and that is called forward breakdown voltage and once it was actually in
a forward mode, forward blocking mode some amount of current will flow that is called
forward leakage current.

That is around 10 to the power 4 times lower than this actually the thyristor current and
thereafter you have a gate triggered. So accordingly voltage will change and this is a forward
conduction drop. Generally, it slants almost it, due to this ohmic losses, it will be little bit

55
slanted, so if it is because you know as there is two diode in series. This model is essentially
can we think of that two diode put into the series.

And since the silicon based diode of course you can assume that both will have a junction and
drop of J1 and J3 in forward conduction mode of 0.7 and 0.7 that gives you the 1.4 volt but
depletion region is made in a such a way by dropping of the aluminium and other things but
forward conduction mode will try to restricts less than 1.4 volt. That is actually one of the
technical advancement has been achieved in case of the thyristor.

There are two important parameter, one is called latching current. Latching current is
associated with the turn-on process. Once thyristors is put on, thyristor current required to go
more than the value of IL. Then, if you remove the gate, then also it will be in a forward
conducting mode. So thus the minimum anode current is required to maintain the thyristor in
on state, immediately after its turn on and gate signal has been removed.

Same way holding current, what is holding current? This current should minimum current it
should hold to keep it in a conduction mode. So that is called a holding current and that is
associated with the turn on of the thyristors. If the current is above, the holding current,
thyristors will stay in a forward conduction mode. The minimum anode current maintain the
thyristor in an off state.

And of course from this figure it is quite clear that this holding current should be less than the
latching current.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:11)

56
Now these are the few parameters you know it is quite important while analysis the thyristors
and use it the thyristors. First of all, peak working forward blocking voltage or forward off
state voltage VDM. So this is basically the VDM which is quite important because since the
repetitive supply is there, so this voltage has to be block, you may trigger this point, you may
trigger this point, you may trigger this point, you may trigger this point.

So safely it should be able to block the value of the medium then value will be prescribed. So
peak repetitive forward blocking voltage, this is VRM because sometimes we may have a
notch and notch actually follows so that value will be actually pretty peak repetitive forward
blocking voltage. Peak non-repetitive or the surge blocking voltage if all of a sudden high
voltage comes that is said to be the surge and it has not has ((periodic occurrence)) (21:20).
Then, that voltage is said to be the actually VDSM and the VDSM value also will be
prescribed.

Some notches may come, maybe after one hour or two hours or even after a day. So that
value actually said to be the VDSM. Peak working reverse voltage, it is same so as this
actually forward voltage, this is basically VRWM this one. Then, peak repetitive reverse
voltage, this one it is same as this one but it is in a reverse direction. Peak non-repetitive
surge, so this will be this one and this has to be actually almost reciprocal to the forward
voltage and we required to understand that forward dv/dt rating.

So this is quite important, you know that supply voltage undergoes some changes if it is say
sinusoidal wave it is quite slow. If it is a pulse kind of voltages, then it will have a very fast

57
dv/dt. So dv/dt rating of this device required to be prescribed, otherwise we require to put a
dv/dt protection circuits that is called snubber. We shall take out the circuit protections in
totality. Thereafter, voltage safety factors that is VSF that is given by peak repetitive reverse
voltage by 2*RMS value of the voltage.

So some value will come out accordingly life of the device will be decided. So more the
safety factor more will be the life of the device but definitely cost of the component will go
high and finger voltage of SCR that is called FV. So these are the few parameters has been
prescribed in your data sheets and we will continue to actually have operating on those data
sheet for the practical design aspects.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:29)

Apart from that, we have current ratings, that is same that is maximum RMS current rating
and thereafter maximum average current rating, mostly it will be for the DC value, maximum
surge current rating, all of a sudden if high current comes it has to sustain and thyristors I
square R rating. So for the conduction losses was the one it is on state and thereafter di/dt
rating, so if it undergoes very high di/dt, then also it can damage the thyristors.

For this reason, we required to put a di/dt protecting circuit and that we will discuss about the
di/dt and dv/dt protections but thyristor has to ensure that we will have its di/dt rating; we are
operating in a separate sheet. Thereafter, we have some specification on the gate current. So
gate current to trigger there will be a minimum current there is a safety operation where it is
not triggered because noise also gives you some amount of the gate current.

58
But that should not trigger the thyristor falsely, so for this reason, gate current to trigger that
value will be there. Similarly, we will have some value will be there actually, we shall come
into the discussions. So gate voltage to trigger, there will be some voltage. So this VG and
this IG, this is the minimum value. This zone will not trigger; this may come due to the noise.
So non-triggering gate voltage, this is basically non-triggering gate voltage.

And peak reverse gate voltage, the maximum voltage you should apply. You should not go
beyond that; we may damage the gate. Peak reverse gate voltage, again that comes into the
picture in a reverse mode. So you should not allow actually the reverse gate voltage. Average
gate power dissipation, this is the power line so you have to fix into it in the power line. You
should not go beyond the power dissipation.

Otherwise, the gate circuit will fail and peak forward gate current that value also will be
specified by the thyristors.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:50)

So this is the data sheets of the thyristors. You see that you know there are some values. It
has a forward blocking capability of 1200 volt and it can carry as high, we are discussing a
diode of 3 ampere or 8 ampere and it has a power handling capability of the 50 ampere but
you see this ratio, this gate current is 1000 times less, so this is the efficiency counts, the IGT
is actually 50 milliampere.

And all the values is provided what has been discussed into the data sheets. So in a different
temperature level in a conduction temperature 50 amperes. If it is temperature rises to 100

59
degree centigrade, it has to be considerably d-rated, it has to be operated to the 31 ampere and
all the data has been prescribed. So peak gate current can be 8 ampere, peak power
dissipation should be 1 watt.

And maximum peak reverse voltage is 5 volt. Similarly, you will see that actually what
should be the IGT, IGT should be it actually prescribed that is 50 milliampere but you can
operate anywhere in between actually 8 to 50 so that you can turn it on a different voltages.
Similarly, holding current has been prescribed when gate is open. It is 500 milliampere.
Similarly, latching current has been prescribed, that should be actually 1.2 times of the IGT.

So from there you can calculate and this value is generally it is actually 1 to 5 milliampere
and value of this dv/dt also is given that is actually 1000 volt per microsecond. Similarly,
value of the tq that is the turn off time, you can see that, that is in the range of the 100
microsecond. Please recall that you know it is quite slow, in diode we have come out, we
have seen a fast diode having a turn off time in nanoseconds.

And snappy diode will have around 2 or 1.2 microsecond but this will take a considerable
high amount of time to turn it off. So turn it off of this devices it is quite slower because of
the trap charges in junction J2 okay. We shall continue to our discussions. These are the
ratings you can follow. So these are the threshold voltages and IDRM and RDRM. So all
those data has been actually explained so that student can take out for the design purpose and
how to read the data sheet properly.

We shall continue till few aspects of the thyristors in our next classes and followed by some
modern devices like IGBT and IGCT. Thank you so much for your attention.

60
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 05
Device Physics - III

Welcome to our lectures of advanced power electronics and control now, we have already
discussed actually, thyristors.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:36)

And we have discussed basically, SCR there after we shall discuss actually with the other
member of this family, so GTO, IGCT, MCT and other these are the main 3 members are very
frequently used in the thyristor family, apart from that static induction thyristors and optically
trigger thyristors and bi directional thyristors also we will try to give a brief descriptions but
most of the application is applied to this 3 segment; SCR, GTO, IGCT and sometime MCT.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:20)

61
So, we shall today discuss one of the very important members of the thyristors that is actually
gate turn off thyristors or GTO. GTO is actually get turn on thyristors, so it is essentially a
thyristors which has a capability to turn off by gate; this is the basic difference of it. So, like
thyristors GTO is a current controlled device, current control minority carrier that been a
bipolar device.

Same thing, it is combination of PA to PN junction that can be think and we will come at with
the structure little later. GTO differs from the conventional thyristors in that they are designed
to turn off when a negative gate current sent to the; that mean we have actually discussed
briefly that 2 transition energy in case of the thyristors, when thyristors are conducting we
believe that both this actually transistors are in a saturation regimeS.

But then again we have to bring it one of the thyristors in a cut off region to turn it off and
subsequently other thyristor will turn on. A relatively high gate current is needed to turn off
because there is a trap charges in that P2 region and typical turn off gain in the range of actually
4 to 5, so we require larger negative current to turn it off let us say if you are turning off 10
ampere current through the GTO, you require a -2 ampere of current something like this kind of
values will come.

So, huge negative current you require to sink to operate a GTO, during conduction on the other
hand device behaves like a thyristors and with very low constant voltage drop, this is a one of
the advantage where other device will find like you know in case of the IGBT and all those
things.

62
(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)

So, this is a symbol of it and we can draw any of it actually, so bi-directional gate current and
we show like this ultimately, inter digitized gate cathode structure actually increases the di/dt
rating of the device also improve turn off performance of the device, so essentially you have
this is an anode, this is actually junction j1 same as that actually thyristors, there after you have
a buffer layer, there after actually you got a in junction, there after P junction.

So, this buffer layer is there to actually sustain high forward and a blocking voltage, so there
after you got a P junction and followed by gate M cathode, so you can see one thing that you
know this is the junction j2 and this is junction j3, buffer structures is there to increase the high
blocking potential in reverse as well as the forward direction and in this case, anode shorted
structure to decrease reverse voltage blocking capability.

So, this is basically little difference from the conventional thyristors, how does it work, we have
to go back again the two transistor analysis.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:19)

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A basic operation of the GTO is same of the thyristors, principal difference lies the
modification of the thyristors structures, we shall ever discussed in the previous slide to achieve
the gate turnoff capability, it will have large alpha 2, so alpha 2 corresponds to this NPN
transistors and it will have large alpha 2 and you know that I have to make it in a connection
more than in a model, alpha 1 + alpha 2 should be = 0.

So, alpha 1 + alpha 2 is just little larger than the critical value of 1, short distance from the gate
to cathode makes it possible to drive this current from the gate, so this is upper one is the in-
plane transistors and you can turn it on and so it will have a first turn on and thereafter what
happens, they have turn off it but then you have to change the signal and change the alpha 2 and
you have to make transistors since in the structure inside this GTO into the cut off region then
you can achieve this turn off of this device.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:36)

64
So, essentially when turns on, then equation becomes this; IC1 = alpha P that is alpha P actually
corresponds to the PNP transistors, upper one transistors + ICB1 and similarly you can write
this equation from the KCl you can boil down the same equation which you have this is in case
of the thyristors, so you can see that this corresponds to alpha 2 and this corresponds to alpha 1
same as here it is when you present by alpha M and alpha P upper transistors as alpha; as
transistor 1.

And this transistors has transistors 2, so gate turn on operation is same as of the conventional
thyristors, so whole current will flow, electron current will flow ultimately this is the direction
of the current and ultimately when alpha 1 + alpha 2 = 1, then the current and not current
basically goes to the conduction mode and what about actually turn off? Once turned on takes
place you have to inject negative gate current.

And thus what happen actually this transistor required to be in a cut off stage; cut off mode and
for this reason we inject the trapped charges and we have to take the base into the cut off mode
by applying the negative gate current and the structures; the leakage current will be flowing
only through the PNP transistor and this portion will be block and thus this is a turn of
operation of the GTO.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:26)

65
So, steady state operation of the GTO, it is something almost same for the thyristors, the
latching current of the GTO is considerably higher than the thyristors of the similar rating, so
due to the structure actually you require to take this value little larger then only actually you can
put up the gate otherwise, you required to put gate. Forward leakage current is considerably
also higher, so that you required to take out the trap charges from that region.

In fact, the gate current is not sufficient to turn of GTO, it operates as a high voltage low gain
transistor and with a considerable anode current, so for this is we require to do something, so
this is IL; IL value will be higher than the corresponding rating of the normal thyristors, it
should be noted that GTO can block rated forward voltage when gate current is negatively
biased with respect to the cathode during the forward blocking state.

So, you require to dissipate some amount of the energy to achieve also its blocking stage at
least a low value of resistance must be connected across the gate and cathode terminal
increasing the value of the resistance will reduce the forward blocking voltage of that issue, this
is very important point, so while you have a forward blocking mode and you require to put little
amount of the negative gate current to keep it in active plane forward blocking mode.

So, this is something you require to design for it, we shall discuss the gate driver circuit of all
the entities starting from thyristors, GTO, MOSFETs and IGBT, these are the 4 major
component we generally use in the power electronics, IGCT and other components are now
venturing and the ages yet to come for normal application because of the high costs and the
technological up gradation till continues.

66
So, all those 4 gate driver circuits will be design and we will see that what require what, what
actually fit to do this associate, what kind of performance.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:49)

Now, the zone between the minimum and the max curves reflects the parameter variation
during the individual GTO, so it is not that you have a single curve, so ultimately depending on
the IG, the value of mean and max can be changed, this characteristics valid for the DC as well
as the low frequency gate current. They do not give a correct voltage when GTO is turned on
with high di/dt.

So, you require to actually take care of the high di/dt issue in the gate current and for this is you
require to put a small inductor into the circuit of the gate devices to block it, so this is a new
features that require from the thyristors and this VG in this case of the GTO much higher than
the SCS of the same rating.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:53)

67
And you know based on the applications or the operations, we can classify as symmetrical
operation and asymmetrical operation that means when let us say C application, it blocks same
forward, it made equal to block same if it is triggered let us say alpha more than 90 degree, so
what happened you know it will be blocking forward peak inversion voltage as well as in a
reverse also the same voltage.

So, we have discussed in previous slides you know actually, this is a peak repetitive voltage and
asymmetrical GTO; VDRM is much, much greater than VRM, the repetitive voltage, then we
say that it is asymmetrical and mostly this is use for the source inverter with the anti-parallel
diode that is in case of the VSI; voltage source where VDRM can be as high as you know 600
volt and reverse voltage can be as low as the same value.

And GTO can be used for CSI that is we shall come across this topology after this that is called
current source inverter where these 2 values are almost same and this is called a symmetrical
operation and there VDRM and RRM you will find that actually it is 600 volt and it is almost
close to 600 volt, it is 6,500 volt and so it is used for the CSI, of course we have discussed in
the graph in a previous class, students are requested to actually see my previous class where
have discussed different terminology while discussing the thyristors.

VDRM is a maximum repetitive peak forward offset voltage and maximum repetitive peak
reverse voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:00)

68
Now, this is dynamic characteristics of the GTO, so this is the voltage and current across this
device, so once you initiate to turn it on so since there is a junction capacitor it is just like a
charging a capacitor, so it will be actually a ramping on, so what happened due to that; so
voltage across this device will gradually fall and it will gradually come to the conduction mode
and you know, once you initiate it, till IG rises its value to 1% from that point you will see that
actually what was a voltage.

And voltage that time will be the forward blocking voltage, then you ramp it on to the
maximum value and by that time, you will see that actually there will be a drop in voltage
across the thyristors will be around 90% and current also through this CTO will rise by 10%
maybe, so this time basically it is called a delay time in a turn-on, so thereafter it is called rise
time where basically you know IG it still which is get rating.

And voltage across this device falls 90% to 10% and current also rises to the maximum value to
90%, this time is called actually the raise time that we will continue, same will happen here you
initiate basically the change and here also actually it is a 10% of your IG and you have to see
that this IG and this IG here is a huge difference generally, this IG is around 4 times negative
current has to be more than 4 times than the forward triggering current.

So, it will continue to rise for this reason there is a problem of high di dt or so it will reach to
this value till that time, it will be off and still it is actually not grown up the capability and
thereafter, there will be a forward blocking stage, there after what happened current will
continue for a huge time, it has a got a current trail, so this is the current trail or the T tail time.

69
So and you required to continue to give, once you see that actually this value reaches, this
actually 90% of a rated current, then you gradually decrease the value of the gate current but
you continue to give current once it reaches the actually current generated as prescribed by your
leakage current, so huge - negative gate current is required to achieve commutation or turning
off. For this reason, GTO is quite slow device than the ICBT, so let us just go through the one
of the data sheets of the GTO for better understanding of its phenomena’s.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:49)

So, VEK, it is actually around 2 volt, so this one a voltage difference required, so T junctional
voltage can go as high as 125 degree centigrade, VD should be actually 80% of the VDRM and
VDRM should be actually more than the VDM and this thing, rate of change of gate current
should be around 20, you have seen that is around in a range of 1 ampere per microsecond, it
require to be little higher that is around 20 ampere per microsecond and CS = 1 micro
Fahrenheit double side cooled single phase for 50 hertz 180 degree sine wave application.

And since that tp is basically of 2 and for di/dt is basically you know for this device as high as
1000 ampere per microsecond, so let us see, so VDRM, so it should be around 2500, a non-
peak repetitive voltage will be more than that so it is 2600, ((repetitive)) (19:07) peak reverse
voltage, it is actually 100 to 2000, so it can be used symmetrical as well as asymmetrical, non-
repetitive peak reverse voltage, it is 100 to 2000.

So, what is important you know this is the snubber part that is comes into the protections, so we
shall discuss this zone, mostly you know T off permission turn off time, it is basically quite

70
high that is basically 90 microsecond, so generally switching frequency should be you make it
around 100 micro second, if you reciprocal it will be a 10 kilo hertz, so at least this turn off
time should be around 5 to 10% of the total timing.

So, for this is in this device is required to operate below 1 kilo hertz and possible turn on time is
20 micro second.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:19)

And what else, so this thing is quite critical dv/dt, so it has to be actually within 1000 and
latching current you know it is quite high, latching current required to be 5 ampere, consider
that then actually it is something like in a milli ampere region in case of the actually, same
rating thyristors, holding current will be also same here there is no difference between the
latching current and holding current.

Holding current generally less in case of the thyristor but in GTO, generally latching current
and holding current both are remain same, so they are at a peak off state current, it is 30
ampere, so thereafter you have to understand the gate triggering voltage once it is trigger, so
these are the typical values which are actually 25 volt and RL considered to be 25 milli ohm
and gate triggering current; gate triggering current is required to be generally1.5 or 0.5 amperes.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:28)

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And this is for this actually junction, temperature, now delay time, so delay time of the there is
a 2 delay time, so this is quite important. Delay time will be actually 1.5, please recall the graph
what we have shown, so this is basically TD on so that is required to be 1.5, turn-on time that is
actually fall of the voltage across the thyristor; across the device 90% to 10% that is 3.5, fall
time is 0.8, turn off time you see that actually it is quite high, this is what is important here the
trailing time.

Tail time is as high as 50 microsecond or 75 microsecond and turn off gate charges basically
you require this is amount of the charge it has been trapped, you have to take it out, so this tail
time is quite large and due to that you require actually this devised higher turn off time, so this
is the weight, weight is also little bulky than the thyristors. So, what is the difference between
the thyristors and the GTO?
(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

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Problem of thyristors that it is difficult it to put off except you have a line commutation in AC,
so naturally commutated, otherwise you have to find some means to actually take the current
through the thyristors below its holding current to put off either by having an LC oscillations,
so that you put actually a medicare auxilary thyristors, you may require a bypass path, so that
current actually bypassed and you trigger another thyristors.

This is a different kind of commutation technique or the running of the thyristors, what you
require essentially either extra thyristors or you require an LC circuit, so that you can
((underdamped LC)) (23:38) circuit, so that you can have a oscillation but commutation failure
may occur in a high current within the small interval of time, where you are applying the
negative voltage.

If thyristor current does not goes below the holding current, so its forward blocking capability
will not be there but GTO has an advantage that you can put off that where you require.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:14)

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So that is the one of the biggest advantage of it you know, you I can take an example you know
in case of the thyristors, let us say for the rectifier operation, you can turn it on here and you
will automatically turn in off here depending on the kind of load you are having, if you have a
resistive load you are having, so essentially what is your fundamental current that will be
lagging yes, this is the displacement power factor comes to the picture and current will be
lagging like this.

But you know in case of the GTO, you have an advantage, so here you have you; you may
trigger it on here and you can also trigger off here and ultimately you get a this kind of voltage
and what happened then; the fundamental current will be this in the same, same, so you can
have a unity power factor or leading a lane you can chop it here and this way you can control
the power factor of the system.

This is one of the biggest advantage of it and in between you can go further, if you require we
will discuss about the selective harmonic elimination and all those things that can be achieved
here but in case of the thyristors, you can only control alpha thus you can only control only one
angle, so thus you can eliminate only one harmonic that will come later, so let us go back what
are the difference of the GTO and the thyristors.

GTO is essentially, this is the one of the major feature otherwise, this is infinite device
considered to the thyristors in all the aspects, GTO is fully controlled you can turn in off as turn
in on at the wheel of the user but it is a semi control device, when on state drop in case of the

74
thyristors of the same rating will be around 2 to 3 times higher, so for this is on state drop is
around 3 to 4 volt.

But you will be having this around 1.5 to 2 volt, it is because of if you go back so we have seen
that there is a negative blocking state, so here this buffer layer is there for the higher forward
blocking voltage, so for this just in to incorporate it, you also incorporate higher losses, higher
holding and latching current we have seen that it is around 10 times higher than the actually the
normal corresponding rating of the thyristor.

So, lower holding and the latching current so generally, it has same forward and the reverse
blocking voltage and you will have a symmetrical operation but here you have can have a
asymmetric operation also all the symmetric operation and you can control and modify it
according to the gate current, so you can apply a little bit of negative gate current to put it off to
increase its power blocking capability.

These are the few flexibilities is provide and typically, it has high dv/dt, so it will be have a
1000 volt per microsecond but it will have a lower dv/dt for this GTO can to be designed
properly for dv/dt and da/ dt protections and turn off gain is actually 6 to 15, so this is a wide
range of variation how fast you want to turn off, see you can require to put a more gate current.

If you give a small gate current it will current trail will be much larger and you will require to
take much longer time to put it off, so since there is no provision by gate turn off, so that is not
there in case of the GTO and as I have shown you that actually current trail is of a typical GTO
is in the range of the 50 microsecond, so for the season we are restricted to operate it in the
range of 1 to 2 kilohertz.

So, we have maximum you can take it to the 4 kilohertz but it is quite difficult to actually
operate and therefore, this is an actually back will be pass on basically on this actually, turn of
the gate current, so you require a gate current to turn of these devices and this is typically
operated in a 50 hertz supply and mostly in a converter operation where do you have a SCS
operated for the and the name suggests is rectification as you can understood that is applicable
for the natural commutations.

75
And it will commute this actually at it operate in a normal power frequency of 50 and 60 Hertz,
so these are the differences of the GTO and we shall see that where if possible definitely, the
take away from this classes if possible use thyristors, if possible use SCR but if you cannot you
require to turn off in between for many reasons for the selective harmonic elimination, for
improving the power factor or any other region then we require to GTO, so thank you for your
attention, we shall start with another device in next class.

76
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 06
Device Physics - IV

Welcome to our lectures on advanced power electronics and control, we shall continue with our
device physics, today we shall discuss a new entrant of this family is IGCT, so full form of
IGCT is that integrated gate terminated thyristors. I intentionally wish to choose these devices
before very popular design; device called IGBT, so that we can compare between both and we
can find it out where it can find its applications.

IGCT actually is basically a development on GTO, what are the drawbacks we have found in
the GTO; it is actually high dissipation in the gate.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:18)

So, it is improved GTO and integrated gate that is the features of IGBT that essentially form
BJT when you got an insulated gate that becomes IGBT, it is an actually a combination of the
advantage of the MOSFETs and the BJT, here it is essentially a combination of MOSFET and
GTO, so integrated gate and also insulated gate and anti-parallel diode, MOSFET I will take at
last, so we shall understand it better.

So basically, we are now moving essentially towards basically, the power dimension and power
rating available in the market, so that is the; my selected chronology, so first we have discussed

77
about the SCS which has a highest power rating capability followed by GTO there are after
IGCT but there can be a debate which one has a more power handling and give a better cost and
since it is came little later, so I have taken after GTO only because it is a improve GTO, we
require to understand GTO.

So, it is designed and manufactures so that it commutates all the cathode current away from the
cathode region and diverts it out of the gate contact, so this is one of the biggest advantage of it,
IGCT which has just come little later similar to the GTO in a structure except that it has low
loss in buffer that is actually the one advantage of it, we had a buffer region, here also you have
a buffer region but it is low loss between the n base and the p - emitter.

So, conduction loss of the IGCT is considerably low than the GTO, IGCT device package is
designed as a result of the very low parasitic inductance, there is one of the actual reason
requirement of the high di/dt, so if there is a parasitic inductance, it will prevent di dt and
integrated with the special design gate drive circuit, it is really complex, the gate drive contains
all the necessary di dt and dv dt protections, this package comes with that basically, this is
manufactured by the ABB.

So, it has come as a package, so no other company most of my believe and knowledge had now
manufacturing it, still it is a sole pertent of ABB, the only connection require is a low voltage
power supply for the gate drive and an optical signal for controlling the gate, so it is quite
compact, so you as you require optical isolation you can see it somewhere and this will operate
over distant location and this is quite requirement for the high voltage application, we require
for ((safety and all)) (04:49).

Specially designed gate drive and the ring gate package circuit allows IGCT to be operated
without the snubber, so we will talk about the protections and the gate driver of the design after
actually discussing all the devices, so for the dv/dt and the di/dt protection mostly for the dv/dt
protections, we require snubber but these has add-on features that it does not require snubber
and to switch the higher di dt than this rating of the GTO.

Only thing is that it is an improved version thus it has all the improvement, only one
disadvantage is still it is mostly it is single sourced and another issue was it is still lies that you
know actually it is quite costly than the rating of the same rating GTOs.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:53)

So, this is the device structures cathode and anode and you know this is actually n buffer
region, it is doped in such a way it does not offer a very high on state resistance and in between
there is actually silicon, silicon doping level is prescribed by the colour, this is the highest
doping level and this is the lowest doping level via distance and this is the actually symbol of
this device, you have a gate cathode, anode.

Ad this is the practical device, it is comes with the heat sink and everything is a quite compact,
it is a something like plug and play device nowadays, this term is used plug and play, so
something like that you just connect the gate driver circuit and it would operate nicely but
problem lies if there is any fault inside it you have to throw it out.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:45)

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So, IGCT’s are available with or without reverse blocking capability, so that is the
manufacturer, you can choose a different kind of IGCT as you require, if you require for the
actually, application like VSI and you are fitting an inductive load like your drives and all those
things where you require to have a forward blocking mode but bi-directional current mode, then
generally it comes with anti-parallel diode.

Reverse blocking capability adds to the forward voltage drop because it need to have a long and
the low doped P region, IGCT capable of blocking reverse voltage as known as the symmetrical
IGCT as I abbreviated same as your GTO, so it is yes, IGCT, IGCT in capable of the blocking
reverse voltage by putting the anti-parallel diode, then it becomes a asymmetrical IGCT or
abbreviated at A-IGCT that is quite frequently used in VSI kind of applications.

While it is understand it, you know actually, in case of the voltage source inverter, so you
generally require current to be bi-directional and for this since you know, in case of the if it is
IGBT you have to provide the anti-parallel diode because if you have a lagging power factor
then what happens then 1 voltage is positive then current also be negative, then also this
actually the anti-parallel diode comes into the picture.

Ultimately, so in this kind of application you have to provide this kind of anti-parallel diode and
that makes it the configuration asymmetric; asymmetrical IGCT can be fabricated with the
reverse conducting that that is what I was saying in the same package and it is known as RC-
IGCT and you can have a very fast recovery diode that is an advantage because it does not have
a body diode unlike MOSFETs.

And so you can choose a very high conducting and high featured anti-parallel diode depending
on the kind of switching frequency you are using.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:02)

80
Now, this is the structures of the MOS controlled thyristors, this is another member of the
thyristors that is called MOS controlled, the only difference you know is that you have this gate
driver part has been modified by using that 2 MOSFETs and MOS control thyristors is a
voltage controlled, fully controlled thyristors, it can turn it on and turn it off by this MOS
devices.

But power rating and power handling capability of is very low compared to the IGCT because it
is basically, it comes from the gate driver power is really MOSFET, so power handling
capability is quite low. MCTs are similar in operation as GTO but have a voltage controlled
insulated gate, they have 2 MOSFETs opposite conducting types in their equivalent circuit, one
is responsible for turn-on mostly the upper one and other is responsible for the turning off.

So, positive voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the cathode turns the thyristors on the
on state and a negative voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the anode which is close to
the cathode voltage during the off state transits thyristors on, so we will operate at a gate
voltage since this is an insulated gate, very low amount of current will flow thus power
dissipation in GTO is a big concern and that aspect has been considerably reduced.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

81
But problem lies you know actually its power handling capability is quite low, so another
members of the thyristor is called static induction thyristors, so there actually it is field
controlled thyristors or FCT or field controlled diode and it has a features like the minority
carrier device, a JFET structures with an additional injecting layer is been provided by the
method of induction.

Power handling capability is similar to the GTO, faster switching speeds than GTO, this can be
actually these are the few add on now comes into the pictures in GTOs normally, on device and
problem is it is normally on, so you have to have a normally off by applying the gate voltages
by method of induction. Non convenient and could be normally off but even for the higher on
state losses.

So, this is one problem you can; do you want the switches to be normally off, when a switch
became normally on, this is a disadvantage, so for this system if you can you can make it the
switch actually normally off but problem lies then the conduction losses will be considerably
higher and the advantage of it will be missed out, this device essentially a pin diode with a gate
structure that can pinch off the anode current.

Higher power SIThs have subsurface gate or buried gate structures and allow larger cathode
areas to be utilize hence, largest current densities are possible but still you know actually it is
not pretty commercially viable and this is not quite available also in normal ratings and that
design require, so hopefully these are the development but among this development of course,

82
this IGCT is the forerunner and hopefully this device will catch up in different kind of power
electronics applications, okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:58)

Now, let us come across power metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors, so that is
FET, you have studied FET in the linear electronics or the low power electronics, it is same
thing but you will find that actually power rating is at least 100 or 1000 times higher. FET can
be operated at a very high switching frequency and has very low losses, gate losses, so these are
the 2 actually the features.

And for this reason actually, we have a MOSFET and from there, we have a this P channel and
the N channel MOSFET, these are the very frequently used in low power electronics devices
mostly in DC to DC converter for its compact size and high frequency applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:49)

83
So, this is the structures of the MOSFET, we have actually VDS that is tend to source voltage
and we call drain and the source generally high voltage site is said to be the drain and other site
is said to be the source and we have GS that is a connected between this actually source and the
gate and what happened you know actually this is called drain and this is called source, then it
can be actually different kind of MOSFET that is enhancement MOSFET, depletion MOSFETs.

Whenever you have giving a pulses, so there will be an induction and generally it has a silicon
dioxide or any kind of insulating medium, there will be a capacity effect and due to the
induction, there will be a charge carrier, then the channel will be form and with this channel
current will flow, so essentially so it is insulated, current flowing through areas would be quite
low but since there is a capacitor so, I = c dv/dt.

So, ultimately whatever will be the gate pulses frequency in to c that will be the amount of the I
but since value of the c is quite low; this current also will be quite low, so you allow to go to the
higher frequencies.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:21)

84
So, this is the one of the layer, so this is actually the p-n junction reverse biased and off state
voltage appears across the n region, so channel required to be formed because this is the
channel is broken, once we apply a voltage there will be a channel form, so that will actually
they carry the current and this is called normally off kind of MOSFET and this is we generally
prefer.

An n channel MOSFET since the conduction devices or electron, so channels is made of

electrons, this is quite faster than the p-channel devices, so most of the application we prefer n-
channel MOSFET were the pre channels MOSFETs but in few application, we avoiding short
circuit conditions, the combination of N and P MOSFETs are used, so that once upper thyristors
is on, lower thyristors is automatically on and have negative gate voltage and vice-versa.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:27)

85
So, in that case we use p channel but you have to sacrifice on the switching frequencies, so
these are the few takeaways from here, the p-n junctions is slightly reverse biased, conducting
channel is used to be conducting channel is induced by the positive gate voltage in case of the n
channel MOSFET, drain current flows through the n region of the conducting channel, total
resistance includes the resistance of the n region and the conducting channel and the source
channel.

But amount but doping is so high that you know the resistance of this devices is quite low in the
ranges of the ((milli-ohm)) (17:04) region.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

So, this is a typical characteristics of the MOSFET which you have studied into the analog
electronics, so this is actually drain to source voltage and these are the different actually gate
voltage, so ultimately this region is basically the saturation region so and this region is an active
region, we want and this region is a cut off region where actually gate voltage is quite low and
we want basically to operate our devices in the active region.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:37)

86
So, this is a switching characteristics of this MOSFET, so you turn it on thereafter since there is
a capacitor effect, there will be a RG, there will be actually RS and so it will actually charge
these things, so voltage will build up across this gate and gradually what will happen, then
current also will try to flow from this, so there will be a TD as a delay time where actually this
UP is a pulse and this is basically the voltage across this driver.

So, it will take some time to grow once it reaches 10% of it, then you will see that actually
currents start picking up, once actually gate current reaches the 90% of it, then you will find
that it almost reaches the total current and gate current will saturate here, there after at this point
you decided to turn it off, so for this reason, what will happen you know it will gradually fall
and you have to give little bit of negative voltage to turn it off and to take out the charges in the
TAF region to make it off.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:05)

87
So, you required to have a little bipolar of the supply, so this is one of the MOSFETs datasheets
which is frequently been used, this is the data sheet of the p-channel MOSFETs, so what is
important here you know mostly few aspects, this is basically the gate characteristics, it is a
gate to source charge, so depending on this actually your driver if you are pulse sinking
capability of this driver, let us say some ampere, 0.5 ampere or 1 ampere then this has to be
filled.

So that kind of switching frequency you can go similarly, you will have a drain to source and if
you divide it by voltage you get the capacitance, your data sheet also specifies the capacitance,
you see that a turn on delay which you have find it here turn on delay, so this delay is
essentially will be actually in the range of 15 to 30 nanoseconds, so it can easily can be
operated in the range of the megahertz level.

Similarly, rise time it is this thereafter you got this is a typical values, so we will take this
column only and they are to turn off delay is around 56 nanosecond and this will be 36
nanoseconds and recovery time is around 40 nanosecond, so these time what we have talking in
the case of the microseconds, now it is nano seconds, so thus it can be used for the high
switching frequency kind of application.

However, what is the difference between that; the current handling capability of these devices
are quite low, it is just -4.6 ampere and you know also there are few aspects then you know gate
threshold voltage required to be you know of this region and apart from that you require
basically to be operated in the range of the 70 volt quite less than the other voltage.

88
(Refer Slide Time: 21:18)

So, VDS can be 500 volt but where we are talking about 1000 volts and more than that so, drain
to source voltage will be this and VGS voltage source will be +-30 and ID for 25 degree
centigrade, it can be around 10.6 ampere, so for the 100 degree centigrade, it has to be derated,
so it has to be this much and 10 current, if it is pulse kind of waveform, so it can be as high as a
42 amperes and these are the data sheets you have to design, we will show it how to design.

And this is the values of the different capacitance, so this is for 1 kilo hertz and VGS = 0 and
VDS = 25, these are the value will come out input capacitance will come into the picture, this is
basically the CGS will generally is presents input capacitance, so that will be around 1480,
output capacitance is this much generally, it is close to the same values of the DS but we have
to draw the actual circuits.

And the reverse transfer capacitance is around this much, so these are the actually the data
sheets of a MOSFETs and from there you require to design one circuit where it finds this
application mostly, since for this high voltage frequency application and low power rating, low
voltage setting also, it finds its application mostly in DC to DC converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:59)

89
Now, you can see these are the turn on time are in the micro; and in nanoseconds, so QR so this
is the values you know these values also in microsecond and for this reason, this devices can be
operated in a very fast mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:15)

Now, let us come to the another important member of this power electronics that is insulated
gate bipolar transistors, this invention itself is a mark of the change of the face of the power
electronics, so Dr. Baliga, actually in G, General Electric discovered it and we are Indian, so we
should be proud of his discovery, IGBT is preferred over the MOSFET because of its on state
loss as compared to the MOSFET with a very easy driving process.

But you know actually, we have seen a very short lived another device which shall; for this we
have not discussed, it has been actually discarded that is BJT, power BJT because of the high

90
current it has been put off, so Professor. Baliga actually integrated the power BJT and the
MOSFET and came out a new device called insulated gate bipolar transistors, so it can handle
the power of kilowatt to the even it is possible to have a megawatt level.

Generally, we ranges, varies and we are very frequently used for our day to day application in a
kilowatt level and it is arranged in this kind of application that is mostly for the medium voltage
drains applications and all the invention and the development of the topology were based on
these devices, so multi-level inverter and all those things for high voltage applications was
considering this IGBT.

So, it is very important member of it, what happen here actually it come; it is this part is
essentially the MOSFET, the gate part is MOSFET and this part is I, it is basically the
transistors and for this is the symbol is this.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:28)

So, in between you definitely get a transistors that is PNP and in between you also will get a
MOSFET, so this part is a transistor and this part essentially is the MOSFET, it has a multi cell
structures, so it is combinations of the MOSFETs and the BJT, the basic structure is same as
power MOSFET only one extra region is there during on state, minority carrier are injected into
the drift region which leads to the conductivity modulation that mean conductivity increases.

It has slower switching time less on state resistance compared to the power MOSFET and so it
can have a higher power handling capability, so it can be used for the high voltage applications
up to 700 or 2000 volt.

91
(Refer Slide Time: 26:36)

And this is basically, the MOSFET part of it and this is basically the transistor part of it and this
is the drift region, so this is the MOSFET part of it and PNP constitute this basically the
transistors and so this is the model and body spreading resistance is there, so this is the body
spreading resistance, what happened you know that will handle gives you a forward blocking
capability.

So, for this it can be used for the high voltage applications and this is the drift region resistance,
this is basically the diffusion resistance, so by changing the value of the resistance you can
operate faster or slower but what happened then if you have a lower drift region resistance, you
will find that power handling capability of the device is considerably reduced.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:32)

92
This characteristics same as the characteristics of the BJT which you have studied in the normal
BJT applications in your analog electronics, so this is your load line and this is the IC and VC
and this is for the different kind of instead of IB, you will have the gate voltage, this is the only
change, so you will have this trans conductance, so for this is, this is the actually power line and
accordingly, you will have a VG which is for the current IC for the different values of VG.

And this region is a saturation region, then generally we do not operate this devices into the
saturation region, then gate resistance is control, we try to actually maintain into the active
region and this is the cut off region as same as from the BJT, so we required to find it out
actually linear region of it, so that is the this part is almost linear, so for this reason this is the
transconductance, we try to incorporate and this will be the values of the IC versus GE.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:42)

Now, this characteristics is same, you give a pulse, once you give a pulse, when it is actually
this is the till you will find that when actually this applied pulses has come to the 10% of the
value gate pulses, then everything will start, once it almost reaches 90% of the value then you
will find that actually current through these devices will go to the only 10% of this device and
same way also you will find that voltage will start topping from this point.

Once it reaches the 90% of the value, you will have a double slope characteristics, this is called
bunch of devices, so it will fall this much, thereafter in remaining time it reaches the maximum
value of the current so and it will have a different slope, so it is a doubles of characteristics, so
this IGBT has a unique features, all the device had a single sub turn on process but IGBT has a
double slope turn on process.

93
So but there is a difference between the both the devices in case of the IGBT, turn off occurs
due to the stored in drift region, so for this is reason, what happened; in this region you know it
will ((droop suddenly)) (30:14) there after once it reaches only 10% of it then voltage will drop
and will settle down to the on state voltage and from there we try to measure that you know
whether it is go into the active region, we do not allow this actually, this IGBT to go to the
saturation region.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:38)

Then short circuit condition will prevail, so these are the few important aspect of the IGBT;
maximum collector to the emitter voltage is said to be the VCS, maximum continuous collector
current is IC that we will see in the datasheet, maximum pulsed collector current is ICM,
maximum gate emitter voltage is VGS, collector leakage current in on state is actually ICS, gate
emitter leakage current IGES.

Collector emitter saturation voltage is VC sat, gate emitter threshold voltage, these are the
important parameters of Vg th, there is a terminal equivalent of it, forward transconductance
GS which we have shown in the graph, input output transfer capacitance as we have seen in a
MOSFET datasheet in ICS, OS and IRS, switching time that is rise time, fall time, reverse time
and for the different mode. Maximum total power dissipation Pt max, so what are the difference
of the MOSFETs and the IGBT.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:52)

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MOSFET is applicable for the high frequency applications, so improve switching speed but in
case of the IGBT, we have an improved production technique that leads to optimal switching
frequency not as high as that MOSFETs but it has got a higher current and a voltage handling
capability. Improve dynamic performance that requires even less power from the driver, so we
have optimized basically the efficiency energy point of view this MOSFETs.

Improved due to the overload for higher loading and all, lower gate to drain feedback
capacitance improve parallel current sharing capability, so if you use the current handling
capability of this driver to be increased, so you can put into the operation these parallel devices,
lower thermal impedance in turn has an enable much better power dissipation, faster and
smooth turn on and turn away form we have seen there is a punch through.

So, the 2; two while turn on there is a voltage drops in a two curves that leads to you know
better mode of control of the short circuit protection, lower rise and fall time which has allowed
for the operation of the high switching frequency, so lower on state switching losses, thermal
impedance is quite low and lower input capacitance, so that you can put this faster operation, if
it is a higher capacitance, so ultimately you require more current or the less frequency.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:41)

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So, this is the one of the data sheets of the IGBT, so this is the rating, this is a quite low rating
IGBT because we have try to choose the same rating of the MOSFETs, so close to that rating
we have chosen an IGBT, so for this is it is 600 volt but you can see that current rating there
was only around 10 ampere, it can go actually as high as 90 ampere, so the huge actually
improvement on the current rating part of it.

And these are the few parameters that is T on, it was quite high it was around 10 or 15 in case
of this, this is a double but anyway so but current is also double, so you have to this is TR is
around 81, TD is 142, TAV is a actually around 74, so these are the all the datas, thank you for
your attention we have complete our discussions on the device physics part and in next class,
we shall analyse the devices.

And we shall discuss about the gate drive and little protections part of it and thereafter we shall
start with the normal topology, thank you for your attention.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 07
Application and Analysis of Switches - I

Welcome to the NPTEL courses on advance power electronics and control, this is a seventh
lecture, today we shall continue with the application of the analysis of the switches, so we shall
discuss about the switches in detail, so based on this actually viewpoints, so we cannot actually
consider a physics point of view that is device physics that doping level, kind of material we are
using, whether a high band gap material or the low band gap material and from there, we try to
explain different features.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:08)

Then, explain the operation of the fundamentals switches of the devices, then we shall take it a
physics point of view, so that is called device physics and same way we talk about a switching
characteristics and its turn on characteristics, turn off characteristics, deals with the static and the
dynamic characteristics; IB characteristics, now required to understand how also to protect the
device from unnecessary disturbances, surges and the hazards, unnecessary disturbances and
surges and we require normal protections like high dv/dt protection, da/dt, thermal runways.

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So, focus on electrical and the thermal stresses within the device, drive viewpoint that is actually
emphasis all the behaviour of the power electronic device which can be applied to the different
kind of driver circuits, modelling viewpoint we have a different kind of model, we have a spice
model of the power electronic, so it is as state space model, so we can write a; we can have a
different kind of modelling viewpoint, what kind of simulation tool should be used.

Based on that we have a different kind of approaches, so simulations and the hardware
implementation or hardware in the loop applications kind of thing, we have various kind of
hardware interfaces like RTDS, ((OPAL-RT)) (02:37), so there we try to find it out the solutions
of a few systems and we try to model the power electronics switches, so we will modelling more
realistically, so that is actually the modelling viewpoint.

And packaging; so, it comes under different kind of packaging, so because you want that the
device has to be compact, may be comes across in the ceramics packaging, in may comes across
the plastic packaging depending on the thermal runaway and different kind of cooling systems
and the compactness and so it comes at the device mounting strategies, removal of the heat sinks
and how you will dissipate the heat in different way.

And force cooling devices and the connection issues, these are you know different criteria to
choose a particular device because please understand that modelling of the viewpoint is also
important because once you before put in a hardware, we generally simulate a system, so if it is
not very authentically simulated, then actually the fragility of this model is in a questions, so all
those aspects has to be consider while actually taking a consideration of a switch.

And when you are considering a switch we always assume this is the ideal conditions that no
resistance or zero forward voltage, obstruct resistance is infinity when it switches off, no current
flows, when on, conduct; it can carry infinite amount of the current, both in forward and the
reverse direction, it comes under some kind of mechanical switches like SPST and all those
things.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:39)

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When off, infinite forward and the reverse voltage, so you have studied the forward breakdown,
reverse breakdown voltage but in ideal consideration of the switches, this is not being
considered, it can switch instantaneously that is also not the case because it has a finite turn on
time, we have referred to the reduction of the different device and we have seen that different
turn on and turn of time.

Instantaneous off and on time and from on, off states, so transition between on and off states is
basically does not take any time that is resilient, it is instantaneous phenomena, power
dissipation of the switches is 0, why; because when voltage is high, when it is blocking the
voltage, no current flows and when it is conducts current, there is no voltage stop across it, so
both conduction and the switch transitions losses are also 0.

On to off or off too on transitions of the switches are fully controllable, so we can wish to turn on
and turn off wherever is required but we will come in to such picture that even if actually in a
different kind of topologies in future, even if you are triggered, current due to the direction of the
current, switch will not take the conduction till current through that other device goes 0, then
only transitions comes into the picture.

But in ideal condition we assume that whenever I wish, I can turn it on, whenever I wish I can
turn it off and it require no power or to drive or control the switch, so power losses in a driver

99
circuit is 0, these are the ideal characteristics of the switch and ultimately, we will see that all
switch deviates from it and so we required to have; we have to find a closer approximation to this
ideal conditions while we are analysing and discussing about the switches.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:01)

So, for this reason, we have few ratings and specifications, so this is what we are saying that you
know are its forward blocking and reverse blocking capability is infinity ideally but actually you
have a voltage rating that will pacify your forward and the reverse voltage blocking capability,
the switch should have ideally infinite current carrying capability but the data sheet will
prescribe the current rating of the device.

Transition from the switching on to switching off and vice-versa is infinitely small or it is
instantaneous, this is ideal characteristics but switching speed and the frequency will have a
limitation on it, same way di dt protection, so that is also comes into the picture in transitions, so
high di dt leads to the damages of the switches, so we require to protect from it, same way; high
dv dt also leads to the damage of the switches.

We require to give a protections, what we assume that that will ideal characteristics, there is no
switching losses but there will be a switching losses, so requite to calculate it accordingly we
have to choose the switch, gate drive; we have said that gate drive does not require any power,

100
actually it requires power and gate driver requirements are many things, what should be the
amount of the current sink into the system.

And how; what will the pulses can generated, these are the issues, same operating zone of the
devices which voltage and which current it can operate separately, so that does not go for the
thermal runaway and high square rating for the fuse and other devices, temperature; different
functional point have different temperature, you should ensure that it does not causes the thermal
limits and also the thermal resistance from the heat sink to the body.

So, what are the actual path of heat dissipations, so these are will be specified we have seen
already in the data sheet, this data has been specified.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:18)

So mainly, switch depend on switching rating, that is which they handle power and the product
of their current and the voltage instead of their power dissipation rate, so higher the power
dissipation rate, we say that switch rating will be higher and we shall find that you know
thyristors is actually the first person in that category, first entity in that category, consequently
the major attractive feature in the power electronic is its capability to dissipate low power or the
no power.

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So, there are different kind of loss, if it is on even though we assume that the power losses across
the switch is 0 but it is not 0, so thus we have a conduction loss and thereafter when there is turn
on and turnoff takes place, so there is a switching loss and also there is a loss at the gate driver,
so these 3 losses we have to actually accommodate, switching loss comes with a turn on and a
turn off losses and conduction losses is depends on sometime it is ((TON)) (10:23) * I square for
the MOSFET.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:30)

And other device is a constant voltage drop into the current, so from this discussion we can come
out to the switching device choices, one is semiconductor device, so it can be uncontrolled and
controlled, so under uncontrolled, it comes to the rectifiers and the accessories, thereafter it
comes to the power silicon diodes, short key diodes, fast recovery diodes and there is a
accessories like you know this is the used mostly in the protection and the regulations.

These are Diac, Zinner, MOV, thereafter within a control, we can classified broadly into 3
categories; one is regenerative, so you want that power to be feedback from the load to the
source like for example, when you are using electric vehicle and you are breaking or you are
going to downslope, then power should fit it back to the source for the better utilisation of the
power and if you wish that regenerative braking from the we use the device like SCS, TRIAC,
GTO and if you are using because it is current control device.

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So, as long as current as high, it can be a bidirectional and you can have a non-regenerative that
is BJT, IGBT and MOSFET, generally MOSFET with the body diode and thus also have a
regenerative braking capability. And to make IGBT and BJT regenerative, we require anti-
parallel diode parallel to it, so and thereafter it can have an integrated packages that is IGCT, so
the packages actually the MOSFETs and the IGBT together, thereafter intelligent power module,
PIC, this kind of entities are also there.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:51)

So, you see that actually power conversions capacity and the switching frequency, so different
kind of power handling capability is been used, so far low frequency applications, you can have a
thyristors and where power handling capability as high has 100 of megawatt, so it find its
applications in HVDC, thereafter you got GTO, so while it is a little high frequency and quite
high-voltage or high-power, so for this is a high power tribes and relevance.

Thereafter, whole zone comes under IGBT, so IGBT is basically fitting you can see the actually
very big portion of the power electronics, so it can handle power to some level up by paralleling
hundreds of kilo watt, thereafter for this is an application is a UPS distributed power supply,
small motors invertor, small drive or medium voltage strength drive, electric vehicle
applications.

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There after it comes, there after you go to the higher frequency and little less power, then it
comes to the MOSFET, here the bipolar transistor has seen a lowest duration nowadays due to
the advent of the IGBT, so generally a bipolar transistors is have phased out most of the cases,
MOSFET will have a very high frequency but low power handling capability and that finds the
application is switching regulator is MPS, VTR modules of the phones and power ICs and all
those things.

So, these are the power ratings and the frequency ranges that is available for the existing device
and what kind of device we will choose based on those criteria has been discussed here and new
entrant is basically the you know, this is the SI limit and the SIC and SIC is a material instead of
the silicon and SIC will have an advantage of; they are pushing the power obtained to the power
three.

So, if it is a power MOSFET of SIC, so that can come into IGBT range, so if it is actually an
IGBT can come to the GTO range and GTO can come to the easily the thyristor range, so this is
a advantage of the SIC devices. So, we have discussed about actually power diodes and power
diode you know we have classified that is based on of its recovery time, so this is called pin
diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:52)

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And it is used in fast and the ultra-fast rectifiers, mostly in which the DC to DC applications,
isolated DC to DC or non-isolated DC to DC applications and the PV systems and thereafter, we
have a Shottky diode, this is used for the power rectifier mostly, in case of the active rectifier
where you are making AC to DC keeping ((THD)) (16:22) limit low and then after, solar cell
applications so that as a fast recovery.

Mostly, fast recovery diode is used mostly in SMPS, where actually switching frequency
required to be high and it is mostly use in a parallel with the MOSFETS. Thyristors; mostly used
in high power rectifier, rectification of high-power AC in high-voltage DC power transmissions,
all are actually (()) (16:56) those who are actually ((sub-urban tents)) (16:58), still they use
actually use high voltage rectifiers, used to control the welding of the machine mainly MTAW,
metal tungsten arc welding.

And the gas tungsten arc welding, this kind of thing they are actually it finds the applications, it
is used as a switch for different devices and power regulators and the motor control because it is
uncontrolled device based on this actually, voltage polarity, it will conduct and sorry, it is a
semi-controlled device and for this reason quite actually high power requirement is there and we
can make the current leading then it is will automatically commutated.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)

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And thus in this kind of applications you know, thyristors point is suitability, now comes to the
GTO, is uses in high performance drive system such as a field oriented control scheme that is
vector control for the high power motor drive, robotics, machine tools, it is used for the traction
application because of the lighter weight and it used in high power inverters where GTO’s
cannot fit the power, they have to use in the DC drive and fax devices and DC chopper, used in
AC drives.

Or rectification operation of the high power application used in stabilised power supplies, used in
high-power induction heaters and used static VAR compensators or different kind of fax devices.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:47)

MCT; mostly it founds an application in a circuit; high power circuit breakers, it uses high-power
application like high power conversions, their use for the induction heating, UPS system, is also
used for the convertor; DC to DC convertor, high power DC to DC convertor, mostly use for this
actually harvesting power from the offshore, wind plant or something, power handling capacity
can go as higher megawatt level.

Variable power factor operations are used as the force commutative power switches, now IGCT
is the new entrant, one of the application of the IGCT; it can handle around 100 times or 1000
times more power than the IGBT, the same actually the frequency range, variable frequency

106
inverters is definitely a preferred choice for it because we can go to the high-voltage applications
and if we run at a high frequency since you have heard about the VYF control.

And you can track the switching frequency little higher then we can have a high-power gearless
operation that is one of the challenge we are facing, because once we have a very high power
drive, if you wish to go for the higher power rating, then torque compromises, so keeping torque
same if we wish to go to the high-power, high speed, so this kind of application where IGCT has
been preferred.

Drives and tractions, so it is a preferred choice and multiple IGCT can be connected in parallel in
series to actually increase the power handling capability of the line.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:15)

Same way, SiTh, we have discussed already used for the system of the energy accelerators, so
inverter with the soft switching that is actually we can make the switching losses low or 0, that is
called soft switching that can be ZVS or ZCS that mean, ZVS is 0, voltage switching or ZCS or 0
current switching that can be easily achieved by this SiT and it is one of the member that find
very good applications for the current source inverter.

We will come across this voltage source and current source, different kind of topology and we
shall discuss about it with that the switches, pulse power inverter; so this kind of application is

107
quite natural for this in case of the pulse mostly in actually welding kind of application now, let
us come to the MOSFETs. MOSFET used for the high frequency low power drives, motor
controlled applications, there are DC choppers, linear voltage regulators, power supply etc.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:25)

So, you can see that these are the different applications of the IGBT, I have seen that IGBT fit
into this actually day to day application quite well, so we have a modern elevator that is having
an adjustable spring type and these are run by the IGBTs, so power goes to 100s of the kilowatts,
there after you may have a inverter servo robotics, so that we use for the different kind of mining
operations mostly.

They have to arc machine or arc welding where we want to maintains a power quality better,
power supply is UPS, SMPS for a highly data bank kind of applications, transportations for the
railways and all those things and battery charger, electric vehicle, these are whole area is of
IGBT.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:25)

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Now, let us come to the protections, we have talked about dv dt and di dt protections, now let us
and how you can achieve that; we achieved by snubber, due to the shortage of time we shall take
it out for the thyristors and this concept can be extended to the all the switches we have talked
about, the switching device and the circuit's component may fail due to the following reason, so
failure may come due to the thermal failure or this is called thermal runaway.

Overcurrent and overvoltage, so these can be controlled by the supply site but you know and also
you know it may cause with the excess di dt and the dv dt, so that may actually cause failure or
reduce the life time of the switches and also excessive switching loss while conduction, so we
required to reduce this 2 losses mainly, by snubber directories. Power electronics and switching
device and the component can be protected from the overcurrent by placing the switch will fuses
or the MCB or now different kind of circuit breakers.

Heat sinks; over the different kind of cooling technique fins and fans are used to take out the
excess heat and what snubber will do; snubber circuit required to limit di/dt and dv/dt and
overvoltage during turn on and turn off of the switches.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:02)

109
So, there are different kind of snubber, so this is the device you know we required to protect; to
protect that device we require so many device, so anyway so this L will be in a series with the
device and this will ensure the protection over di/dt, it will limit the di/dt protection and this RC
rate work will come while turning on because you know once actually, correct flows if it is an
off and this is the actually, voltage across VA is > VB so and you are triggering.

Then, this this will come for high dv/ dt protection and also while actually taking off this
capacitor will ensure that actually current flows through it through this R1 and ultimately, it gets
the capacitor charge in a reverse manner and it will ensure that really over the dv/dt, same way
we can have us different kind of circuit here, value of R1 is more than R and mostly it is comes
into the picture.

Because if you see that actually it is a RC network that is searching and this is the time constant
of the circuit and will ensure the time constant of the circuit in such a way and that time stress
across the switch does not comes, once capacitor is fully charged, whole stress will come across
the switches and if we used reverse polarity, inductor will be in the same position and what
happened here actually, this R has to be set beside and R1 will be here.

So, it comes into the picture of this circuits while actually it did not turn off and it is called a
reverse polarised snubber circuit and it will actually protect for the dv/dt protections and same

110
way we have a unpolarised snubber circuit, so it can operate both the connection it is with the,
this is the RCD snubber, this is RC snubber and your time constant will require to choose in such
a way that stress dv/dt stress across the switches get reduced.

Since it is unpolarised, it can operate for the bidirectional thyristors, so where snubber finds its
applications?
(Refer Slide Time: 27:05)

So, let us consider the simple chopper kind of operation and you have a high source inductance,
then you will have to provide the diodes as a snubber to have a you and since it is a high and we
can assume that load is a high current source, in this conclusion you know you have to allow
flow of current continuously and thus it will find this path like while turning off, so this diode
comes into the picture while turning off.

And similarly, power MOSFETs turn off, once the gate pulses is been withdrawn and negative;
little negative gate pulses, so ultimately you know the switches does not have any voltage, so to
short, so gradually it is actually getting up forward blocking voltage capability and thus capacitor
will be charging, so what will happen; since capacitors will start charging this way, so
automatically actually current through this MOSFET will go low and will have a high dv/dt
protection.

111
So, this is thyristors snubber what we have discussed here and so this is the RCT snubber and it
is used for the thyristors and this is the snubber used for the GTO, same snubber and it can be
used for the GTO, this is the turn on snubber and this will be the turn off snubber. So, we shall
continue to the requirement of the gate drive, we have talked about the protections and in next
class, we shall talk from the gate driver circuit and we shall looking forward to start about the
different features of the gate driver circuit in our next class, thank you.

112
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 08
Application and Analysis of Switches - II

Welcome to a second lectures on applications and analysis of the switches, we left we have
discussed till the protection parts number, now we shall now take into considerations of the
control that is a gate driving circuits.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

So, what does it do gate driver circuit, it turn on and turn off the switches, so these are the
design consideration, turn power switch from off state to on state and vice versa, while
transitions power losses should be minimized and if there is a thermal heat generation that
should be evacuated, so minimum power on turn-on time through via active region where
power dissipation is large provide adequate driver power to keep power on the switch on state
in case of the MOSFETs and other devices.

Turn power switch from on state to off state to minimize turn off time through which the active
region where power dissipation is large provide bias to ensure that power switch remains off.
Third entities that control power switch to protect when over voltage over current or any
unnecessary phenomena comes are sensed, signal processing circuits which generates the logic
control and control is not considered a part of the device circuit.

113
Drive circuit amplifies control signal to the level required to drive power switch, drive circuit
has significant power capability compared to logic level signals processing circuits provide
electrical isolations where needed between the power switch and logic level signal processing
and control.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:28)

Drive circuit topologies; output signal polarity it can be unipolar or bipolar, some drivers circuit
require plus minus some voltages, mostly in IGBT require a bipolar supply, so and the bipolar
polarity, signals can be bipolar or the unipolar and we required to have a different kind of
coupling, it can be DC coupling or AC coupling connected in shunt or series power switches.

There after provision for the power switch protections once it is over current like you know in
case of the IGBT, we sense that VC voltages; VC's voltages is actually comes down to a certain
value then gate pulse is withdrawn, blanking time for the bridge circuit a drive, so we can
ensure that there is no actually, short circuit among the lags in case of the inverter drives.

Output current magnitude, large on current shortened turn on time but lengthen the turn of delay
time, this is one of the requirement, large off shortened turn of time but lengthened the turn-on
delay, these are the contradictory features and we have to optimize these features while
designing, wave shaping to improve the switch performance, control di/dt for BJT turnoff.

So, you have to see that actually base current of this BJT is actually within a controller, anti-
situations diodes for the BJT drives, so once we have to ensure that it does not go to the
saturation regime, then gate loses its control, we want that actually all the device to operate in

114
an active region especially BJT otherwise gate losses its control, speed up capacitors; so it will
make the turn on faster.

Capacitor is something like electrical mass, so we have to or electrical inertia, so we have to

take control over it, front porch or back porch current that is also something we have to take
care of, components layout to minimize a stray inductance and the shielding of the switching
noise, this is very important while designing it, so we have a strain inductances into the PCB;
printed circuit mode.

We have to have a such a PCB design that stray inductance will reduce otherwise, you will have
a problem of high frequency because it will access a low pass filter and will truncate some
portion of your frequency and it will also some time leads to give some unwanted noise into the
system, apart from you know in digital system limit cycle oscillation and all those nasty feature
may come.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:42)

Now, let us take an example of the thyristor gate drive circuits, so here we have a zero crossing
detector, from there we have analog control and then from there, we will have a pulse amplifier
and pulse amplifier will have an isolation because it is a high voltage for this reason, we require
galvanic isolation between gate driver and the thyristors power circuit and this isolation is
provided by this isolation transformer mostly, this is called pulse transformer.

So, pulse transformer has been shown here, this is a feature once actually it will be in pulsed, so
current will flow through it and this will be turn, once this MOSFET is turned on, so current

115
will flow and ultimately, current will flow in this direction and it will turn on the thyristors. So,
generally power dissipations will be in impulses, so for and this core of this pulse
transformation is ferrite for very good power linkage and for the highest switching frequencies.

So, what happened you know, this is a line voltage and we required to delay by alpha, so alpha
delay been actually done by shifting this DC voltage, so the moment it cuts, so this will be the
delay alpha and at that point actually, it will be trigger so we got a actually high pulses and
these high pulses will actually give fed to the pulse amplifier, pulse amplifier will generate
necessary triggering pulses.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:35)

Now, let us come to the GTO driving circuit simply, as driving circuit of course you have a
different kind of pulse triggering circuits and you can have a thyristors with the UJT for
different device itself was actually used and invented for the triggering thyristors but anyway
dam based thyristors triggering is quite useful and it has been used in practice for a long time,
so we can refer to the book of another methods of the thyristors.

Of course you can go into the actually brief discussions of all the circuits of the thyristors
because lack of time we cannot do that so, GTO gate drive circuit has to fulfill few functions
apart from the thyristors because there is an issue of turn it off, turn of the GTO means that high
current from the current pulse, maintains conduction through the provision of the continuous
gate current.

116
And there is a continuous power dissipation because unlike thyristors once it trigger, it is
finished we required to maintain little bit of gate current to make it on, GTO make it on and
turn off of the GTO with a large negative gate current pulse that is also a requirement of the
GTO, so it has quite complex gate regarding features compared to the thyristors and reinforce
blocking state by the device by a small negative gate voltage.

So, ultimately it can be for the HVDC applications, so and for this is we require an isolations
from this decayed gate driver part and where a operator is operating and the high voltage sites
for this, we can have a optical fiber cable or any isolations microwave optical to the electrical
conversion will be done, there were control logic and this is basically, the high frequency DC to
AC conversion.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:39)

So, you have a high frequency transformer, this high frequency transformer used for its
compactness once we go for the higher switching frequency, size of the device will be less
since you know that actually V = 4.44 for fBN into so, this what happened you know if
frequency becomes higher then basically, you can sustain higher rating with a low voltage
because into A will come so ultimately, B something is constant.

So, if you increase the frequency then size of A can be reduced, for this reason we go for the
higher switching frequency to reduce the size of the core and we have a high frequency AC to
the DC rectifier, then we have a output stage and there actually you got a GTO, how GTO is
triggered; so this is the supply of the GTO and it has been triggered by the 2 MOSFETs,
conducted in these fashions.

117
So, once it is on, so upper MOSFET is triggered, so then what happened it will give to the
forward pulses to it, once it is required to be off then lower MOSFET is triggered and please
understand that it is given a bipolar voltage, so negative; high negative gate current is required
to be applied followed by a little bit of negative gate voltage, so make it off state, so this is
achieved by this features. However, current carrying capability of this device is required to be
higher and sometime instead of this thyristor, we use IGBT’s.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:17)

MOSFET gate reverse circuits; MOSFET is quite versatile device for the low voltage high
frequency applications, MOSFET being a voltage controlled device does not require a
continuous gate current to keep it on state and since it is the insulated gate, so gate current is
quite low and power dissipation in the circuit MOSFET circuit is quite low compared to the
GTO.

However, required to charge and discharge the gates and source and the drain capacitor in each
switching operation, so every time the capacitor across gate and source that is CGS has to be
filled by the charges fed from the gate drain, the switching time of the MOSFET is essentially
depends on the charging and the discharging rate of the capacitor, so it will turn on when CGS
is filled and it will totally discharge and have a forward blocking capability , when this
capacitors will be fully discharged.

118
Therefore, fast charging and discharging on the MOSFET is desired fast switching frequency
and higher current handling capability of the gate driver, for this reason to operate in a high
frequency.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:34)

So, this is one of the small example of the gate driver circuits of the MOSFETs, it comes with a
package, so this is the MOSFETs this has been shown as a switch, so you know this is a drain
and this is a source of the MOSFET and it comes with the body diode and upper one is the gate,
so what happened you know actually you have a, actually the connector from connector you
have a SP DT and a single-pole double-throw switch.

So, from there you can actually control, so this is the external control of the pulses and you
have a buffer that buffer will ensure that no loading takes place of this external circuit,
otherwise this current is so small that you know if you have a resistance and all those things
then it cannot support the loading of this current, from this buffer actually you have apart from’
part you got an LED.

So that will ensure that actually we require, we get a pulses, from pulses we have a PWM
modulators, so that will actually have a generate the PWM by sine triangle comparison, from
sine triangle comparison that will go to the driver and driver will actually drive the circuit, let
us see what is actually happens to all this blocks in one by one.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:10)

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Essentially, one aspect is that gate driver circuit with the integrated bipolar transistors, so what
happened you got an imprint transistors, once you have a pulses we have a inverting logic, so
what happened if this pulses is on, then this transistor will go off and this will go on, so what
happens essentially you know when it is on, then actually the current, then this device will get a
high voltage and it will turn on and you will have a very small resistance to turn in on to
dissipate the power drop across this gate.

So that this is basically the gate resistance and to block the actually the IGBT, you have a
blocking capacitors and that and we have a very fast or short key diode, so that we require a
very fast recovery, so for this reason we prefer a short key diode or ultra-fast diode for this
purpose, now this is one of the configuration gate driver or integrated bipolar transistors.

Simply your version is definitely the totem-pole configuration here and that the same is used, so
you have a RB, you got a totem pole configurations, so this is; this configuration is called totem
pole configuration and you have a resistance to block the current through this actually this
transistors and once it gets pulse upper thyristor is on, then actually MOSFET is turning on
depending on the RG and the CGS, so this will be the RC time constant of the devices.

And mind it you know actually, we have to provide, if it is a huge distance that is leads to the
stray inductance of this gate driver circuit and that will post trade on noise also high frequency
application, so this distance should be as close as possible for this reason, we have modular
time entities that will reduce the switches, so discrete component definitely will give you a stray
inductances.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:14)

So, and also while turning off, we want that actually to bypass this resistance, so we have a fast
turn it off and for this reason, we turn it off by this diode that is a very fast recovery diode is
used and so once you turn in on it actually current flows to the lower transistors and little bit of
negative biasing may be preferred to take it to the off state, so this is the one of the way to do
that otherwise, you may have a which is a n-type, if you have a p-type, it is level shifted p type
MOSFET driver is used.

So, MOSFET driver p-type is turned on by the negative voltage for this is we required to be
actually even though you have positive pulses, then this kind of configuration is used to use the
MOSFET driver with the p channel and for this reason here what we will find that actually this
is the n channel MOSFET, so this is a NPN transistor, this is a PNP transistors and you have
this actually these configurations once you get a pulse, this NPN transistors becomes on.

Once it is on, then basically then this voltage becomes 0 automatically, this voltage goes low
this will be in a conduction mode, ultimately negative pulses or a zero pulses will be applied to
it and it will come to the conduction mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:55)

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So, we have a different kind of configuration depending on a different kind of requirement, so
you can see that if you have a pulses and if you have these n channel MOSFETs and this kind
of configuration after RG you can provide to have a faster conduction, what happened while
turning on you know path will be through it, while turning off so it can go through this, so what
happened actually, you can ensure that faster turn of operation by putting this whatever we have
put an optional that will leads to the faster turn off.

Because turn off if you have; you mentioned in the data sheet in 2 class earlier, you will see that
is a biggest challenge, so we required to faster turn off by this kind of applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:54)

Another aspects comes into the pictures; bootstrapping, this issue comes once we require to
once actually, this MOSFET is turning on, then what should be a level of the voltage, once if it

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is inverter a lake, lower MOSFET does not have that problem, once it is standing on so that
voltage of this drain goes to 0 and thus and source is always 0 but the worse happens for the
upper MOSFETs.

But or any kind of application when you were triggered that in voltage goes to the plus VCC,
then what happened then gate voltage is lower than they actually the source voltage then the no
voltage, then they actually the voltage polarity reverse in VGS and thus it will find difficulty to
turn it on that MOSFET when this condition is fulfilled, so for this reason we require to do
some kind of modification into the circuit.

And we provide a capacitor that is called bootstrapping capacitor and this method is called the
bootstrapping, principle is same but we have a level shifting entities, this level shifting entity
will ensure that actually and this is a high voltage site or the high timer site of the devices and
ultimately it will give a pulse, once it will give a pulse this capacitor basically come into the
picture between the driver and this actually VIN since it is short.

So, this voltage and this voltage will be same and this voltage and this within this voltage, there
is a capacitor, so what happened then due to this actually capacitor, so there will be a voltage
across this point and this point and this voltage required to be this voltage actually, maintain the
higher driver voltage than this actually VIN, actually gate voltage required to be little higher
than this source voltage is fulfilled.

And this kind of actually, this is called bootstrapping and it is required for the switching on the
upper MOSFET in inverter or any kind of application when you turn it on these devices and the
source takes the voltage of the forward voltage and which is more than the gate voltage of the
source. Now, let us come to the IGBT; IGBTs are very important features when it required a
bipolar power supply that is one of the difference with the MOSFETs.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:43)

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So what happened you know applying maximum permissible VG during the turn-on period,
apply a negative voltage during a turn off period, control di dt during the turn on and turn off,
excessive electromagnetic interference and that will cause this control of dv dt during the
switching off and to avoid the latch up, minimizes the switching losses and provide protection
against a short circuit and fault, these are the requirement.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:13)

So, now this is the example of the IGBT circuit, so you got a logic pulses and you require a
optical isolations and this is called opto couplers and you have to choose the frequency of the
opto coupler accordingly and once we will get a pulse, we have a level shifted or comparator,
so we will shift that level and ultimately fit to the totem-pole configuration, it is the same thing
for the MOSFETs.

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But here you require a bipolar supply, you have to be plus minus 15 volt or anything whatever
require and this value of the RG should be very small otherwise, it will slow the process, so this
is the totem pole configurations and accordingly, it will turn it on the IGBT, so the gate
equivalent of it is basically this, this is VG + R, this is basically RB/beta 1, where beta 1 is a
current gain of the IGBT, so this is the circuits come into the pictures.

And once you want to off it, so negative voltage comes into the picture, so this becomes off and
this become on and antimony negative voltage applied to the system and that is what happened
you know this voltage become negative, so this becomes the circuit, so extra trap charges will
come and will dissipate, so this is the gate driver circuits for the IGBT. Now, let us consider the
generic switching converters.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:54)

We want to send power to this point to this point and in different kind of applications, we will
find a different switches on, you see that you know S1 is connected between this pole and this
pole, it can be a simple SPST switch, single pole single source switch and it can be a
mechanical switch, so let us realize it in that way then we say replace it by the different
switches that we have discussing for a switches.

So, this switch is 0, this switch is S3 and this is S4 and this is S2, so let us see that what kind of
switches comes into the picture, rectify inversion and different kind operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:38)

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Now, let us take state 0, what is state 0; S0 is on that means, this switch is closed and other
switches are off and results output voltage = 0, this is basically the freewheel action and it is
called freewheel action in power electronics, next state 1 where actually load gets a power from
the source, state 1 S1 and S2 is on, let us again see, S1 and S2 are on, so these are closed, so
power will flow like this.

And it results since there is no losses across the switches, so V0 = V, so you can take; if you
wish to have a chopper operation, so you are bucking, sometimes you may choose the state 0
and sometimes will state the choose 1, once you take a state1 output voltage should be equal to
input voltage and once you take a state 0, so output voltage should be equal to 0, neglecting the
diode up.

Because it freewill is essentially a diode but it is in a switch, so it is 0 and assume b = 1, S1 and

S2 is on, so b will be 0 otherwise and state 2; it is S3 and S4 is on, other switch is off, so and
you get the reverse voltage that is basically – V.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:19)

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So, let us see how what happened, so for the AC to DC conversion, this is a state 1 and state 2 it
and this is uncontrolled operation, so what kind of switch you will operate now, in this case
what will happen; you will get the same thing state 0 and 1 is operated but this kind of
operation you know when it is 0, it is not getting any load, so it will have a few elections, so
you will get zero voltage.

Once you have connected this state 1, you get this part of the voltage, so depending on your
application you will get a different kind of voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:12)

Now, let us take an example that you have a constant DC supply and you have chosen the state
0 and 1, 0 and 1, so that is just chopping operation and even taking a time out, so once it is
input is connected 1, once it is not connected it is 0 and so on like that it will continue and so

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this is the inversion operation, if you choose 1 and 2, so once you choose the switch S1 and S2,
you get 1 and you get minus once you choose the 3 and 4.

So, thus it is a inversion operation, so from same circuit we can realize a different kind of
operation, we simply SPST switches, so now we can we have to go back and ultimately
implement the actual switches, so what happened then?
(Refer Slide Time: 28:12)

So, if you have a; this kind of chopping waveform in PWM, so it is 0, it is 1, this is 0, this is
actually 2, again 0 and so on, this will continue and same way this example of the AC to AC
conversion that is it is the one of the important feature now it is coming into the pictures with
the advent of the IGBT, so we call it is matrix converter, so these can convert AC to AC, so
accordingly you can choose a different kind of states and different voltages can be generated.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:59)

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So, this is directly AC to AC conversion, DC to AC conversion now, this is a matrix converter,
what matrix converter do; we have to realize it, the switching matrix, so that it gives you direct
AC to AC conversion otherwise it is possible to convert AC to DC there after DC to AC, so if
you wish to have a direct there is a different way to convert it, so AC to AC, one variable AC to
fixed AC and vice versa. So, we require some kind of thing called matrix converter we shall
discuss in later how it has been realized in practice.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:31)

So, this is the combination, so you have a M input, so you have studied into the digital
electronics basically MPGA or PLA this same logic has been incorporated here, you can
actually close different kind of switch in a different way and ultimately, you can have a
combinations of the voltages, please understand now, now you have, it is not necessarily power
electronics we talked about three phases voltages.

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But now we have a multi-phase voltages also, multi-phase means 5 phase, 7 phase, these
machines also nowadays used or the special kind of machines, so their matrix converter heavily
fit to it, so we shall this is an actually some part of our discussion regarding analysis and gate
driver protections, so that student may find it is useful for the future course of studies, thank
you very much for your attentions, we shall look forward for our next class with the devices,
thank you.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 09
Single Phase Converter

Welcome to the advanced power electronic and control courses. We shall discuss today single
phase converter. Single phase converter finds its applications, wide application because
previously we had a DC supply and thus we had a DC loads. Once the supply has been changed
to the AC, then we require genuine purpose to rectify this. For example, actually in older
household in Calcutta, we already had a DC supply.

We required to rectify it to put it to the actually DC fans in other applications. So now we refer
to the process of conversion to the AC to DC as rectifications. So rectification refer to the
process of converting an AC voltage and current to the DC voltage and current. And
rectifications specially refer to the power electronic converter where the power flows from AC
side to the DC side and not in a generative way.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:16)

Mostly load is, mostly AC will be the source and load will be the DC and mostly these are DC
motors. Now point of interest of the analysis of the rectifier will be actually we require to
analysis the waveform of the, while AC to DC conversion, so while various things. Where the

131
inputs side, when you talk about the waveforms and characteristics values, when you talk about
DC value after rectification, we will have an average value.

And when the RMS value becomes my ripple DC, not a constant DC with the rectified voltage
have the current. Then due to rectification, there the influence of the load and the rectified
voltage and the current will change according to the type of load, whether it is RL, RLE,
different kind of load will give rise to a different kind of waveform.

Harmonic content in the input. So you are feeding AC, so since it is a non-linear conversions,
AC to DC conversion, then leads to the harmonic contamination in the source side. So you will
see that what is the problem or what is all of the arising the harmonics in the input. Voltage and
current ratings of the power electronic device used for the rectifier operation, that also will be
analyzed.

So what should be the proper rating for the particular wattage of the load. Reactions of the
rectifier circuit upon the AC networks reactive power equipments and the power factor
harmonics, these will be the actually characteristics of this actually the rectifications and rectifier
controlled aspects for controlled rectifier, generally it has been achieved by the thyristors.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:23)

Now in the analysis following simplifying assumptions will be made. Internal impedance of the

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AC source is 0 if otherwise not mentioned or taken into the consideration. Power electronic
device used in rectifications are the ideal switches. So types of the rectifies. We have a single
phase and the 3 phase. Today, we shall consider a single phase. And definitely, we have
uncontrolled fitted by the diode rectifier.

You have a half controlled fitted by the combinations of the thyristors and the diode. That of full
controlled, it is fed through actually the thyristors. Then we may have a half wave where we
require to buck down a voltage a lot. Then we have a full wave where you require to have a total
cycle. Then we have a different kind of supply, whether you have a, actually the midpoint of the
transformer is available or not, that is also a matter of questions.

If it is available, then we will go for the split supply. And otherwise, we have a bridge kind of
configurations. And same way, in 3 phase also we have uncontrolled fitted by a diode with
rectifier. We have a half controlled and the full controlled. If uncontrolled, we have a half wave
as well as a full bridge. And same way, you have a full control, we have a half wave and full
bridge. So all those topology will be discussed.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:48)

First we will take out actually the single phase. So let f be the instantaneous value of any voltage
and current associated with the rectifier circuit. Then following terms, characterizing the
property of f can be defined. The peak value of f. As the name suggests f= mod f max for all the

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time.

Similarly, average DC value, that is Fav, assume f to be periodic over the time period T. And Fav
will be actually you have 1/T 0 to T f of dt. And if it is RMS effective, then f will be periodic
over the same thing and the expression of the RMS will be under root 2 1/T 0 to T f square dt.
Similarly. we will define the term form factor as f defined by f of F FRMS/Fav.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:58)

Similarly, we will define the ripple factor that is basically; form factor is a ratio of basically, the
RMS is associated with the AC and average is associated with the DC since in any periodic
functions, if it is bipolar in nature, average value comes out to be 0. So form factor is basically
says that the ratio of actually AC versus DC. And another aspect is the ripple factor. Ripple
factor is given by fRF.

So if I put I, then it is for the current ripple. If I put voltage, if it is a voltage ripple, that is FRMS
square-Fav square/Fav. So ultimately it comes out to be basically the form factor square-1. And
fundamental component F1, since it is contaminated with the harmonics, the inputs side we
wanted to know what is the fundamental value of the fundamental component. And in our case,
what will be the 50 Hz component of it.

Its RMS value of the sinusoidal component in a Fourier series expressions of f will be frequency

134
1/T because you have a sine and cos component. So it will be fA1 square+fB square. Similarly,
we can calculate the term fA1 and fB1. These are basically the Fourier components. So in the
same we have find it out the Fourier series coefficients, same way we can do it. So it is 2/T 0 to
T ft cos 2pi/Tdt.

And similarly for fB1, we will have instead of cos, we have a sin term. Now for Kth harmonic, if
I wish to know because there is a symmetric generally different kind of harmonics are present for
the different kind of system. Sometime actually triplet harmonic is absent. Sometime actually we
have harmonic content with a 6n+-1 and is fast, 5th and 7th, there after 11, 13 and so on.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:11)

So if we wish to calculate the Kth harmonic component of this Fk, it is the RMS value of the
sinusoidal component of the Fourier series expressions of f with frequency K/T. So Fk=under
root of 1/2fAK square+1/2BK square. So from there, we can calculate the result fAK=2/T 0 to T
ft cos 2 piKt/Tdt. Similarly, you can have the sin term that is basically 2/T 0 to T ft sin term. SO
there will be a definition called Crest factor. Crest factor is by definition is ((star)) (09:00)
f/FRMS that is the peak value/RMS.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

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Similarly, we will have a distortion factor. Distortion factor is given by basically by definition, it
will be F1, that is the fundamental component, /RMS will give you the distortion factor. And
another term is actually total harmonic distortion. This is a very important classifier. We want
that actually now I quickly practices says THD of the input current or anything equal to be a
specified limit.

The amount of the distortion in the waveform, f is quantified by means of the index total
harmonic distortion is given by THD=under root of actually K=0 to infinity Fk/F1 square and
from there, actually we can derive, students are requested to refer to the any standard book and
the derivations will be there. So we can find it out the THD=under root of 1-DF square/DF. So
these are few terms we can use very frequently while analyzing the single phase and the 3 phase
converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:27)

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Another is the displacement power factor of the rectifier, that is DPF. Let us say if vi in a phase,
an amount of the voltage and current of the rectifier are actually phase shifted, then the
displacement power factor or rectifier is defined as that is cos phi 1/phi 1 as the phase angle
between the fundamental components and current and the voltages. Let us understand what does
it mean by this?
(Refer Slide Time: 10:55)

So let us consider that you know actually this is the sinusoidal voltage and you know you were
triggering thyristors. So it will be delayed by an angle alpha. So current will start conducting
from here. So then there will be delay. So this delay corresponds to alpha and that if you say that
is phi, then let us go back and understand this definition.

137
If vi and ii are the phase input voltages and current of a rectifier respectively or converter, then
displacement factor of the rectifier/converter is defined as DPF=cos phi i, is the phase angle
between the fundamental component of the vi and ii. So we assume that voltage only have
fundamental and it has lot of harmonics. So if you actually whatever its fundamental phase
difference with the fundamental voltage, that will be actually defined as DPF.

Power factor of the rectifier, so as for any equipment, the definition of the power factor of a
rectifier is the actual power factor of the rectifier upon the apparent input of the rectifier. That
mean if the phase input voltage and current of the rectifier vi and ii respectively, then actually
power factor will be given by Vi1 of fundamental ii1, that is the fundamental, *cos phi of i of the
input power factor angle between the fundamental of voltage and current, which we have
calculated here, /Irms and the Vrms.

So this will be the power factor in the rectification. These terms will be used and values will be,
when assignment will be given to calculate those terms. If the rectifier is supplied from an ideal
sinusoidal voltage source, then as I have drawn little bit ago, that is Vi1 and V fundamentals
become same.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:16)

That is the PF, power factor will be Ii1/Irms*cos phi i, that is basically DF1*DPF. So we can

138
replace them in terms of the THD. So power factor will be DPF/under root 1+THD square.
Another important parameters of analyzing the rectifier and the converter is that, pulse number
of a rectifier. Refer to the number of the output voltage current, whatever parameter you are
analyzing, whether output voltage or current, pulse in a single time period in the input AC
supply.

Mathematically, the pulse number of the rectifier is given by the time period of the input voltage
supply/time period of the minimum order harmonic in the output voltage or current. So that
required to be little understood. So it depends only mainly the 3 phase supply. So there we can
see the different kind of pulses. How many number of pulses will be generating. So classification
of the rectifier can also be done in terms of the pulse number.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

And for this reason, we have a different kind of pulse converter. In 3 phase, we say that it is 6
pulse converter. Because what happen you know we will discuss in detail while discussing
actually the 3 phase circuit, if it is uncontrolled one pair of thyristors or diode or combination of
the thyristors-diode in case of the semi-controlled, we will convert for the period of 60 degree.
So you have a total actually 360 degree.

So you got a 6 pulses. So for this reason, classification of the rectifier can also be done in terms
of their pulse number. Similarly, we can have actually a phase shifted by 30 degree and we can

139
by a transformer and we can have a 12 pulse. Similarly, we have a 24 pulse. Similarly, we may
have a 48 pulse. And we shall see the utility of it while reduction of the harmonic and the other
characteristics that has been required.

Commutation in a rectifier. Rectifier to process the transfer of current form one device through
the another device, mostly it is diode or thyristors, to the other rectifier. The device from which
current is transferred to the other transfer, is called the outgoing device. And the device to which
the current is transferred is called the incoming device. The incoming device turn on at the
beginning of the commutation while the outgoing device turns off at the end of the commutation.

So we have sometime there is an overlap. We will come across it and we will see that what is the
cause of the overlapping also. Commutation failure. It refers to the situation where outgoing
devices fails to turn off at the end of the commutations and continues to conduct current and that
is dangerous. Say you have a thyristors ((lags)) (17:13). So you may actually some thyristors is
going out and some thyristors comes in. Generally, if you have a, it may leads to the shorting of
the ((legs)) (17:26). So that is quite dangerous phenomenon.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

Firing angle of a rectifier, that is alpha, we have discussed in detail in the thyristors. So it is the
angle by which the conduction of the thyristors is delayed and it is measured from the instant
when devices become a forward biased with the resistive load. Therefore, the reference point

140
should be a fixed point. So for the single phase, it is a forward 0 crossing and it is a for the 3
phase, in the place where actually this Vc and Va cross, so that place is considered as a firing
reference.

We can start calculating firing reference from that point for the 3 phase. But today, our
discussion will be mainly on the single phase. Extinction angle of the rectifier or converter. Is
also used in connections with a controlled rectifier. Refers to the time interval from the instant
when the current through the outgoing thyristors becomes 0 and the negative voltage is applied
across it to the instant when a positive voltage is applied.

So within that time actually, that is said to be the extinction angle of the converter or rectifier,
overlapping angle, that is called mu. it arises though we favour contradictions with our first
assumption. We have assumed that actually source does not have an impedance. It comes into
the picture when source got an inductance. Commutation process in a practical rectifier is not
instantaneous.

During the period of commutation, both incoming and the outgoing devices conduct current
simultaneously for a small period of time. This period is expressed in radians. All angles are
expressed in radians and is called the overlapping angle of the rectifier and easily verified that
alpha+mu + this actually the extinction angle, that should be equal to the total half cycle of the
period that is pi. And generally this mu will be larger if there is a huge source inductance.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:05)

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Now let us come to the first simplest circuit configuration that is single phase uncontrolled
converter, half wave diode rectifier fitting a resistive load. So what happens here? Actually diode
has to block the peak reverse voltage. So what happens when it conducts? So it has to be blocked
the peak reverse voltage and this is basically the voltage across the load. And this is the voltage
across the diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:40)

Now for a simplest circuit, let us calculate the parameter. Now we can calculate this parameter
that is actually the average value of the voltage which we have shown there. So it is 1/pi 0 to pi
and so on. So you get Vm/pi for the half wave for the single phase uncontrolled. Average output
load current, you divide it just it by R, you get this value, Vm/pi R.

142
RMS value, you will get Vm/2. RMS of the load current, definitely Vrms/R, you get it. And the
peak inverse voltage across the diode, will be Vm, that is what we have seen in the previous
slide. And the efficiency of the rectifier is Pdc/Pac, so that will be Vdc*Idc Vrms*Irms and you
can calculate what should be this value.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:44)

Similarly, effective rms value of the ac component will be Vac Vrms square-Vdc square. So Vdc
is quite actually small for this is actually, this is a considerable amount of the ac inside it. The
form factor, it is Vrms/Vdc, that is also high. And also ripple factor is Vac/Vdc, you can form it,
that is form factor square-1, that will be a ripple factor that also will be quite high.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:14)

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Now single phase uncontrolled converter. Total harmonic, the harmonic factor or the total
harmonic distortion that is an important parameter for the current or the power quality. Measures
of the distortion of the waveform of the input current that is THD=Ih/Is1, that is Is square-Is1
square/Is1. Ultimately you will be get this value. Essentially, if it is a very high inductive load,
then input current will get this form. Otherwise, it will be Vm/R. So that will be different. So this
will be applicable when actually R is much less than basically XL.

Generally, if R/XL, this ratio is actually around 0.1, then we can say that you know load current,
current through this load almost constant and the input current will have this kind of profile. And
there we are coming into the analysis, let us say. And ultimately this is your fundamental of the
input current, Is1. And this is your input current. So from there, you can calculate the value of
the other parameter that is DF cos phi and the power factor and other parameter also.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:10)

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Now let us consider a single phase uncontrolled rectifier RL load with the freewheel. We have
seen that different kind of topologies of the converter in our previous class with SPST switches.
So you have got a diode and thereafter you got a VL and VR. So what happens, due to inductive
load, the conduction period of the diode, D1, will extend beyond 180 degree because current will
still continue to, after 180 degree, until the current becomes 0.

So this is the point where actually current becomes 0. This is the point where diode D1 conducts
if this thing is absent. Now what happens, if it is actually closed or it has been put into the
circuit?
(Refer Slide Time: 25:08)

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Then what will happen? Then there will be a change in the circuit. So this is the Vm and
ultimately it will conduct till this time. Thereafter, there will be no negative input is associated
with it because you know output voltage will come like this. And till actually the angle beta and
this is actually the VR. VR will be basically the voltages across this actually the resistance of the
load. VL is the voltage across the inductor, so you can see that change in the polarity takes place.

This is basically the VD. Ultimately when it conducts, so it is we assume that actually forward
voltage term of this device is almost negligible and equal to 0. Then it is blocking this voltages
of maximum Vm and this continues. So this is actually the RL load. Now what will be the
average value of the output voltage, here?
(Refer Slide Time: 26:20)

So we can calculate, you see that how it will change. So Vdc will be actually Vm/2pi 1-cos
pi+theta where theta can be calculated basically that depends on basically this omega L/R ratio.
And where omega is the supply frequency of the source. And from there, actually you can
calculate the amount of the Vdc will come actually as the average value. And average value of
the current definitely once you calculate, because the inductance does not contribute anything.
Once you calculate the Vdc, divide it by R, you will get Idc. So average value of the output
voltage.

And hence the current can be increased by making theta=0 so that this value becomes basically -

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1 or -12, so you approaches to the resistive load and is Vm/pi which is possible adding a
freewheel diode Dm across the load. So what does it do, you know? This diode with a rectifier, if
you put a freewheel diode, will increase your average DC value available to the load. So this is
the one utility of it. So for this we prefer to have freewheel action in a AC to DC conversion kind
of applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:04)

So single phase uncontrolled converter with RL load with a freewheeling diode, we are actually
discussing. The effect of the freewheel diode Dm is to prevent the negative voltage appearing.
Once the negative voltage appearing means actually it makes it more DC or more ripple.
Negative voltage appears across the load and as a result, magnetic energy stored into the system
increases at t=pi/omega, the current D1 transferred to Dm and its process called commutations of
the diode.

So you take an example of it. So this is basically the Vm and this is basically the VR and this is
the point where actually D1 conducts and this is the point where, actually assuming that very
high load current, then only it happens. Otherwise we will have a discontinuous mode of
conductions. So thank you for your attention. We shall continue to discuss AC to DC conversion
in our next class. Thank you.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 10
Single Phase Converter - II

Welcome to our NPTEL classes on advanced power electronics and control. We were discussing
with the single phase converter. This will be your second lecture on it. Till now we have
discussed half bridge configuration. Now let us go for the full bridge configuration. Half bridge
configuration is actually not at all practicable because conversion rate is very low. For this, we
have single phase central tap full bridge configuration.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:58)

However, availability of the central tap transformer for the little higher power rating is definitely
difficult to get for, this is an applications is less. However, it has some utility because the
semiconductor component count is less. So this is actually the supply voltage. And ultimately
this is the voltage coming across load and you get full rectifications.

And this is the point where D1 conducts or the forwards half cycle and this is the D2 conducts
and so on. Or one of the biggest disadvantage of it that is the peak inverse voltage of this diode
D1 or any diode or D2, is the double of the supply voltage. So it has to block huge amount of the
voltage.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:57)

But there is the big advantage of it compared to the single phase diode. The average value of the
output voltage has been doubled. It was Vm/pi. Here it is 2Vm/pi. And the load current similarly,
it will be more. So it is power handling capability is straightaway is actually quite high. The rms
value is basically, it was Vm/2, yes. Here it is Vm/root 2 and it is divided by R and peak inverse
voltage of the diode, this is actually one of disadvantage of it.

Otherwise, these are high and thus it is used for the higher power application, that is 2Vm.
Another configuration definitely is the bridge configuration because we get rid of the bulky
transformer and where you can directly convert but it is the popular usage that consists of the 4
diodes.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:43)

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However, it will be loss because you know you have to incorporate though while starting, we
have said that we assume that this conducting device while turn on are lossless, but it is not so.
So you have a diode of across it, so while lecturely current flows, transfer of the power takes
place through 3 diode devices and thus you have a little more losses. So this is one configuration
and this is another configuration.

It is almost same kind of configuration. It is just the way you actually put it. Here load is actually
put inside the bridge configuration and it is just taking away and put it in a different
configuration.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:30)

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Now here what happens? It is same as this actually central tap. Amount of the Vdc is at 2Vm/pi.
And this is the input voltage and this is actually the output voltage. This is actually the
conductions of Vm. So D1D2 conducts or D3D4 conducts and so on. And PIV is basically Vm
across each of the devices and thus, you have actually not much voltage stress but here
component count is more and another issue is that actually has to flow, power loss across each
power diode if it is little more than 0.7.

Say is 1 volt and 1 volt, 2 volt is lost. But in the case of this, the diode, it has been lost by 1 volt.
So this is the Idc. Idc is given by 2Vm/pi R. Similarly, rms is this. Rms will be given by Vrms/R.
P inverse voltage across the diode is actually the Vm.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:40)

Single phase full wave rectifier with the RL load, let us say. With the resistive load, the current is
identical to the shape of the voltages. In the practical applications, most of the loads are
inductive. Why? Because mostly this fits to the DC motor drive. DC motor drive actually has a
huge value of the field because it has a huge inductance when placed in series of shunt. And thus
to incorporate it, we can model, it is a DC motor as a higher load.

So for this reason, the load current shape and the magnitude depends on both the load resistance
and the load inductance. And let us consider that. This is the configuration of RL load. So we
assume that this is a continuous conduction mode and we have a huge load current also. So for

151
this reason, this is the output voltage and output current. And this is the current through D1D2
and this is the current through D3D4.

And ultimately, this is the overall voltage and the current in the single phase diode based rectifier
feeding an RL load. See that actually even though voltage is sinusoidal, but output voltage has
got a non-linear change. Thus it is contaminated with the harmonics. So when actually this value
of the inductive load is quite high. In most of the cases, you know actually omega L/R, if it is
more than 10, so this is the case, then we can assume that there is a constant load current.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:09)

In that case, you will have, this is a voltage and this is actually the current. This is a voltage and
D1D2 is the current. Then after current will flow through D3D4 and so on. And thus this is the
voltage and current profile where current will be the square wave. We prefer this kind of thing
because you know it is very easier to analyze.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:48)

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Example, single phase uncontrolled converter that is feeding a DC motor. In a single phase
bridge rectifier, supplies are very highly inductive load such as DC motor. The turn ratio of the
transformer is assumed to be unity. Determine the HF, that is THD of the input current; b, the
input power factor. So since it is a very high current, so we can have by ly inductance, we can
assume, we can find that an input current can be like this, the square wave. And this is just
fundamental and this is just supply voltage where you got to find it out HF and the rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:37)

So we can split it. So iS=idc+the harmonic part of it since we have actually no DC, average
value will be 0. So it is a properly AC current. So this value will be actually 0 and we have to
calculate the an and bn. So from the order of symmetry, we can find that cos part will be 0 and

153
we find that basically that part component will be present and this value will be 4Ia/n pi, where n
is actually any odd number.

So iS will be given by 4Ia/pi 1 sin omega t, this is basically the fundamental. Thereafter third,
fifth, so on. On or harmonics. Therefore, the rms values will be given by, you can actually
calculate, that value will be basically Ia.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:40)

So therefore, rms value of the fundamental of the component of the current Is1 is 4Ia/root 2 pi,
that leads to actually 0.9Ia. Therefore, the harmonic factor is basically or the THD will be Is/Is
square-1 is 1/0.9 square-1. So you get the value of around 48.43%, that is quite high. We want,
basically the harmonic content in the system is around 5, that is this prescribed by IEEE 519
standard in any power quality problems.

So you know, so what does it do? Because when you are feeding a rectifier, when you are
actually feeding an RL load to a rectifier, mostly you do this experiment in your actually,
undergraduate B.Tech levels, so you would see that what kind of harm you are doing to the
power system. So since phi=0 in this case because it is uncontrolled and displacement power
factor is actually 1, so ultimately you got a lagging power factor of 0.9. So this is the actually
some analysis of highly inductive RL load. Similarly, if you replace it, same thing, one by one by
a controlled manner.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:03)

Instead of the diode if you put a thyristor, then you can change the angle alpha and thus wave
will take the load, voltage will take this pattern and the current will take this pattern. And so
ultimately this is actually the voltage blocking capability of the thyristor. So this has then
blocked the voltage after it is triggered. Thereafter actually we have almost 0 conduction drop
and thereafter again it will block the voltage, the value of Vm.

Now same calculation what we have done in the case of a diode, we require to do that.
Ultimately we will see that actually this value will change little bit because you to speed the
limit, 0 to alpha and alpha to pi.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:44)

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And thus we get the results, you know, actually, some different value that is root 2 Vs. So V0
from this actually 0 to alpha. Similarly, we can calculate and we can find it out what is the alpha.
So ultimately the output voltage we get here, it is Vm/2pi 1+cos alpha where actually Vm is
under root 2Vs.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:19)

Similarly, maximum output voltage of the DC can be obtained when alpha=0 and the maximum
DC output voltage is the same as that we have seen in the case of the diode. It is Vm/pi. So V0dc
actually basically similarly Vm/2pi 1+cos alpha that is basically, you know, this value. The
average output voltage can be varied by varying the triggering angle alpha from 0 to a maximum
of 180 degree and which can plot the characteristics alpha versus actually the output voltage.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:58)

You can see that the maximum output voltage you get for alpha=0 and now it is almost linearly
drop and these values will be given by Vm/2pi 1+cos alpha till 90. Basically it is adding up.
Thereafter actually cos becomes negative and thus actually gradually it will drop and it will drop
to 0. So we can obtain the control characteristics by plotting the expression. So by controlling the
alpha, we can control the amount of the DC voltage come across the load.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:33)

Now let us come to the single phase full controlled converter and some parameter analysis. So
the output normalized using that DC output voltage with respect to Vdm, so Vn, the normalized
output voltage will be the ratio of Vdc/Vdm, that is the maximum peak value. So it is Vm/2pi

157
1+cos alpha/Vm/pi. Ultimately, you get basically 1/2 1+cos alpha. So it depends on cos alpha.
The term we will say that Vcn.

Similarly, rms value you can get it 0 to pi, you have to split the limit. Since 0 to alpha, there was
no current into the system, so 0 to alpha you can get it. So rms value will be given by Vm/2 root
pi pi-alpha+sin 2alpha/2. So you can understand that in case of the rms, you will have a
component of the double frequency. So it will be a 2 pulse converter. So you have a double
frequency ripple followed by a DC part.

If you see that, you know, this part is DC. And this part is essentially AC. So DC superimposed
on to a double frequency oscillation, okay. And thus it is a 2 pulse. More the number of pulses,
you know, actually what happens? You will, actually you will get a high frequency and thus
filter will be actually a smaller and you will find much ((ease)) (14:17) to actually remove those
components. And for this instant, we are looking for the high pulse converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:24)

Now let us consider the case of the single phase half wave full controlled rectifier with the RL
load. And we assume that inductive value is not quite high. Otherwise, you would have taken a
different kind of current shape. So till alpha, it has been triggered. So after that it has been
triggered, actually the output voltage will take this shape and it will continue to conduct after pi
because this thyristor is a current control device.

158
So ultimately it will go on conducting on it and due to that, you know, this is basically your, the
voltage profile. This is the gate pulse and this is the current profile. It will conduct till angle beta.
And again, it will be same because there will be a huge lagging because of the half bridge. Sorry
it is half controlled converter. So again it will start conduction after 2pi+alpha.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:29)

So for analyzing it, we require to take the help of the differential equations assuming that it has
been triggered at T1 and at an angle alpha. We can write this equation basically Ldi dt+Ri0=Vm
for this zone of conduction from alpha to beta. So an i0, we can actually if you solve it, this
equation, ultimately you get i0=Vm/impedance that is basically nothing but under root R
square+xL square.

So we can calculate. Sin omega t-phi, where tan phi will be equal to basically XL/R. So from
there, we can get this result. So where maximum supply voltage is root 2*of the supply voltage
and this is the load impedance which I have just referred. So phi=tan inverse of omega L/R, the
load impedance angle. So this is load impedance angle and this is basically the time constant L/R
that is tau and general expressions can be written as Vm/Z sin omega t-phi+, this term.

Now we require to have a one unknown to be left out in the previous slide that is the A1. We
require to calculate A1 from the initial conditions.

159
(Refer Slide Time: 17:05)

So condition is when load current was 0, it was either beta or alpha. So omega t=alpha, so t=,
definitely alpha/omega. So you substitute these results. Ultimately you get A1e to the power
RLt=-Vm/Z sin alpha-phi. So this term can be 0 if alpha=phi or A1=this value. So total equations
of the i0, thus will be Vm/Z sin omega t-phi+e to the power -R/omega L omega t-alpha-Vm/Z sin
alpha-phi.

So this will be the final expressions of the load current, so, in a known form. So if you know the
alpha, if you know the phi, you can calculate. And if you tell the instant, you can, of course, you
can calculate the load current. So this analysis is a little complex than your actually the diode
based rectifier. Students are required to practice it. Assignment will be given on it and especially
all the competitive exam will get a problem on different kind of actually load current
calculations, mostly in chopper.

So they can have this kind of thing. But chopper is, essentially there is a difference. That is not
AC to DC application. That is basically DC to DC application. It is basically AC to DC
application. But treatment has lot of similarity.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:01)

160
Now let us come to the single phase fully controlled converter. So your extinction angle beta can
be calculated by using i0=0 again at the beta, not only at alpha. So you can write in terms of the
beta also but that is quite complicated. But generally we prefer to write in terms of alpha.
Anyway, Vm/Z sin omega t-phi-sin alpha-phi e to the power -R/omega L omega t-alpha=0. From
there, actually beta can be calculated. So this is the way we can calculate the extinction angle of
this half controlled converter. Now other parameters.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:57)

The average DC load for the single half wave controlled rectifier for RL load, that is the same
load. So you can integrate over it, 0 to 2pi and here you have to split it, the limits. So first part is
0 till 0 to alpha. Alpha to beta, you will get a voltage V0. Thereafter again it is basically 0. So

161
you have to check it. So ultimately you get VL=1/2pi alpha to beta and you can calculate the
extinction angle which I have shown in the previous slide.

So you get alpha to beta and thus Vdc=VL=1/2pi alpha to beta Vm sin omega tdt. From there
actually you get a calculation. This is the value of the Vdc output voltage that is Vm/2pi cos
alpha-cos beta. Mind it actually beta is mostly more than 90 degree and thus actually value of the
cos beta is generally negative. Thus you basically add some.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:05)

So another parameter we require to calculate. So these are single phase fully controlled
converter. Now where we have to assume, we have taken some distinction to it. Supply voltage
at the transformer side is taken as Vs. is=input supply current, transformer second winding
current, is1 is the fundamental component of the input supply current and Ip is the peak value of
the input current.

Phi is the phase angle difference between the sine wave components, the fundamental component
of input supply current and the input supply voltage. phi=displacement angle, phase angle for an
RL load, phi is the displacement angle, load impedance angle and phi=tan inverse omega L/R for
an RL load, displacement factor DF or the fundamental factor=cos phi.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:14)

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Now let us calculate the THD or the harmonic factor, total harmonic distortion, that in Is square-
Is1 square/Is1 square. So that is basically this term where rms value of the input current is Is. Is1
is the rms of the fundamental component. So this is basically VsIs1/VsIs cos phi=Is1/Is cos phi.
And Crest factor CF, Is peak/Is, peak input supply current/rms input current. For an ideal
controlled rectifier, what happens you know, form factor is generally 1, efficiency required is
equal to be 1 and there should not be any part of the AC component.

For this reason, this required to be 0. So total utility factor is 1 and ripple factor should be 0
because it does not contain any AC. THD should be 0 and power factor or the displacement
power factor also should be 1. Now let us see we have seen the, actually, single phase half wave
controlled rectifier with RL load, now we will feed, we will put a freewheel diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:37)

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We have seen in case of the diode, diode actually, freewheel diode increases the amount of the
DC into the load by reducing the magnetic energy stored into the inductor. Now let us see that
what happens in case of the half wave single phase controlled rectifier. There is a, so many
actually, prefix added to it. So it has been delayed by an angle alpha. This is the supply voltage
and this is the gate currents. And ultimately current will take, I assume that it will take this kind
of profile.

If it is a square, then it will take a different profile because if this inductor value is quite high.
Now this will be a sinusoidal in nature. And output voltage come across it, will have basically
triggered here. Thereafter, what will happen? You know, once actually negative voltage comes
into the picture, then this diode actually forward biased and it starts conducting. And thus, you
know, in load current basically, will continue to flow but you will get actually the 0 voltage
across the load.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:55)

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And due to that, you will have actually no power being supplied across during this time. Because
you can see that load voltage is 0. Previously what used to happen, you know, without diode,
there will be a negative portion of it. And ultimately, you know, positive current and the negative
voltage will lead through the AC component of it, increasing the AC component of it.

So you can reduce the AC component since basically you will not get any load voltage due to
this actually, since it will short, basically the current, little current i will flow but load voltage is
going to be 0 after pi. The average value definitely will change. So it will change to Vm/2pi
1+cos alpha. So which is the same that of the purely resistive load. So what happens, while
freewheel, it will leads to the same value and you get more amount of DC.

So following points to be noted. For low value of the inductance, the load current become
discontinuous. Mostly this is the case in case of the half wave circuits. During the period alpha to
pi, the load current actually flows through or carried by the SCR and during the period pi to beta,
the load current carried by the freewheel diode. The value of the beta depends on the value of the
RL load and the freewheel diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:38)

165
So this is the case, so you know, this is actually the alpha current. So then actually current will
drop because it has a sinusoidal pattern of the voltage. So thereafter, at this point become pi. So
then forward conduction mode start for continuous conduction mode. So diode will be actually,
this freewheel diode will carry the power and thus load will not get any voltages. And then again
after 2pi+alpha, it has been triggered and been followed. So this is the case of the single phase
fully controlled converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:29)

Now next definitely another entrant to the scheme is that actually an RLE load. Generally, this is
the typical model of DC machines because you got a resistance and this is a combined sandwich
resistance and the mechanical conversion part of it. And thereafter you have the inductance that

166
leads to the losses across the fields, either it is a shunt or series. And then you have a back EMF
mostly of the motor.

Because due to the inertia of the motor, the speed of the motor does not change instantaneously.
So essentially when you talk about the RLE, we take care of DC motor. So this is the supply,
Vm. Ultimately value of this E will have some value. So that value have to be, V should be equal
to some value of the V sine omega t1. Now you have triggered an angle alpha and it will
continue to conduct the load current. And it will go to the negative but it will not go to that point
because of that.

Basically, you know, this of angle E, because this is the back EMF part comes into the
consideration. It will continue to conduct till this value. Since this is a half wave, there will be a
long pause, again it will conduct till this point. And here also, you can find that actually it will
continue to conduct from alpha to beta and same way, it will conduct. Now this is something we
require to analyze. We shall continue our discussion in the next class with the single phase half
wave converter feeding the RLE load. Thank you so much.

167
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 11
Single Phase Converters III

Welcome to our NPTEL lectures on advance power electronics and control. This will be a third
lecture on single phase converters. We shall continue with the single phase fully controlled
converter; it will be half control device it is this Thyristor which will give a half wave control.
Because it will trigger in a positive half cycle and negative half cycle it will be reverse biased
and we are not supposed to use Thyristor while it is reverse biased so triggering should be off. So
let us assume that it is typically feeding a DC motor kind of load for this.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:08)

This is manifested by the R L E R is the resistance of the motor therefore they are huge filled it
will be a shunt series motor that is been represented by L and the vacuum part will we actually
pretty constant because it will run at a constant speed because electrical inertia is quite actually
low compared to the mechanical inertia. For this is an actually vacuum may be proportional to
the speed for this we can assume that vacuum is almost constant.

Or you can think of charging of a battery kind of thing also. So the red one indicates that load
voltage with absence of the free wheel diode we will get a negative posture. It is triggered at an

168
angle alpha then after it will continue till actually by pi there after we assume the discontinuous
operation of the current. But due to this actually stored energy in the inductor current will be
actually flowing into the negative direction.

There after once actually the energy is free then actually it will be automatically commutated
then it will be off again the same cycle is repeated. But actual conduction angle is beta-alpha and
where actually it is triggered at an delay angle alpha. Now we required to see there are few
parameter to analyse that Lambda is basically is corresponds to Vm sin omega t. Vm sin
lambda= basically the vacuum of voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:50)

So in this case what will happen so lambda=sin inverse vacuum/Vm. So for the triggering angle
there is a two conditions when triggering angle is actually < lambda then the Thyristor conduct
for basically lambda to beta the conduction angle. And if alpha is actually more than that because
still it is not actually what happened basically till the supply voltage is more than the vacuum
Thyristor is not forward biased so for this Vm is triggered.

So Thyristor will not be conducting Thyristor required to conduct after actually it has reached the
voltage > the vacuum. So for this same way the triggering angle alpha should be > lambda and
the Thyristor conducts for an angle alpha to beta so vs= Vm sin omega t is the input voltage

169
v0=Vm sin omega t for output voltage for alpha to beta and v0= vacuum for omega t =0 to alpha
for this condition and for this negative half cycle that is beta to 2 pi.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:25)

So we can actually find it out the conditions and we can write that actually differential equations
to find it out the load current and its profiling it has been shown in the wave form. When the
Thyristor is triggered at an delay angle of alpha, alpha is more than lambda then equations of the
circuits can we give as Vm sin omega t =iR+L di/dt + the vacuum for this duration. Now in
general expressions for the output.

So we can write that actually can solve this differential equation and i can find it out that that
load current we will have Vm/Z sin omega t-phi we have discussed phi in previous class where
actually phi is actually this one tan phi= actually omega L/R so E/R+ this term A e to the power -
t/tau but tau is an electrical time constant of the system. So this is the Z value Z is given by this
thing and tan phi is actually omega L/R.

Similarly, the tau time constant is L/R the load circuit constant and general expression for this
thing if we substitute then we will have actually this value.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:00)

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Then what you can do we got to find out the value of A that is unknown. So we got to find A
which we have done in and that was rectified also. So by initial conditions so when current is 0
for this A if we actually apply the initial condition when omega t =alpha then load current i0 =0
so if we can equate it i0=0 Vm/Z sin alpha-phi -E/R +A e to the power -R/L alpha/omega from
there we can get an expressions of A and that will have a component of e to the power.

So it is a varying component you can see that you know it is constant and there after a sinusoidal
component and it is varied via actually an exponential component so here -sin is missing. So
substituting this value A and we can have an expressions actually the load current so load current
will take this format. So Vm/Z sin omega t-phi -E/R +E/R-Vm/Z sin alpha- phi e to the power -
R/omega L omega t-alpha.

So from this equation this term this sinusoidal component can be 0 if you trigger alpha=phi. So
ultimately then the sinusoidal component will come out you will have a sinusoidal component
plus a decaying component. This will be a decaying component.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:46)

171
 Now let us take a next class that is a basically full control converter with a central tapped
topology. So midpoint is available because you have in that configuration negative cycle is
totally omitted so for this in conversion ratio is very poor and you also have a high degree of
actually ripples. So for this we prefer actually full control mode of operations so but problem is
there if we use a transformer we require the central time transformer.

So same condition arises so let us consider that for RL load first. So we have a continuous and a
discontinuous operation of the load current once we have a this is the current you can see that it
is a discontinuous mode of conduction the red line shows that this is basically the voltage output
available across this load and this is the freewheel it is optional whether it is connected or not. It
generally comes through the switch may be.

So this wave form this half wave form shows that this continuous load current central tap full
controller converters for triggering angle alpha for without any free wheel diode. So diode is
basically not been placed into the circuit so far this is what will happen so a negative voltage will
come that gives rise to the ripples or more DC and then after it will trigger an angle alpha then it
will conduct so stored energy will mix this thyristor to conduct even in the negative cycle.

So you get this profile so all the energy is shared during this time so far this is and then we are no
voltage is across is available and same way it will continue.

172
(Refer Slide Time: 09:36)

If we have discontinuous conduction with that free wheel diode, then you know this negative part
get truncated there is no negative part. So what happened you know actually till load voltage will
be positive and DC component will be more. So what happened then there after actually at this
point actually Thyristors will be reverse bias due to the diode and free wheel diode come into
that picture and current will free wheel through this path.

This is the free wheel direction till actually energy is stored into the inductor is dissipated that is
for the duration pi to beta and if the load current is quite high then you may have a continuous
conduction mode and in this case you can see that actually current still follows alpha thereafter
what happened since Thyristors is conducting you will be actually this is without free wheel so
for this you get a huge part of the negative voltage.

Then actually Thyristor will be triggered at an angle alpha so forward voltage you will get across
the load then what happens is Thyristor is actually in a forward conduction mode due to the high
current ultimately it will deliver negative load voltage so similarly it will continue. So negative
load voltage can be truncated with the use of the freewheeling diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:34)

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Now let us see there is a characteristics of this actually single phase fully control converter. So
we will plot VDC versus alpha. So you can see that you can get a maximum value of VDC that is
2 Vm/pi that is add alpha =0 so control characteristics of a single and we assume that actually
load current is continuous for this reason and without the free wheel diode that is this wave form
so then what will happen you will find that at a 90 degree.

So this voltage deliver to the load is 0 thereafter if you increase this alpha beyond 90 degree then
nearly a conversion operation. So it will be a bipolar so you can convert AC to DC as well as you
can reconvert it into DC to AC. So actually so that load itself will actually then supply back the
power to the source this is this kind of application is possible in case of the regeneration. So 90
to 0 if it is actually 120 degree then you can see that this -Vdm.

So on as 180 degree is the totally the inversion or inverter operation.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:00)

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So let us consider that RME load with bridge configuration where actually we can bypass this
central term transformer and also actually you may not require transformer if it is directly fed
from the source. So now in forward half cycle we shall put this Thyristor in such a way that
Thyristor T1 T2 will conduct and we assume that actually load current is actually continuous and
constant that when it has got a very high level of inductance.

Generally, this can be approximated when omega L/R ratio is around 10. So time constant is
around 10 second so for the period of actually 20 milli second it can be assumed to be actually
constant. So it has been triggered at an angle alpha so before that the pair of Thyristors in
negative half cycle was conducting and you are getting a negative voltage. Thereafter and same
thing is applicable so since load current is continuous.

So effect of the vacuum is may not the same so there after Thyristor is triggered at an angle alpha
it could conduct till alpha to pi+alpha. So 180 degree thereafter again T3 and T4 will come into
that picture. So it is quite easy to analysis since load current we have assume this kind of fashion.
So the source current will also have a square wave and we can do the Fourier series analysis all
the odd harmonic will be present for the order symmetry.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:51)

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And thus we can calculate what is the amount of the actually Vdc and RMS and the
corresponding current part of it. So Vdc actually 2 Vm/pi cos alpha so we can derive that
expression in place simply by integration. Same way actually the RMS output voltage will be
Vm/root 2 will be Vs and current to the Thyristor will be actually square wave. So this will be
the current through across T1 and T2.

For the period of actually 360 degree similarly this will be the current for T3 and T4.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:31)

Now here this is a 2 quadrant operation so you know while discussing switch we have described
the quadrant operation here current is unidirectional. So current is always positive in the load but

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voltage can be negative and positive depending on the triggering angle. So if alpha is actually
more than 90 degree in this case then it will be an inversion operation and alpha is < 90 degree
you get a controlled rectifier operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:33)

Now let us see the condition when there are three changes has been made this is called half
control you can have a different combination of half control you can as asymmetrical or
symmetrical configuration. So here you know upward to a Thyristor lower to a diode we can
have another configuration where one leg is of thyristors and another leg is of diode. Then if you
do that then we need not have to give a actually the freewheeling diode in that case.

Let us consider this configuration this configuration is called single phase fully controlled
rectifier this is a single phase semi controlled converter rather so and it is fitting a RLE load. So
it is omega t =alpha it has been when triggered and we assume that load current is quite high and
continuous so actually it will fit till omega t=2 pi+alpha thyristor T2 is triggered and an angle 2
pi+alpha and 3 pi+alpha. So accordingly this time delay between T1 and T2 is going to be the
180 degree.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:42)

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So see then wave form of voltage you will get so you have triggered here this is your angle. So
ultimately you will get a voltage like this and please see that you know since the diode into the
pictures. So negative voltage it is not possible to have because diode will conduct and free wheel
truncate this actually the negative voltage and thus this part is been actually omitted so you only
get the first quadrant operation that is actually the rectifications or the converter operation.

Same way current through this thyristor is T1 and T2 and this is a D1 and D2 so on and this is a
single quadrant operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:36)

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Now actually this is Ia this is a source current and it will conducting for a very small interval of
time alpha 2 pi there after pi+alpha to 2 pi in negative half. But since the value of the intact is so
high that you get a constant actually the load current and similarly you can find that rest of the
current is flowing through the free wheel diode. Current through a free wheel diode will be very
high and this is the amount of the current flowing to the free wheel diode.

So thus T1 and D1 conducts for this duration for alpha to pi T2 D2 conducts for a period
pi+alpha to 2 pi and for omega t0 to alpha that free wheel diode conducts again pi 2 pi +alpha
free wheel diode conducts.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:38)

So this is the wave form of it the pink line actually shows the load voltages and from there we
can derive the equation of the load voltage that is actually VDC that when we integrate over it is
a very simple thing you will get Vm/pi 1+ cos alpha. So you can put any value of the cos alpha
you can find that actually even if you put cos alpha =180 degree this value will be 0. So you will
have a single quadrant operation.

Same way we can actually find it out the RMS value by actually integrating over it so you get
Vm/root 2 1/pi pi-alpha +sin 2 alpha/2 so you can expect that in voltage there will be some
oscillation of the double frequency. So due to that double frequency oscillation will come. So if

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you divide by R definitely you will get the I RMS and if you divide it by R you get the I DC
which is assumed to be cost and this comes square root kind of a thing.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:52)

And mind it since it is a square wave so average and the RMS value should be same okay now
let us come to the single phase dual converter. So it a 4 quadrant operation so this Thyristors is a
is a full control converter so thus it can operate + - actually 0 to 90 degree as a mode of converter
and 90 to 180 degree as a mode of the inverter. Same way what you see that polarity of this
actually Thyristor is reversed.

So what this is and it will be - alpha and since that there can be this pole voltage may have a
instantaneous difference of the voltages. So due to that you require to actually put a blocking
current blocking inductor so that it can block the instantaneous voltages between these two pole
voltages. So what happened in first mode let us assume that you know.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:07)

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This is the input voltage and essentially you have chopped out this voltage and since it is a foot
control operation you will get this kind of wave form and similarly you feed the same voltage
and if you trigger the logic of triggering of the dual converter is that if you trigger that one
converter and an alpha another converter required to trigger at pi – alpha. So you have triggered
pi - alpha so essentially you will get actually this part of the voltages.

So essentially what you will get at the output voltage is v1+v2. So this will be the voltages across
the load and unfortunately due to that there will be a circulating current flowing like this when
there is no cancellation of the instantaneous voltages. To block that instantaneous voltages, we
have put an inductor.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:10)

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So let us do some analysis so of course since it is the full control converter for first converter in
left hand side it is this value will be this average voltage or the Vdc 1 will be 2Vm/ pi cos alpha 1
similarly output voltage of the second converter V dc 2 that will be 2Vm/pi cos alpha 2. The dual
converter operates one in a converters operating under the controlled rectifier another actually
was triggering angle is < 90 degree.

Another is basically it has to be more than 90 degree and we hold this equation further if it is
trigger an alpha another is triggered 180 degree -alpha so Vdc1 should be =-Vdc/2 so if you can
equate this two equations ultimately you find that basically alpha 2=pi-alpha 1. So this is the
constraint so alpha1+ alpha 2 should be =pi so for this is in this mode of operation has been
continued. So dual converter can we operated it in two different modes of operations.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:27)

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Definitely, so one is non-circulating current circulating current free mode of operation we can
make the instantaneous for the same at all the time so that no sacrificing current flows and
circulating current mode of operation. So in non-circulating current mode of operation this mode
only actually possible in one instant mode is in this mode only one converter is operated one
time.

So both converter are not operated so when converter 1 is on that means alpha 1should be =0 to
90 degree and Vdc is positive and Idc is also positive and where converter 2 is on, it should be
actually < 90 degree and Vdc is negative and this should be also negative. So then what
happened since you are operating one converter at one time and thus there is no condition of
flow of current.

But what happened then actually power delivering capabilities is decreasing in circulating mode
what happened. In this mode, both the converter has switched on and operated at the same time
and the triggering angle alpha 1 and alpha 2 are adjusted in a way alpha 1 and alpha 2 =180
degree or alpha 2= 180 degree-alpha 1. So when this mode is generally more preferred.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:09)

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So when alpha 1 is basically < 90 degrees converter one operates in a controlled rectifier and
converter 2 operates in an inverted mode. And in this case Vdc and Idc are both to the preferably
assumed directions. When it is change when actually this condition is satisfied is alpha 1 is more
than 90 degree and < 180 degree then converter 1 operates in the inverter mode and converter 2
operates in the rectifier mode.

And thus what happened we get a negative dc. After this we have a four quadrant operation so
converter 1 is in rectify mode thereafter converter 1 is inverting mode this is 1 of this quadrant
operation in this condition Idc is positive. So this is a conversion this is actually we have
described in case of the full control converter similarly we can make so converter 2 < 90 degree
then what happened basically Idc will be negative but Vdc will be positive.

And this is a third quadrant operation both Vdc and Idc both will be negative where actually you
are putting the converter to more than 90 degree.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:41)

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So let us understand the few aspects of it so let us assume that the instantaneous output voltage
converter 1 is V01 and Instantaneous output voltage of convert 2 is V02. And the circulating
current are we required to calculate and we required to block their circulating current which may
harm actually the Thyristor unnecessarily. Because it is not getting into the load circulating
current ir can be determined by integrating the instantaneous voltage difference.

Which is the drop across the circulating current along Lr so let us start at omega t=2 pi-alpha 1 as
the two average output voltage during this interval is omega t = pi+alpha and another is 2 pi-
alpha positive opposite to their contributions so you can put this limits so ir =this thing 2 pi-alpha
to omega t where actually Vr is this. So we can actually find it out the what should we the value
of this circulating current. Substituting v01=-vm sin omega t or 2 pi-alpha 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:59)

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So either substitute it and you get the results ir=2 Vm/omega Lr cos omega t-cos alpha so you
can see one thing that you can actually make the circulating current 0 suitably controlling alpha 1
but it is not impossible most of the time. So for triggering angle alpha =0 the magnitude of the
circulating current becomes minimum 1 omega t =n pi. So magnitude become maximum and
when omega t =n pi actually for the odd harmonics.

The peak of the load current Ip one of the converters is actually giving you the current. So this is
where the expressions of it so Ip + 4Vm/omega L where Ip=IL max that is =Vm/RL and that is Ir
should be equal to this is the max peak value of the circulating current that is 4Vm/omega Lr. I
continue you with the next class with the converter, we are looking forward to discuss more
interesting detail about this converter. Thank you.

186
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 12
Three Phase Converter I

Welcome to our NPTEL lectures on advance power electronics and control. Today we are going
to discuss three phase converter. We have discussed in details with a single phase converter now
we are discussing with the three phase converter. We have we started with the same fashion as
we have started the single phase converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

Since actually most of our supply is three phase three wave or four wave system and it makes
sense for the high power applications for the dc motor mostly this kind of applications we
convert directly three phase to dc. So this is the application part of it so we use this is basically
three phase half wave uncontrolled rectifier fitted through the diodes and it is fitting data I
assume that RL load.

So what happened? you can see that how conduction takes place. So the D1 will actually when it
will conduct basically that would about to stop across it would be 0 and then you will get a
voltage of Van across this diode RL. If D2 is conducting, then at that time basically it will block

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the voltage when D2 is conducting D1 will black the voltage of Vba it would be negative voltage
and similarly it will block the voltage of the Vca.

So similarly when diode 2 was conducting so the third diode will block Vac sometime Vbc and
once actually diode 3 is conducting then load will get the voltage Vcn. So load will get the
voltage depending on the 180 degree mode of conduction for 360 degree Van Vbn and Vcn most
positive phase will conduct so accordingly you will get the three different voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:35)

So let us see how it works this is the actually the three phase voltages and our starting point will
be actually this point where the voltage A actually a crossover the voltage C and thus voltage A
become the actually most positive. You can see till this region that when actually pi/6 to 150
degree actually most positive phase is Van. So definitely this will conduct for actually pi/6 to
150 degree so this will conduct. Similarly, after that you know Vb actually at this point crossover
takes place

so since there is only a single diode in upper limb so crossover takes place and it will we have a
crossover at this point where V phase becomes most positive place and thus it well conduct in
this point. Similarly, Vc will conduct after actually the period to 70 degree and so on. So till this
time D1 conduct till this time D2 conduct till this time D3 conduct and thereafter till this time D3

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conducts and this is the output voltage. We will have a third harmonic oscillations we can find it
out by analysis.

And this is actually the voltage blocking state or the different diode and this is VD1. VD1 will
conduct actually this point to this point so it will be blocking the voltage red one. Similarly, VD2
will have this kind of fashion so and same way VD3 so it will conduct when actually at this
instant so you will get a negative. So phase a or red phase will conduct for pi/6 to 150 degree for
another 20 phase b and another 20 degree phase c.

So thus due to the RL load the converter operates in a continuous conduction mode if you
assume that load current is quite high. As diode blocks the negative voltage the diode only
conducts in that phase where the phase of voltage is maximum of these three. As shown in the
wave form the phase current has DC component which flows to that AC source and makes DC
saturation in the ac side of the transformer.

For this you know this kind of configuration we do not prefer so it may lead to the saturation of
the input transformer. So three phase halfwave uncontrolled rectified we can see that what are
the different values what we have seen in the say actually single phase.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:16)

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So we have actually Van Vbn Vcn these are basically phase voltages and so output voltages you
can see that from pi/6 to 5 pi/6 that means actually 30 degree to 150 degree. It will get a voltage
of Van and so write the Van and you calculate over it similarly you can calculate actually output
RMS voltage that is basically you get three such cycle so it does multiply by 3 same way for
RMS value actually multiply by 3 pi/6 to 5 pi/6 root 2v sin omega t square dt.

So you can get this actually the values for this RMS value as well as the average value you can
calculate I had left it to the student to calculate. So similarly you can have the load current so that
is V average/R similarly i RMS = it should be same input RMS that will be same for since it is a
balanced system Ia Ib Ic should be same and we can find it out that it tell value will be actually
i0/root 3.

So input power factor that is active power output which we have shown also in a single phase
system by RMS input. So that is basically IPF actually voltage average*current
average/3*Vi*RMS so from there you can calculate physically the IPF.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:55)

Now, since we are discussed that this mode of the actually configuration is not preferred because
it leads to the saturation of the transformer and the rate of the conversion of the power is very
low generally use full control devices. The three phase full wave uncontrolled actually rectifier

190
with let us consider the R L E load. Now in this condition one diode from the upper leg and
another diode from the lower leg will conduct.

And will actually since or one diode will conduct for the period of 120 degree so we have a
different way to actually nomenclature it. Since D1 will conduct after 180 degree of its
conduction so for this is and you know actually nomenclature will have a difference of 3. So that
is D1 and D2 that is D1 and D4 will be the first leg and similarly D3 and D6 will be the second
leg and D2 and D5 will be the 6 legs the combination is the odd combination will be up.

So D1 D3 D5 and D4 D6 D2 if you do like that then you will find that actually this sequence will
come. If you name it this way actually this sequence will come. So first phase 60 degree so of
course we start from the point where actually phase A and C get intersects at this point and we
have waited from this point for 60 degree intervals. So it is it starts from pi/6 to pi/2 so what
happened in that configurations.

Diode D1 and D2 conducts and when diode D1 and D2 conducts for this is you can see that these
are 0 so and there and it is the ones actually there after what happened diode D2 D3 conducts
there after D4 D3 conducts D4 D5 conducts D5 D6 conducts and then D6 D1 conducts then after
D1 D2 conducts. So this will actually be the column you will get 0s so here D1 D2 conducts
therefore D3 D4 start conducting it is blocking the voltage of vba and vca.

Then it is blocking the voltage of actually vca and vcb and so on. So these are the pair of
voltages that you continue to block. And accordingly you can actually find it out which voltage it
is blocking and you can get the output voltage accordingly. So for this you know in load voltage
will be delivered for this first 120 degree by actually D1 and D2 for 60 degree D1 and D2 and
thus you get a voltage of actually PSE>

Similarly, you know when D2 D3 conducts you will get a voltage of bc. then after when D3 D4
conducts you get ba when actually D4 D5 conducts you get ca. When D D6 conducts again you
will get actually reverse cb then when D6 D1 conducts you get ab and so on. So this cycle will

191
continue and one pair of actually diode will conduct a 60 degree and thus one single diode will
conduct for the period of 120 degree.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:38)

So this is actually a wave form so we consider the RLE load represents the DC mode or the
battery and the load side inductance is quite high to keep the load current continuous. So we have
a ripple but actually this is a Idc value and the load current assumed to be continuous one diode
from the upper side is D1 D3 D5 and another diode from the lower side will conduct at a time.
But no two diodes from the same leg will conduct simultaneously

Otherwise it surely leg shorting will take place ultimately no voltage will be delivered at right to
the load. So it has 6 different diode mode of conduction these are D1 D2 D3 D4 and so on. Each
diode conducts for as I told you 120 degree and a pair of diode will conduct for the 60 degree. So
this is the wave form so D1 will conduct actually thereafter D3 will come into the picture
thereafter D5 thereafter D1 again.

Similarly, at this time D1 and D2 will conduct thereafter after actually at this point you know D2
will be actually D1 will be the outgoing Thyristors at 60 degree and D2 will be conducting and
D3 will be the inductance. So similarly it will conduct like that and since there is a 6 such
changes in 360 degree so you will have a 6 phase wave form and this value is given by under
root of 2 VL and we assume that load current to be constant.

192
And this will be the pattern of the input current. Input current will be the stepped square wave so
since actually this time D1 conducts so for this what will happen current will be positive. There
after interval you can see that D4 once start conducting at this region so we will get a negative
pulse from phase A. Again there is another pulse of 60 degree again it will pick up. So in a cycle
of 360 it will conduct within positive or negative cycle for mode of 120 degree there will be a
assume of in between 60 degree.

So there is sufficient time to actually commute similarly this is a current for phase B and phase C
and this is the wave form drawn this is a fundamental of the input line currents.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:29)

Now few parameters comes into the pictures now for as we start from this actually pi/3 to 2 pi/3
and AC is the amount of the voltage coming into the picture. So output voltage will be given by
3 pi/ 3 to pi 3 VL sin omega t from there we can get this basically the value of the RMS voltage.
RMS voltage you can find it out at this 1+3 root 3/2 pi*VL. So from there of course you know
you have a RMS voltage just divide by the you can find it out the current.

So current will be basically root 2/3 * which is assumed to be cost term that is output load
current and the output load current is given by this basically Vab so that is the average voltage

193
that is root 3/2 /pi *Vl -E /R. So from there we can calculate the RMS voltage as well as the
RMS current. so input power factor for IPF will be the active power output/RMS power input.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:50)

So now let us see that what happen if this actually three phase full wave uncontrolled rectifier
fitting in RC load that is quite common you know actually most of the application nowadays are
adjustable speed drive. In case of the adjustable speed drive actually you can have a variable
kind of load and what happen you know you fit to an inverter to run it in the drives in a different
manner.

And for this kind of wave form is quite common in case of this actually in different kinds of
industrial applications and this capacitor essentially actually filtered out the ripple and gives you
more or less a constant DC voltage. So similarly this is a three phase wave form as we have
discussed so here what will happen till the input voltage this input voltage Van is more than Vac
that will not conduct.

So output voltage you know tit will hold by the capacitor this will have this kind of value you
will have a ripple that depends on the load current as well as the size of the capacitor. So due to
that what will happen if so till this voltage is more than this voltage diode will not be forward by
us and thus no current will flow and thus diode current might be picky. So it will conduct or the
D1 D2 will conduct for this pretty small internal on time.

194
Let us see that it is alpha +2 beta similarly you know current will have this kind of choppy
profile and it is quite disturbance and it is a unique problem to be solved for the this is one of the
issues with the power quality because you can see that actually it gives a choppy current and you
have an actually a sinusoidal voltage. So this is a problem once you have an actually artsy kind
of load and nowadays its prevalence

Now let us come to the three phase half-wave controller rectified. Now since most of the
application we required are constrained source in DC kind of application for this is an we prefer
to have a control rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:26)

So there is a Thyristor iT1 and there is no difference in between the diode and the Thyristor we
required to trigger the forward most forward Thyristor depending on the voltages and
automatically other Thyristor will naturally commutate it. Because if this let us say that
previously b phase was the most positive and Thyristor T2 was actually conducting the moment
actually F has become more positive.

Or definitely the reverse bias will be applied and the thyristor will commute. So for this what we
required to do let us assume let us start from the point where actually am is a most positive phase
and it has been given at an angle delay angle alpha. So it will trigger at an angle alpha so that is

195
the point where actually T1 will be triggered on it will continue till conduction there after you
know when it is actually you see that actually most positive phase is actually T2 phase b.

Then T2 decode so each thyristors will conduct for a period of the same wave 120 degree and so
this will be the profile of the load voltages and like that you know controlled rectifier you get
since it is a we assumed that actually this load is RL type of load for this is the negative portion
of that load voltage will come into the picture and we assume and since this is a lot current is
assumed to be constant so we will have a input current will be given by like this.

And but problem of this halfwave rectifier or the converter is same because you can see that and
actually this load current is positive in input side and that leads to the saturation of the
transformer so for this is an it is not at all used when most of them we are phasing out it same
way we have a calculations, we can do the calculations that is a 3 pulses 360 degree cycles.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:40)

So it is alpha+ pi/6 to alpha +5 pi/6 from there we can calculate the vRMS and IRMS and
ultimately from there we can divided it by R to calculate the average current and IRMS you will
find that I0/root 3 by simple calculations since it is a square. So similarly we can calculate the
input power factor that is V output average/ I output average *3*Vrms*Irms. So let us come to
the more practicable solutions of the three phase.

196
And where load is assumed to be highly inductive three phase full wave rectifier and same the
nomenclature we have used in case of the diode that is T1 T3 T5.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)

So since it will be conducting and one pair of Thyristor will be conducting for the period of 60
degree phi/3 and 1 thyristor itself will be conducting for the period of 120 degree and what will
happen here in this case essentially we will have a same kind of actually nomenclature that is T1
T3 T5 are the upper thyristors and T4 T6 T2 are the lower thyristors. So you trigger the point
where phase A and phase C are crossing over.

So given a delay angle alpha so you will start from this point so T5 will be the outgoing
Thyristor from the top and so T6 and T1 is conducting. So you will get phase A B across the
load. Similarly, there after T1 T2 is conducting and you get AC to the load there after you get T2
T3 is conducting you get CB to the load so on and frequently you will get so you can see that
here it is inactive so you get Van into the load.

Similarly, you know you triggered this load Thyristor here there after you get Vbm to the load
then you will get Vcn to the load. So here if you start from here so first you get Vab there after
you get Vac across the load there after you get Vbc thereafter you get Vba there after Vca there
after Vcb and this will continue. So this is the configuration of that full control bridge rectifier
(Refer Slide Time: 23:18)

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So here it is same as we have discussed in case of the diodes so it is triggered for an angle alpha
to pi/6 before T1 is turn on T1 and T6 is conducting T6 is already conducting and T5 was the
outgoing Thyristors. So the period alpha actually it is alpha + pi/6 to alpha + pi/2 where the point
T1 T6 is conducting and this is the actually the configurations so you get cb there after ab and
consequent voltages.

At alpha +pi/2 T6 gets turned off due to the reverse bias condition conduction and T2 get
triggered. From this period actually alpha+ pi/2 to alpha +2 pi/3 T1 and T2 both are conducts. So
Thyristors are according to be triggered in the sequence T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 and so on and this is
basically assuming that is a constant load current so this is the current through the thyristor T1.

And this is the current through the thyristors T4 that is the lower leg of the phase a and thus load
current source current will be this and load current will be this since it is a positive or negative
cycle so it can be used in case of the transformer also.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:56)

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So it does not lead to the saturation on the transformer similarly we required to calculate that
actually the Vrms and the average voltages. So students are requested to calculate this value you
know actually this is a simple integrations and it is available in normal any textbook.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:19)

So this is the pattern same way we have discussed in case of the diode now this is for half
controlled rectifier or converter. So here upper legs will be Thyristors and lower legs will be
diode. So you have a control over triggering the thyristor and automatically actually negatives
phase will be triggered depending on the actually which phase is most negative. So thus what
you can see that let us see that again nomenclature will be the same.

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As used in case of the full control converter so it is D4 D6 D2 I so when T1 an D1 is conducting
so voltage across the thyristors 1 is 0 and will continue till 60 degree that it is blocking the
voltage Vab and ultimately what will happen though these are the voltage they will be blocking
throughout it and so similarly when D2 is basically conducting and it will be conducting for the
period of 120 degree.

So it will conduct till 30 degree to 150 degree thereafter other voltage will follow like that. So
again it will be conducting here. Similarly, you can see that D3 will be conducting for the period
here as well as here. So this is the case will be continue and its matrix will be actually featured
him and accordingly it get a voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:06)

So this will be the pattern so T1 will be conducting for this period as shown here and we can
apply a delay to it and output voltage since we can change the delay so output voltage can be
changed depending on the profile and assuming that load current is almost constant and so this
will be the actually the input current and this will be the fundamental. Same way if you have
actually this wave form where have a large delay angle?

So then what will happen? so you can see that this will be the pattern first it will trigger with the
T5 thereafter T3 T1 thereafter T3 thereafter T5 and but what will happen then you can find that
actually lower half will continue as per the sequence so ((for this reason)) (28:10) this leads to

200
the actually a discontinuous voltage we had talked about discontinuous current. So we will have
a discontinuous voltage when actually it will be discontinuous.

If the triggering angle will be more than 90 degree in case half controlled converter three phase
half controlled converter. And this will be that this kind of way for full control this will be the
continuous form. So pattern of the wave form will change till alpha =0 to 30 degree and
thereafter alpha more than 90 degree. We shall continue our discussions with the three phase half
controller with his mathematical analysis in our next class. Thank you.

201
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 13
Three Phase Converters - II

Welcome to our NPTEL lectures on advance power electronics and control today we shall
continue to discuss with the 3 phase converter. Now we are discussing about in previous class
when the firing angle alpha.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

More than 60 degree so let us see that how the wave form will work for the half controlled
converter for alpha > 60 degree and this is a mode where discontinuous operation start and we
assumed that this it is highly inductive load. So, we always start from the crossing up a and c
from this point. So, it is been delayed by an angle more than Pi/3 so till this point actually you
can see that you know when actually this crossover takes place at Pi/2.

Then T3 and till T3 and D3 conducts after that since this crossover takes place B is no longer
most negative phase and it will be naturally this D3 will be stop conducting. And thus then free
wheel action will takes place through this to till the time the T1 is not triggered. And this will be
the sequence T3 D3 thereafter will be an interval of the time where free wheel action will take
place followed by T1D1.

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Then it will continue so in every actually crossing in negative of cycle will there will be a fresh
shipped and the lower diet will actually naturally will put off and this actually free wheel diet
will comes into the picture. Similarly, it will sequence and you will get a voltage like first CV
then after ac and then after ba and cb so instead of the 6 wave form in this case you are going to
get a 4 wave form.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:47)

Now 3 phase full wave half controlled converter same thing will continue so discussion is let us
triggered T1 at an angle Pi/6+ alpha. So, T1 and D1 will conduct and output voltage will appear
across this AC thereafter at Omega t =7Pi/6 V ac becomes most negative actually D1 will turn
off and free wheel action will take place. And if Dm is not used T1 will continue to conduct until
T2 is triggered since float is highly inductive.

At omega t = alpha +5Pi/6 again free wheel action is completed so this is the output voltage this
is cb and this is actually sc that fba and cb and this is the current Thyristor T1 and square wave
kind of thing and thereafter this is the current through Thyristor T2 and D2. Similarly, it is a
current through the Thyristor T3 and D3 and this is the inverter interval where actually free
wheel act will conduct and input current. You will have this kind of sequence how 120 degree
conduction.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:06)

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So, we required to understand now we can see that the Van and Vbn and Vcn will have a same
sequence 120 degree – phase shift Vac will be Van –Vcn that will be under root 6 v sin omega T
– Pi/6 thus this output voltage hour h voltage we calculate. So we have 3 such cycles in 120
degree fresh shifted. So, it is alpha+ Pi/6 to 7 Pi/6 1/Pi so this is 3 interval, so it is multiplied by
3 and ultimately it is under root 6v sin omega t –Pi/6 d omega t and similarly output arrives at
voltage calculated by the same method of integrating over the trait alpha + Pi/6 to 7Pi/6.

Similarly, the input power factor will be actually active power output / RMS power input this
IPF average voltage / RMS voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:21)

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Now this is the 3 phase full wave half controlled rectifier with the free wheel action where the
triggering angle is <= Pi/3 60 degree now in this configuration you know 1st as the instant of this
triggering is physically the crossing over of the a and c so from this point actually we measure
alpha till that time actually T3 D3 was conducting now T1 is triggered and from the negative half
the direct D3 is conducting.

And it will be actually commutated at this point when the cross over b and c takes place and thus
from this point on T1D1 will conduct and you know it will conduct till the commutation takes
place. National commutation takes place of T1 because of the firing of T2 and till this point
actually T2D1 will conduct and there after T2D2 will conduct and after that again when it is
again at 0 crossing of this point.

So, there will be a fresh change and here T3D2 will conduct and same sequence we will
continue. So, here instead of the 4 pulses previously we will have a voltage and it will be a
continuous and will get six pulses so the time actually alpha Pi/6 to 2 + Pi/2 you will get for CV.
Thereafter, you get ab there after you get an and thereafter you get an - cn = VC and there after
ba in between you get ca again you get cb you get ab and such a way it will continue.

And the current flow Thyristor you will find that actually it will be delayed by some angle alpha
from the actually Pi/6 so it will continue to 5 Pi/6 + alpha and thereafter again it will continue
after Pi/2 so similarly D 2 will conduct all at time 7 Pi/6 to 11Pi/6 and so on and effectively you
will see that actually the infest current IA will be actually conduct from Pi/6+ alpha to 5 Pi/6
alpha. Similarly, begin to conduct for 7Pi/6 alpha to 11Pi/6 + alpha and so on.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:11)

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Now we require to again calculate what we have done in case of the alpha more than 60 degree
we required to done also alpha <= 60 degree 90 so value of the RMS voltage and the value of the
average voltage given by same thing it is alpha +Pi/6 Pi/2 Vab + they will be a limit change it
will be 0 otherwise in the previous condition. So, Pi/2 alpha + 5Pi/6 Vac d omega t so from there
the value will be come out to be 3 root 3Vm/2Pi 1 + cos alpha for this alpha< 60 degree.

So, what will be the value for this condition similarly for RMS value we can also calculate so
this value to be comes out to be that 3 root Vm 3/4Pi 2Pi/3+ root 3 cos alpha square the whole
under root of 2 so this will be the average RMS value for alpha <= 60 degree. So, the expressions
of the voltages half control converter will be changing depending on the triggering angle.

Now let us introduce because you have seen that you know that we shall discuss a little later
about the power quality issues since we have a more number of pulses within a cycle is more. It
is easier to rectify and moreover so the distortion of the current in input the ((AC)) (09:53) side
will be less considering that can we use a multiple diode based rectifier that is the simplest
because you do not require triggering circuit.

And thus we can reduce the THD and other parameter which is actually conflicting while DC to
DC conversion.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:16)

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So, for this you know we have to keep in mind to reduce the line THD and to improve the input
power factor and avoid the semiconductor devices in cities to have a higher rating. So, for these
things let us come back again us natural 6% water we have discussed initially and we assume
that 6 pulse feeding resistive load.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:43)

And you know actually VAB= Va – Vb, it is actually root to V LL sin omega t + pi/6.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:52)

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And so six-pulse you can find it out what is actually the wave form. Wave form will be like this
so this is the for the area A1 same kind of area will be available for other so you can get due to
that you know what happen the current will have this kind of actually the profile so for here D1
D6 conduct and here D1 and D2 conduct so actually the output voltage due to this diode can be
actually you have 3 such area so area A1/ Pi/3.

So,1/Pi/3 you have to integrate actually since this area is basically sin AB. You can see here
basically sin AB voltage so Pi/6 Pi/2 root 2 VLL sin omega t +Pi/6 d omega t =3 root 2/Pi VLL
that is basically receive voltage comes out to be 1.3 times of line to line voltage so that is
something you require to keep in mind while you use for a six-pulse converter 3 phase six-pulse
converter and what happen you know this things become drastically changes. You know and
when we have a RC load the current will conduct assume that this value is ready.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:28)

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Current will conduct you know once this is actually the most positive phase is more than this
actually the Vdc or Vd. So for this small interval where actually phase AV is more than this is
the output of Vd so current will conduct similarly it will conduct for a very small interval of
pain. So, accordingly you will have that and this is the input current and which is very much
contaminated with the harmonics.

And this is a critical case when we basically use we basically we want almost a huge dizzy
capacity to make it triple free. And due to that you pay the penalty in the input side having very
degraded value of the disbursement power factor THD and all those issues and the current
through the diode id will have this kind of pulses so it is not a constant current.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:43)

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So, let us take a six-pulse converter discontinuous current mode what happened here till this
value Vav is actually more than this rectified voltage till that time current will not flow. So, it
will current will start picking up at a point let us say theta 1 so when actually Vab crosses and
Vac will have phase lag of pi/6 so once actually at this point once again it will 0 crossing takes
place so then what happen capacitors current continue to flow due to that reasons.

Actually you will have the current will come back like this since till this value voltage line
voltage ac will again cross this actually the VDC. There is no current will flow into the system
and thus you will have this kind of current and the theta 1 can we calculated that is actually sin
inverse of Vd / theta 2 definitely is willing to be Pi – Theta 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:04)

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So, we can have a continuous current operation if we increase the load and thus the value of the
VDD will come down. And what we will find that you know this is basically the ia and this is
basically ib and this is basically ic so when we increase the load current then actually the current
becomes inverse so we have to increase the load so ultimately you know the ia becomes this and
ib becomes this and ic becomes this.

This passing of cycle and this current through the diode will be a continuous one and then what
happens in some interval of the time went on state of the diode. For example, when ias is
conducting when current is showing like this. So, automatically you know written part will be by
the sub diode so what happens ia will be conducting once actually current is increasing. So, D1
and D2 will conduct then after that you know this interval region 3 what happened.

So, you can see that in this region ia falls and ib picks up so for this reason you will find that
since ia falls D1 still conducting as well as the D3 comes into that picture for forward part b of
this circuit so D1 D2 D3 will conduct gradually after some gradually ia will become 0 and the
D1 will be off then D2 D3 will conduct. So, there will be overlapping zone where ia and ib both
are conducting in this mode of operation.

So, with the increasing load current rectifier will enter into the continuous current operation and
during commutation interval there are actually 3 diodes that would be into the operation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:11)

Now there is an example we can sight the rating required high value rectifier. It is a USA system
for this and it is a 60 hertz so we have 4160volt 2MVA rectifier and base current as high as you
know 277.6 A and base inductance of this value and line inductance will have let us say 2.29 that
is point 1 per unit and line current is assumed to be actually half of the rated current 227 will be
this one.

So, we can find then what is that harmonic containing in it so this is the basically the blue one is
essentially the load input current is feeding to the axis diode rectified feeding axis circuit and this
black line current is the fundamental one so we can see that you know in case of the second
power unit value is 0.2 and this is a second case where power unit value is one. So, our current
rating is one.

And thus these things become continuous and this is physically discontinuous almost so you can
see one thing here if load current is low. So, it is discontinuous in nature and mostly and the
harmonic content will drastically increase at low load current so you can see that 5th hour
warning is 63% and 7th hour warning is 38% and so on. And that is what our THD is coming out
to be a 75% in case of the diode 6 and diode with rectifier feeding a RC load.

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But when we come out why do you need it is actually rotate current but hitting effect will we
there and other issues will be there and as far as THD is concerned this will be reduced because
of the continuous conduction mode so THD will come down actually 32% basically this current
is 30% and 8% and other values you can check almost half.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

Now what happened this is a case of showing how THD decreases with the load and with
different values of the source inductance. There is a effect of the source induction first case as
you can see the induction is low you will find that THD will be actual higher and once you
actually increase the load current of course THD will come down same thing for different values
of the source inductance.

And what happened the power factor you will find that actually increasing the load power factor
will improve because this discontinuous power factor has actually reduced you can of course
assume that apart from that you know due to the source inductance you will find that power
factor is least in case of the aid gradually and whichever is maximum value when it actually
reaches its peak value and B is actually the middle point in the row.

So, actually it will be in the half point and after some time let us say 0.5 unity power factor 0.5
uploading you will find that source inductance affects almost mitigated as far as power factor is
consent power quality mostly consists of THD and the power factor. So, you can find that source

213
inductance increase the source inductance basically decreases the THD. But here after few 50%
of the load current source inductance does not have much effect on the power factor.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:28)

Now let us analyse 12 pulse converter but to have that 12 pulse converter we required to have
some configuration changes and we require to have a transformer in the system and who is
actually you should have a different kind of transformer you can and here generally this part is
delta and you have also the deltas star transformer and it has a different kind of vector group to
operate. So in this case what happened you have a phase shift between this line current.

And this line current by 30 degree and since Ia is basically primary current is Ia if it is a I is to 1
transform, we will have spitted between the star and delta part. The phase shift between the
transformer is basically 30 degree.

And secondary line to line voltage it is ab= Vab delta =v AB/2 and let us assume that actually
N1/N2=2 and N1/N3=2 /root 3 so this is the Turns ratio. So you require a special configuration
of a transformer to have 12 pulse converter or 12 pulse rectifier to the system.
(Refer Slide time: 23:08)

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So what happened here you know you will find that why it is 12 pulse because there will be a
two current basically you know this is the current for delta and this is the current for star and thus
actually it makes out to be the star and delta and ultimately you will have total 12 pulse into the
system, and you can find out that Vam/a1 that is the fundamental 5th that 7th and overall THD
has drastically reduced to 24% from the 35% in case of the ((RC)) (24:04) feeding cycle.

We can we have take same kind of load, but you know we are actually having a 12 pulse
converter. And the current profile you can see it is closed to the sinusoidal and thus harmonic
content is left and you know what you can find out that you know there is no harmonic content in
the primary because this is basically the IN1/A1 it contains 5th and 7th but in case of the input
current it does not have 5th and 7th harmonics.

So 6N+harmonics is totally eliminated you just have 11 and 13 harmonics and so on. Similarly,
17 and 19 harmonics is eliminated. So thus THD in case of this delta part was 21% and the star
part was 24% but input side it just get reflected only 8% so it is drastically reduced from the
previous one. So this is a great achievement from the power quality point of view, but you
required to incorporate extra cost on the transformer.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:30)

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So let us have a performance analysis and you can have A that is source induction is 0and you
can see that actually increasing the load with load current THD will be as high as actually near
close to the 20% but it will come down close to actually 8% and thereafter if it is actually have a
source inductance then actually it may come further. So this is the comparison between the 6
pulse and the 12 pulse converter. 12 pulse converter gives you quite low THD same.

What happened let us see the power factor. power factor you know actually in this case will have
a little bit of detrimental effect. So you will start from the high power factor and this will not
change much if there is a no source inductance. But with the effect of the source inductance you
will find that power factor will decrease because we have put an extra inductance into the
system. Thanks for your attention we shall continue to the part of the different kind of pulse
converter in our next class.

216
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture -14
Multipulse Converters – II

Welcome to our Advanced Power Electronics and Control course in NPTEL. We shall continue
with the Multipulse Converter – II. Now let us consider, we have already discussed 12-pulse
converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:41)

Now let us take the 18-pulse converter. Of course the complexity will increase so we will have
one Zigzag transformer. Since we have 18-pulse so it require to a special design. So the phase
difference between this transformer require to be actually 20 degree, so that is something a
special arrangement, special kind of transformer is required to be built to fit into the system and
this kind of transformer is called Zigzag transformer.

So we shall see that and ia is basically will have a this component ia prime ia prime + delta ia
prime + bar. So this is the ia, this is ia delta and ia bar. This is the three current in secondary. So
this consisting of the total current. And this side is basically primary side is ia and which is
actually start connected.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

217
So what happen in case of the 18-pulse converter so if you; there are three current actually as
soon into the one by blue other by dot and other by the front line. So these three current
consisting of actually the current of the individual rectifier. And if you superimpose these three
current ultimately we get the current which is available into the primary and individual THD of
this current may be as high as 23%.

But when it is been reflected to the primary side so values are come to be less than 3% and
generally we have for power quality issue we have iaaa9 standard so that says that THD is
required to be 5%. So we can achieve it by this method. And thus what happen, so it does not
have any 6n+-1 harmonic, 12n+-1 harmonic it starts from 18n+-1 harmonic, so worst harmonic
failure after first harmonic will be 17 and thus 9 THD comes out to be only 3%.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:29)

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So this the waveform of the 16-pulse converter so; this is actually ia, ia bar delta and this is if
you impose this three currents together and this becomes the basically essentially the value of
this input current and this is the harmonic spectrum real data and you can sign that actually all
the this is the harmonic spectrum of the primary of this 18-pulse converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:00)

Similarly, same analysis can be continued as we have done in case of actually the 6 and 18
harmonic. So you can see that by increasing if it is a low load current of course THD is going to
be higher. So once actually come down to the 3% for Geo-Source inductance it can be much
below to the almost actually 0% for 0.1 per unit of the source inductance and similarly actually

219
we may have a little high power factor at low input current and gradually it will decrease little
bit.

But power factor you can see that the difference is not much, so we accept power factor, most of
the power quality companies and the utility accept the power quality in and around 0.95. So there
actually well in the range and if source inductance is 0 and they are well in the range of the 0.98,
so thus this should actually switch all our purposes for practical utilities and concern for
rectification operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:25)

So now let us talk about the 24-pulse diode rectifier. So, even though it almost meets some
application we require a very precise kind of actually power factor and other issues. So similarly,
you know so we require 24-pulse converter there this is actually Zigzag transformer was phase
shifted by 20 degree; here it will have a phase shift of 15 degree because it is a 24-pulse
converter.

So we will have actually this will have a phase shifted by delta; this is a star, so this star and this
star will have a same phase and from there we will have actually -15 degree phase shift. And this
will have this Zigzag transformer will have a +15 degree phase shift. Thereafter, we will have a
delta that definitely will give you a 30 degree phase shift. So you have actually let us draw this
current because we cannot draw all the current in together.

220
Let us draw basically, this current and this current so if you can superimpose on it so will get
actually this current and this current are having a 15 degree phase shift. Similarly, this current
and this current will have a 15 degree phase shift they are put together. And all these two current
are been put together into the third waveform and this is consisting of this basically the primary
current and that is basically ia+ia delta+ia bar+ia prime.

So you can see that this individual THDs are 24% but once you come across while
superimposing this fundamental current this load current become basically and will have a
harmonic, it will be shifted at the level of the 23th harmonic. So the THD level will be very low
as low as 1.49%. So this is the advantage of this actually the 24-pluse converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:44)

Now same thing, so if you have a low source inductance or Geo-Source inductance so a THD
will gradually come down. But you can see that start from actually 6% and goes below 2% and
similarly you know you can see that what happen to the power factor; power factor is quite good
and for the A power factor is as close to the 98.98.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:19)

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Now 12-pulse Separate-type Diode Rectifier, so if you have this kind of thing. So this is a
separate you have a one start delta topology and 1-star test topology; it is maybe DY11 or DY1
at different kind of ((vector go)) (08:43) deferred primary current will be ia prime + ia delta
prime and this is ia and we assume that it is ia delta and this id and this is id delta. And let us see
what happen actually whether it gives much better waveform than any other. We can have this
kind of segregation to run it because as far as receivers is concerned it is separately running so
there is no problem at all.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:13)

So what will happen in this case? We can use this devices for many purposes. So for example
Multilevel Cascade, we can have actually different kind of cascade multilevel this actually drive

222
was actually proposed by the Siemens and students are requested to find their whitepapers on it
so you can have one dedicated drive.

Thereafter, you can see that you know it is coming like this and ultimately one this; one inverter
this inverter as feeding. Similarly, this inverter and this inverter feeding and this inverter and this
inverter is feeding. This is called multilevel cascade H-bridge Inverter Fed Drive. So it is
applicable for the high voltage routine highly precisely drives were actually inverter is feeder to
the motor drive. So this is as a great advantage of it, so comparison with the series-type.

So here what you will find that the DC current ripple is higher and the current THD is actually
close to 0. So we require a phase shifting transformer like this to operate this highly sensitive
drive like a 12-pulse separated-type diode rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:55)

Now let us analyze the actually 18-pluse Separate-type Diode Rectifier. So now we can have
actually 20 degree phase shifted and we have this kind of drives and we can find that actually
value of the THD is quite low compare to this actually single 18-pluse type and it is come down
to be actually below 4% and with a inductance it will be blue one and another inductance little
more that will be C1 and but what we will find that power factor will actually degrade little bit
little bit from actually till this point is the discontinuous conduction mode.

223
Once this actually conduction mode started you will find that this is the A and that will basically
having a good power factor and ultimately all are accepted because power factor is quite close to
0.95 and this is quite acceptable for the utilities.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:15)

Let us talk about same thing with the controlled rectifier that mean with the converter. Let us go
again the 6-pluse and see a rectifier with the inductive load and see that what happens its
performance analysis.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:33)

Now we have already discussed in the diode rectifier. So this is the case where alpha=0 you get
this kind of load voltage. And this is the case for alpha=60 degree after that actually this is the

224
pattern you will get till that point actually you will get a 6-pulse. And this is the pattern where
actually alpha=pi/2. Since this is the full control refer to the waveform the full control converter,
so average voltage will be 0. So you are not supplying any voltage to the load.

And once you increase this alpha adopt pi/2 so it will work as a inverter and you will get
negative voltage. Similarly, at pi you get just reverse or mirror replica of 0 degree. Obviously,
the bigger the alpha lower the line to line voltage and you can operate 0 to 180 degree in a full
control mode for rectifier to the inversion or converter to the inversion operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:00)

Now what happen you know actually in case of the 12-pulse with the inductive load. So what
happen you know actually, so you have to impose the actually the star and this is the star and this
is the delta, so this part is star and this part is also star but mind the dots and this part is delta. So
ultimately you will have a 12-pulse in the cycle that consisting of VL1 and VL2 and thus what
will happen.

So you will have a 12 ((ripples)) (14:37) into the load and we assume that this value of the
inductive is quite high and iL is continuous and so you will have a different VL1 VL2 and
ultimately you get the pattern VL here for alpha=pi/3. And essentially what will happen in the
same case, so this is be consistent iA1 consisting of iS1 and iS2, so basically and you can add up

225
this thing in series to boost the voltage level and ultimately it will be fitted to the highly
inductive load.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:20)

So in this case you can calculate so what will be the THD, so you will find that THD1=THD2
will be actually as high as 31% for the 12-pluse converter fitting; and for alpha=60 degree. But
similarly you know these value you will be actually getting around 15%, this is for the iS1 and
iS2 for both this but in the line harmonic spectrum of the input side it will be shifted to the 11
and 13 harmonic you will get this time spectrum.

Similarly, you can see that this is the effect of alpha=0; the THD will be actually starting from
the 14%; once you actually increase the load current it will come down to be around 7 to 8% and
if alpha is little more than that; this is the THD for source current and for the different values of
the alpha, alpha=60 degree, 40 degree, 20 degree you can see that. More the value of the alpha
this actually this will have a more THD, you have around 15% THD which you have calculated
for alpha=60 degree.

And gradually it will come down for the load inductance this. And similarly for the power factor
you can see that for alpha=0 it will have a quite high almost constant power factor for alpha=20
degree you can see that almost 20 degree constant power factor or 0.9 for alpha=40 degree you
will have actually it will grouping characteristic it will be around 0.8 to 0.75 power factor. So

226
this is the analysis, so while increasing alpha of course we expect that THD and power quality
will degrade but you can have a control over the voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:25)

So similarly, what should be the corresponding parameters of 18-pulse converter? So of course

they will be phase shifted by 20 degree. And for alpha=0 you can find it out that it actually the
THD for the input current will be quite high as 18% but it will come down to around 2%. So and
for the little high source inductance it comes down little below similarly, when THD for the
different triggered angle will be also actually replicated here.

So with increasing input current THD is getting better, so at one per unit THD will be actually
around 9% for 18-pulse converter but this will not change much actually around 10% or 9% and;
but you can find there is a huge change when actually alpha=20 degree so it will come down to
be around less than 5% to around 9%. Similarly, this is the waveform correspond to the power
factor and a different values of the firing angle alpha=0, alpha=20 degree and alpha=0 degree
and this is the corresponding load current in per unit.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:05)

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Similarly, we can do the same graph for the 24-pulse converter. So that will have a phase shift by
15 degree, so here actually the THD for alpha=0 start from 6% and while you are increasing the
load current it comes below the 2% and different curve you will get for different values of the
source inductance. Similarly, for same source inductance for difference values of the alpha it will
start from around 7% for very low input current and a discontinuous conduction mode maybe;
thereafter once it get into the conduction mode this part is not plotted because of the
discontinuous conduction mode in nature.

So gradually you can see that the THD gradually reduces in case of the A, so basically it is
alpha=20 degree it comes down as below as 4%. Similarly, this is the case for this firing angle
alpha=0 to 20 and this, so you can see that power factor almost remains constant in case of the A
and it is as close as 1 and for 20 degree it is around actually 0.95 and it is continue to be so and
similarly same for the alpha=40 degree.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:25)

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Now let us come to the; we have discussed in detail; we have tried to detail by the mapping that
THD decreases due to the source inductance because it try to make the current continuous
discontinuous conduction mode, try to diminish and thus it is been reflected in the THD. But you
pay the penalty having a low power factor having high source inductance, so whether it is
beneficial or detrimental. So let us see that.

The circuits discussed till now, the output voltage is generated assuming currents transfer from
one diode to another diode instantaneously, but once there is a source ((inductance)) (21:11) it
does not happen, so we have overlapping angle but in practical case it does not happen.
However, in practical cases transformer is used as source and which has some leakage
inductance, so we have to incorporate it into the system. Same inductance can also be present in
the input side due to the inductance of the network.

Due to leakage inductance mostly you will find you know actually because you require a very
special kind of transformer for 18-pulse as well as for 24-pluse leakage inductance of the input
side of the commutation process all the diode to conduct at a time which is called overlapping
angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:02)

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Now let us take a simple example of a source inductance with the free wave diode single phase
half wave rectifier. So what happens you know this is a source voltage we have to; this is the
current Id because it picks up once this current 0 because of the source inductance it will try to
conduct. And you know this will actually fall but it is not instantaneous that the Df will pick up,
so there will be time Df will pickup, for this is Df will pickup sometime it will continue to flow.

So for this reason till the time both the diode conducting actually this angle is called overlapping
angle and this is called Mu and what happen you know here this input voltage become 0 and thus
this is the affect of it the average voltage is reduced during this time.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:11)

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So for a single phase half wave diode rectifier, for omega t > 0, the load current flows the diode
when diode D1 as shown in the figure for omega t>pi, the load current commutes to Df. But
transfer of load current from D to Df is not instantaneous due to the presence of the inputs of the
leakage inductance. This transfer takes place following some overlap period of which is actually
marked by the angle Mu.

During the overlap period the current gradually falls to zero in one circuit and rises Id to the
another circuit and during the commutation period the overlap period can both the diode conduct
simultaneously making the output voltage zero at the load.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:08)

So we can calculate so in a simplest form, so Vm* sin omega t and it is feeding L di/dt. So while
integrating over the time we essentially get the value of the cos Mu and the cos Mu basically
called 1-omega Ls or Vmax into the Id. So similarly, we can calculate Vdd and since this zone 0
to Mu it does not get any voltage so output voltage comes down and we require to subtract that
voltage.

So for this duration so Vmax/pi 1/2pi omega Ls*Id so effectively that value becomes Vmax/pi 1-
omega Ls/2Vmax*Id. So this will be the average voltage while accompanying this source
inductance into the system. Now let us go to the little complex circuit of the normal practical
circuit that is single phase full bridge rectifier.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:25)

So her also same thing happens, till the point Mu both that actually due to the overlapping angle;
here overlapping angle comes into the picture first D1 D4 conducts, D2 conducts and due to that
what happen, actually so there will be a overlapping. Once this actually current through this D1
and D4 decades and current through the D2 D3 picks up. And this is the current Id1 across the
load and also this is Vi and within this Mu region nothing is takes place.

But this times Mu this kind of operations comes 4th time in a operation in a 2pi. So we require to
incorporate it and we require to calculate the value.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:17)

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So the same calculation has to be repeated so Vmax sin omega t = Ls di/dt for the source
inductance and this value what we have calculated same. So dc output voltage we require to
calculate so it is 1/pi 0 to Vmax sin omega t– 1/pi 0 to Mu and ultimately you come across this
expression of the output voltage decreased that is basically this part is been the decreased part
due to the actually the overlapping angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:56)

Similarly, same thing can be explored to the three phase half wave diode bridge rectifier. And
this is the actually the overlapping time, so this is the actually ia, this is ib and overlapping time
is basically the same and due to this overlapping time you will see that fall in voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

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And similarly you can do the calculations, here actually since both the diode conducting we will
have a two circuits into the picture that is given by Van = source inductance * di/dt + output
voltage and same for the B phase. And from there actually you can add up since current is
flowing to the phase A is coming out to the phase B if you assume then actually output voltage
will be half of the An+Bn.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:47)

From there we can calculate so you can calculate basically the what should be the value of the
Bn and what should be value of the An and thus what we can do, you can calculate the average
value of it. So while calculating average value you can find it our; it is almost same 3Vmax/2pi
1- this part is basically coming for the source inductance and so this is actually the integration is
pi/6 to pi/6+Mu.

If you assume that actually that diode d1 is conducting for the time period of Mu 1, so voltage
you are actually getting is this two voltages and thus this is the current across the diode, so from
there actually you can drive this expressions. So this is for the Three phase half wave Diode
rectifier. And we can extend the affect of the source inductance for the other circuit and we shall
continue to our discussions in our next class.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 15
Effect of Source Inductance and PWM Rectifiers

Welcome to our NPTEL courses on Advance Power Electronics and Control. Today, we shall
discuss about effect of source inductance. This is a remaining part which was continually
discussed in our previous class. That we shall discuss about little modern topic that is PWM
rectifier. We have learned about the full controlled rectifier and half controlled rectifier and lot of
topics, so we shall see that, but one problem we said, actually the TAC.

So but to reduce that TAC, you require a solution like actually 12 pulse, 24 pulse, even 48 pulse
converter. When that require a definite structures, so that is not visible for small power
household application where or not appropriate SUTC, like your mobile charger or SMPS of the
desktop or laptop, are all basically essentially SUTC. So we shall see that, so it is an important
topic have popped up, due to the invent of the actually more and more SUTC applications.

That is PWM rectifier, so we shall continue today, first the remaining part of the source
inductance. In this session, we shall discuss in details about the PWM rectifier. So let us go back
again actually in this configuration, we can see that we have talked about the RC load.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:47)

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Now we talk about the RL load and we have some amount of a source inductance into the place.
It may be due to the leakage reactance of the transformer or any external resistance added or
even that actually that line has its own inductance. This is actually the three line voltages, 120
degree ampere balanced and ultimately you will find that actually this is the 6 pulse load
voltages, but this hash area essentially you can find that where both diode, three diode is
conducting.

Generally, what happens, 1 diode form the most positive phase for forward upcycles and the
most negative for the negative cycles, that is the lower part, will conduct, but here we will find in
this actually hash region three diodes are conducting. So what will happen, due to this
conductions, you will find that actually at some point of time, let us say, this area where actually
phase A, AB actually goes to negative, you will find that there is this particular to this area.

So you do not get any voltages. Same way, it will happen also when actually this conduction
changes. Since there is an inductance, and actually, we will find that rise of the current like this.
So it will take some time. The current through the D1 was actually to rise with some value and
since before that D5 was conducting because it was a most positive state, so in this region D1
and D5 both will conduct for some time.

236
Thus actually there will be a dip in the load voltage. So similarly when actually A goes off, so
ultimately it will do the negative half cycle, so then actually outgoing diode will come into the
picture. B basically will pick up, so in this region also, so ultimately D3 will come into the
picture and in this region also, you will get an overlapping and due to that there will be a little
sack in the dispersed voltage and this will be the current of the IC and ultimately you will get
basically this is the amount of the current.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:26)

So let us analyse the circuits. So we can write phase values Va= when L Di/Dt of the source
inductance plus the load voltage. Similarly, Vb will be the load voltage. So you can write you
know actually Va-Vl=basically the source voltage. From there, we can integrate, we can find that
actually from the time that is called overlapping angle pi/6 to mu+pi/6, so this incident will
occur.

And so you have to find it out what is the amount of the ID the circulating current due to that
time. So we will find that by integrations, actually cos mu=1-2 omega Ls. This is basically the
line to line voltage into ID, where line to line voltage fall to root 3V max. From there, we can see
that this part is basically the received output voltage without the source inductance and due to the
source inductance, this part will be added up and that will reduce from the DC bus voltage.

237
So this is the effect of the source inductance. Diode with rectifier fitting Rl load. Now same way,
we can draw the same kind of thing for the thyristors for the full control converter having a
source inductance.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:58)

So ultimately, this is your source voltage and this is the input current and since this is the
transition takes place. Ultimately, you will find that actually current will actually ramp on in this
way due to the source inductance and since this area, you know, here you will find that output
voltage, you will find, it is exact. It is basically the conduction of both the thyristors for some
interval of time.

So mu is the area where actually you can see that D3 actually going on and D4 is actually going
on. So for this, this overlap regions come and this is a voltage blocking capability of a thyristors,
Tl, T1, actually at alpha, it will block. So ultimately this voltage will be 0, but unfortunately you
know, in this region mu, both those actually thyristors are conducting and similarly in this region
also, both the thyristors are conducting.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:09)

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So we can write for a single phase L Di/Dt=V1 and again I1, we have chosen that actually
constant load current. So actually it should be called I0. So you can find out actually input
current I1=I-under root Vi cos omega t. From there actually, we can find it out the input current,
input current will have this fashion. At omega t=alpha+mu, this value you can refer back to this
figure, you know, this value is basically I0.

So this is average load current flowing across this actually load and we assume that actually
constant load current. So for this alpha=mu, so input current becomes I1, input current becomes
I0 and that we can substitute from there we can get the equations cos alpha-cos alpha+mu
basically this term. From there we can find out that output voltage, which is supposed to be root
2 Vi Vm/pi cos alpha, then it will change to cos alpha+mu.

And thus, we can rewrite this equations, we can write it in terms of load current which is
assumed to be constant, that is 2/pi Vi cos alpha-2/pi omega L*I0. So voltage will drop
according to the value of the I0. More the value of I0, you will find more the drop in the voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:56)

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So similarly this is whatever we have discussed in case of the diode was rectified can be
extended to same constant to full controlled converter. Here in this case, it is triggered at an
angle alpha. So you can see this change over takes place. So T1 was conducting and here in the
region, you know, actually there is a change over takes place between 2 and 6. So basically 6
was conducting.

Now since actually 2 becomes more negative phase, and it will be getting into the system and
since you will find that actually that current decaying through the T6 and current built up in T2
will take a time mu and similarly same thing will happen in this duration when 1 and 3 will
interchange and thus, you know, you will have a drop in the voltage that in fact been short within
there, without the source inductance, you should have gained this.

But you will get this much of less voltage due to the source inductance. Ultimately, you get the
load voltage as the unshaded part that is the white part. Total voltage would have been basically
the shaded part. So huge, you can see that there will be a huge drop in case of the thyristor,
because turn on you can control. This is the case, almost alpha is less than 60 degree.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:29)

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So we can write the equation here also that is omega D should be greater than alpha and
vertically at an angle alpha to alpha to mu. So you write it down by equation with phase B. So
similarly phase BC will be actually the current between IB-IC*L Di/Dt. Since it is 3 phase 3 wire
system, so these equations will hold good. So for this you can actually substitute Di/Dt=-this and
you have assumed also a constant load current that differential leads to 0.

And so from this equation, we get 2L Di/Dt= voltage BC= under root BL. Similarly, you can
substitute these values and ultimately you get for alpha+mu for IB=0, where under root VL to
omega L cos alpha-cos alpha+mu=I0 and thus, for mu</=60 degree, so I0 should be </=
Vl/under root 2 omega L cos alpha-pi/3. This equation will hold and for the continuous
conduction mode.

We have to have this condition satisfied, so that this will get a continuous conduction mode
operation. So what should be the expectation of the voltage in this case. So we shall write it
down the voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:06)

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Output voltage should be equal to 1/pi, since there is three such cycles. It is multiplied by 3 and
it is a region basically alpha to alpha+mu VA, D omega D, alpha+mu 2 alpha+pi/3, you will get
a voltage of the line voltage AC. So you will just expand it and ultimately you get 3 2/pi Vl cos
alpha-3/2pi alpha+mu PDC. From there, you can calculate you know this value is 3*2/pi Vl cos
alpha-3/pi omega L I0.

So if you can compare the results of the diode with rectifier, it is almost same. So this is the
value actually for the diode with rectifier. So it is 3/pi line to line voltage 1-omega LsIt/Vl and
here you are getting essentially 3 root 2/pi Vl cos alpha-3/pi omega L*I0. So cos alpha term will
come because you have a choice of triggering in case of the full control converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:32)

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So now let us conclude the defect of the source inductance all the type of actually the converter
as well as the rectifier. Generally, what happen, due to the effect of this actually, due to the effect
of this source inductance, THT generally improves, but you get lower DC voltage and lower
power factor. So this is actually practically problem of the source inductance and some time you
may have a commutation failure. Source inductance is quite high, because you may have both
the thyristors were conducting in the same length and that may lead to a line shorting condition.

Now let us come to the little bit new topic that is pulse with modulation rectifier. So now
actually we have seen you know, with the conventional SUTC converter has few demerits.
Demerits are the power qualities and you know for the high power applications, we may go for
basically instead of 6 pulse and 3 phase, we can go for the multiple pulse operations and we can
see that considerably the power factor will improve. TSD will improve, but that requires a
complex transformer and things are bulky and costly.

So why cannot we wish to have an improved power factor without those hassles. That was the
basic motivation to do that and another aspect is that that is visible also for the very high power
application, where nowadays actually due to the penetrations of electronic gadgets, mostly
SMPS, laptops, and mobiles. So we have huge requirement of the small power DC charging, DC
power. So in that case also, we require an entity, which actually improves the power quality
issues and it is not visible to port zig-zag transformer for household applications.

243
And for this reason, a new actually has popped in power electronics and that is pulse with
modulated rectifier. So what are the desire? It is desired that the rectifier presents a resistive blot
to the AC system and we require basically unity power factor and AC line current are same web
shaped as actually Iac=Vac*Re and Re is called the emulated resistance. So we shall see that as
if that a resistive blot is connected, so there is no power quality issues. Unfortunately, what
happens, we have a non-linear transformation that is with harmonics.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:00)

And average power basically V square/Re the upper end leak ensured where Re is actually
transmitted to the rectifier. This is output port. To control the amount of the output power and it
must be possible to adjust the value of Re. So we can control the value of Re to way to control
the output dispatching into the system, like you searching a mobile. So there is a different kind of
searching method.

First you go for basically the first searching, because when you are and it will consume actually
more power. So for this is not required to be changed. Then you may actually charge with the
constant current mode. Thereafter, you know actually when you have actually increased the
actually SOC or the battery searching around 80%, then you may actually go for the boost
searching, thereafter once it is fully charged, but it will be discharged slowly.

244
So you keep it in the trickle searching mode. So in those 4 modes, actually you require different
kind of power to supply to the load for the modern power electronics gadgets, and thus the value
of Re required to be changed accordingly. So the ideal rectifier we shall define what is ideal
rectifier, it never happens, but we can aspirate to get those things.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:36)

So this is the output model, something like you have studied an equivalent model of the
transformer. So this is output model. The ideal rectifier is lost less and contains no internal
energy storage. Hence the instantaneous power equals the instantaneous output power. So
whatever power has been consumed, it is just like a transformer. Unfortunately, we require
power electronics, it is because of that we cannot have a transformer operation in DC.

So DC transformer operation requires the help of the power electronics. Hence, the instantaneous
power is independent of the DC load and DC load characteristics, the output obeys the power
source characteristics. So this is basically the input voltage AC. It may be regulated or
unregulated and this is the current through it and you have a controlled resistance that will
change according to the power you are trying to submit into it.

So ultimately power will be AC square Re and so you will get a DC output voltage as desired by
the consumer, but the AC side will see as if our existence is connected to a system, like you are
switching on one fan, some power is consumed, but that is also wrong, because fans also comes

245
with inductance and that is resistive heating. You switch to another resistive heating, so
accordingly basically the Re changes, something like that.

So you have to aspirate to get that kind of features while conversion of AC to DC. So power
consumed is essentially you know V square/Re and where we have a control over the Re and
ultimately it is VI*TI=Pt AC square Re.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:43)

Now define the equations of the ideal rectifier. Ideal rectifier will assume that as if where
resistive load is connected, power factor is unity, THD is 0. So what happen here, so AC/Re
control so that will be the actual current flowing through the AC part of the circuit. No actual
trapezoidal, no square, it will be a pure sinusoidal. That is what we expect to have.

Thereafter the power it is simply the multiplications of V and I that is you got a real power
without any imaginary or ripple component. Ripple component comes from the harmonics. So
that is we defined the power V square AC that is basically the identities, Re is the voltage
controlled and when connected to a resistive load of value R, the input and output voltage of the
current is related as follows:

Vrms/ac rms=under root by R/Re and similarly it is actually ac rms/Irms is R/Re. So it is

something you know, it just looks like something like a transformer. So how you can achieve it,

246
we can achieve it and please understand that these are mostly applicable for the at present
household application due to high penetration of the laptop, desktop and mobiles and so power
rating of this actually device is quite low.

But you have a 4 laptop in your house, and 4 mobiles, so you know that also create a huge
distortion into the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:53)

The control duty cycle of a DC to DC converter such that input current is proportional to the
input voltage. So here essentially, you cannot do much. You have to have a rectification here and
it is simple. Actually the diode with rectifications and thereafter you get a DC voltage, you take
an example of actually mobile charger or laptop charger. In a laptop charger, we will have a
voltage of 18 volt, 18-24 volt depending on the power rating of the different kind of system.

So generally, so if you rectify it, since load is quite low, so you get around this voltages around
310 volt. So that is almost straight, it is not actually 2Vm/pi, that is average value. So here
actually you have a control and power will flow from it and the D to T ratio instead of 1: n that
will be actually multiplied by the modulation index of this actually the switching of the converter
and you will be actually stepping down maybe 1: n.

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Thereafter you will continue to do that, you know and you may get actually 18 volt DC here.
This is the purpose of actually a simple DC to DC converter. Let us see what is actually its
methodology involved to design these circuits or the principle of operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:43)

So we have Vm that is wadding and please note that different voltages here. Since it does not
have any capacitor, so this point voltage will change according to the input voltage. So you have
a just double frequency ripples that, which will be 100 ripples DC, not that a constant DC. So but
if you do that and you actually distort the power factor, for this we do not do that. So you have
PSC that will be actually, that require to be basically a sinusoidal 1.

But you know how the voltage looks like in case of the actually diode with rectifier, input of the
diode with rectifier. So instead of this kind of thing, we want that this to be pure sinusoidal. For
this, what we require to do? Since we have no capacitor, you put a capacitor, then current will be
actually picky and actually corrupted with the lower harmonics. So Pg is this, since you have not
put any capacitor and Ig should be the same thing, because you know, you have assumed that
basically it is just divided by R, just it is the amount of the scaling.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:12)

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But in output, you want a constant DC voltage, that is 18 volt or whatever maybe. So we require
to change the modulation index. It is something like your trans ratio itself is modulating because
you have a variable trans transformer maybe. So accordingly basically since voltage is varying
like this, and your trans ration require to be varying like this. Then only, you can actually get this
kind of constant DC voltage. So what is the advantage of it.

Advantage of it that you do not have a problem of all the nasty power quality issues that comes
into the picture due to the AC to DC conversion. So can we have it, that is the challenge. So let
us define some parameters of expressions and we will continue our discussions also in next class.
So average, so it will be the value of I(t) is given by actually Vgt*Ig/V that is basically we can
write it like V square gV*Re and for the period I(t), you can write V square m/VRe sin square
omega t.

Thus, since it is rectified, we have a double frequency oscillations and thus we will find that
current will have a double frequency ripple, that is V square/m*VRe, this part is essentially DC,
but you have 2 omega t with cos, that will be giving you the double frequency ripple and average
over the AC line period will be basically It TL, so it is V square m/2VRe, so this will be the
power, that is V square/V square m, that is the pin value of it by 2Re.

249
So this is the expression of the output site current and this is the expression of the average AC
input site current. So this is the overall topology and the realizations of the near ideal DPWM
rectifier. Now we shall continue our discussions in our next class with the PWM different kind of
PWM, different kind of PWM rectifier and its application, how we can achieve this actually
desired feature by this technique. So of course, we will have a lot benefits to use it.

And beauty of it, it is a high frequency transformer since actually it is very high frequency.
Generally, you know actually expression of the voltage of the frequency, if you assume to be this
partly sinusoidal, it is BANF. So you know, if you increase the value of F quite high that
frequency, then this part will essentially that this is actually the geometry of the core. B is the
flax density and the ADI is the core.

So B depends on the material that kind of material that we will choose and A is the area of cross
section of the core and that is what happen if we keep the V value finite or anything, that
depends on the matter of choice and the cost and you can reduce the value of A by increasing the
value of the frequency. So and thus, we can see a very compact actually transformer, which can
be modulated by the power electronics switching.

Thanks for your attention. I will continue with our discussion in next class with a PWM rectifier.
Thank you.

250
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 16
PWM Power Rectifiers-II

Welcome to our NPTEL courses in power electronics Advance Power Electronics and
Control. We shall continue our discussions with a PWM Rectifier 2 where we have left. So
we are discussing about that actually modulation index will also change like this. So once
actually your input voltage is low you require to boost up, but you require to maintain some
kind of modulation index.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:54)

So we require to maintain some kind of minimum modulation index to maintain this thing it
should not touch you when actually input voltage is at its peak and we require to do some
mechanism that has been listed here that is to avoid distortion near zero crossing the
converter should be capable of producing actually this modulation index approaching infinity.
So definitely it is not possible, but we should have.

It means that actually the switch should be continuously on close to the zero crossings. The
above expression neglects also the converter dynamics so you cannot have this kind of
crossing because you require to have a short circuit protection. Short circuit protection will
come into the picture and ultimately it will shut it down and what happen boost, buck-boost,
Cuk, SEPIC and other DC-to-DC converter with similar conversion ratio are also suitable.

251
These are essentially non Isolated DC-to-DC converter we also have another type of DC-to-
DC converter. We will be discussing DC-to-DC converter later so these are called Isolated
DC-to-DC converter that comes with high frequency transformer and incorporated inside and
we will see that the boost converter exhibits the lower transistor stresses with a switches and
we will discuss the reason for that also.

So let us take typical DC-to-DC converter that is called boost converter what essentially it
does you know it boost up the voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:47)

What happen you know when actually switch is on this Q1 is on then essentially this voltage
goes zero and current builds up across it. Since current builds up across these so current will
ramp on therefore what happen this switch will off. And due to that actually there will be a
good amount of stress across the switches we will talk about that stress and ultimately due to
the change in current L di/dt will come into the picture. So this voltage + L di/dt will
basically the charging the capacitor.

And what happen in this configuration you know this topology is quite easy to use it and you
have this kind of thing and this kind of repelled kind of voltage in the input and we generally
the control will do something the control will basically put a hysteresis band and we shall
restrict that current within the hysteresis band. So ultimately in input side what will happen
you will get actually little lot of switching.

252
And this switching will actually will be mitigated by the switching harmonics and if you can
keep this switching frequencies very high then you can get a boosted DC from a AC and
power factor and the power quality issues has been solved or address totally. Students are
actually requested to visit the datasheet of UC 3854 or 55 and so on. So this datasheet will
and application note of that excess instruments will give you basically the total detail.

And walking principle of this DC-to-DC converter thereafter AC-to-DC and DC-to-DC
converter where it addresses the power quality issues quite well. The DC output voltage here
is actually it is a boost topology it will boost up the voltage essentially you know that in boost
topology actually V in 1-D is basically the conversion ratio where D is the duty cycle of the
Q1. The output voltage is> peak AC input voltage and the control varies duty cycle necessary
makes ig proportional to vg.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:37)

Now variation of the duty cycle in case of the boost rectifier since it comes with the boost
topology. So you will find that actually this modulation index is basically the ratio of vt/vg
and essentially it is V/V M sin omega t. Since modulation index in case of the boost converter
is required to be higher because it is basically if you go back basically you can write actually
V M* in V0=M*in. So M is essentially here is 1-1/D.

So this value is basically>=1. So in a boost converter it is required that V> V M and if the
converter operates in continuous conduction mode. So we will assume that actually load
current little heavy then only actually process of this conversion require easier and tends to
get improved, but if it consume very low amount of the current that is really a challenge to

253
the designer to design such converter.

So we assume that it is a continuous conduction mode and we have 1-dt and the duty ratio
should be therefore follow this=1-vg/V in case of the continuous conduction mode. Similarly,
inductor current ripple will be given by del ig= VM squares. So low frequency average
component of the inductor current is given by this that is basically vg/Re. So converter
operates in CCM when ig t Ts> than actually this del ig t and ultimately the corresponding dt
which actually makes the converter in the continuous conduction mode is this ratio.

So we have to make the duty cycle such that it is <2L/Re Ts where L is a inductance of this
boost converter Re is the effective or resistance connected to the load and Ts is the actually
time create of the switching. So we can substitute here and substituting that we can get Re is
basically Re< this expression that is 2L Ts 1- vg t/V and this system will operate in the
continuous conduction mode and analysis is quite easy in a continuous conduction mode.

Once it becomes discontinuous conduction mode that becomes a very difficult to maintain
THT. So this is design and required to operate this converter into the continuous conduction
mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:49)

So realization of the near-ideal rectifier. So for this reason this is a condition where you can
may contain continuous. So please not that vg varies with the time between 0 to V M. Hence
the equations actually equation may satisfied at some point on the ac line and not at others.
So since this value is changing the converter always operates in CCM mode provided that

254
this condition has been satisfied.

Because you know this you cannot take any guarantee over it who is higher and who is lower.
The converter always operate in DCM provided that if Re is> than this Re is between the
limits of the converter DCM and CCM nearly to the zero and it generally makes the transition
CCM to DCM.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:06)

Now static input characteristics of the boost converter. So we can model this boost converter
as this. So we have a switch with an inductor so that can be model at 2L/ d square Ts.
Ultimately this will be the switching on and the switching off, this will be the power and this
is actually the pt/V-vg is the current flowing through the system. Now you see that what
happen here.

The static input characteristics of the boost converter you just have a boost convector that is
basically for sake of recall is this and how you will get this. See ultimately when you shot it
so ultimately you got an inductance. So this has been lumped here and current flowing into it
also basically to this point-this point. So this is a power - this voltages. So thus actually in
CCM the boost converter equilibrium this is basically the normal boost converter duty cycles
is you can equate this actually 2L/VTs*ig t 1-vg t/V=d square vgt/V.

Students are requested to go follow the book like Ericson and others to find a detailed
derivation of it due to lack of time actually. We cannot go to all derivations part of it the
CCM and DCM mode of the boundary in terms of vg to ig can be actually 2L VTs *ig should

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be> vg/V*1-vg/V. From there you know so we can solve for the input current so input current
becomes vg t/2L dt square Ts+ pt V-gt. From there actually we come to the overall
expressions of it that is pt=vg square t 2L/dt square Ts.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:41)

So what we can conclude from this actually data that is if it is CCM you have very simpler
equations. And that is what if you have done the courses of the power electronics and you
have studied the DC-to-DC converter. You are aware of the fact that actually the boost
converter actually conversions is actually 1-D. So while it is in a discontinuous conduction
mode you can find that 2L VTs ig 1-vg/Vt this is nothing actually, but this expression=dt
square vg/V so this will govern the equations.

And you will find actually this is the expressions of the this is the expressions for the duty
cycle and this is the expressions of the load current you can find that basically this is the zone
where it is actually you can find that this currents are discontinuous to a conduction mode and
till this time it will go to the continuous conduction mode. If duty cycle is quite high as high
as 0.8.

So it will come out from the actually when it is< 0.25 of the duty cycle so it will come out
from the discontinuous conduction mode and if it is duty cycle is quite low so it will continue
to be discontinuous conduction mode for the larger duration of the time and thus operation
becomes difficult. So let us consider that you know open loop DCM approach and with the
other approaches.

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DCM makes actually system less bulky why basically this failure of the inductor is going to
be less in case of the DCM.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:53)

So and is control is quite simple you have only voltage control, but disadvantage is that so
your duty cycle is quite low. So for this reason what happen higher peak current a larger
EMI, EMC this problem will pop in. Like other DCM application this approach is usually
restricted to the low power applications and mostly your mobile charger and the laptop
chargers are having this features.

And that is quite nasty with respect to this actually EMI EMC because of the high peaks
because current has to be low because your mobile charger you are basically reducing your
voltage to 5 volts from actually 310 volt peak voltages. The boost converter though it is a
buck operation anyway. So boost operation can be find in application mostly you know
actually there is mostly in UPS.

Most of the UPS will say that is Power Factor Corrected UPS. So in that Power Factor
Corrected UPS we incorporate this boost topology. So after this boost topology will followed
by a half bridge inverter that will feed your actually your power to the actually the inverter.
So there is a different kind of inverter comes into the pictures. If it is actually online UPS
what happen there you actually get it by this method.

Otherwise if there is offline UPS offline UPS generally supply when power goes out and also
there is a Line-Interactive UPS that also correct the sags. So if you have actually online UPS

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generally it required to be Power Factor Corrected and it shifts out quite well and also many
adjustable drives nowadays actually ACs and other applications are coming out with the
inverter driven applications like it should have adjustable speed drive.

There also we will have this kind of applications, but mostly since ACs voltage most of the
household uses 1.5 ton ACs so voltage around 1.8 something like 1.8 kilowatt or something
like that. So there what you will find you know actually since the loading is quite high it will
go to the continuous conduction mode. So these are the few applications nowadays because
gradually we have actually we have a washing machine that can be also inverter fed and she
is also inverter fed so all can we have a inverter fed drive.

And thus what happen we require to rectify it and we require a PWM converted place in
between to actually give you a process DC to the rectifier and thus a process AC in the output
and also you do not throw any garbage in terms of the power quality to the utility. So let us
come back again this application part of it. So boost converter can be operated in the same as
low as the harmonic rectifier and its input characteristics is given by this.

So that is is ig Ts=vg/Re+ vg square Re vt-vg. So what happens here a discontinuous

conduction mode you cannot get rid of the problem of the THD. Input current contains
harmonics if v is sufficiently> vg then harmonic will be small. So that is all about it so, but it
is not the case generally we have a harmonic issues in the case of discontinuous conduction
mode.

So similar type of approaches can have you know in CCM mode and we can have a different
kind of topologies this is basically the SEPIC topology, Cuk topology pronunciation is Cuk
and buck boost. Cuk is also a kind of buck-boost and also 2 switch buck-boost topology or
any other buck-boost topology and thereafter we may have a isolated conversion that is
flyback thereafter forward thereafter push pull we can have so many things in case of this
conversion process.

And boundary or critical condition mode of operation of boost or other converters at

boundary between CCM and DCM. Buck converter has an advantage, but it makes the
distortion occurs, but stresses across the switch will be lower. Another application can be
resonant converter so that is applicable for the zero voltage or zero current switching. So it

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comes with the actually inductor and capacitor banks which we have a natural frequency of
oscillation.

That help us to switch either when current is current across the switch is zero or the voltage
across the switch is zero and that leads to the zero voltage or the zero current switching same
way the switch can be off when voltage across or current through the devices is zero. So same
way we can have a zero turn of losses. So resonant converter such parallel resonant converter
or some quasi-resonant converter can also be used for this purpose.

We shall discuss in detail about it subsequent applications. Converter that combine the
function of rectification and also sometimes the energy storage and DC-to-DC conversion
mostly this application is a flyback where actually we have a special kind of transformer
generally transformer does not store energy. We have a special kind of transformer that is
called inductor transformer not only it will convert it will also store energy and it will flyback
when it is required in the negative half cycle.

So that is also some other approaches can be followed in case of the PWM Rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:47)

f
Now let us see one example where actually the power flies and it stores the energy and see
that this is a very common usage of below 100 watt AC-to-DC conversion does all your
laptop charger, your mobile charger essentially of this kind of topology. So this is the EMI
filter as I told you it may operate into a discontinuous conduction mode and thus we have a
huge problem EMI EMC.

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Since you are using a mobile so if it also actually interfaces or your communication of course
your sound quality of the mobile will deteriorate. So we require to suppress the conducted
emission as well as the remitted, but we cannot do much about this actually radiated
emission, but we can reduce something about the conducted emission by putting the EMI
filter. So this is the rectification and ultimately we got the DC.

Please mind that there is no capacitor so that we get a double frequency ripple in the output
and this is the MOSFET most of the cases because power rating of this device are quite low
and see the dot convention of this actually the topology. You can find that it is dot here then
dot is here. Generally, in case of the normal transformer we have a dot here where actually
current try to flow here actually it will oppose and current will go out, but here dot is actually
this position.

So ultimately when switch is on current flow current will flow and thus this inductor required
thus this actually the transformer require a special property and it required to actually store
the energy. So due to that actually when it will be off some percent is omitted there will be
diode actually to suppress the stress across the switch and what happened then there will be
resetting winding so that is a over simplified circuit.

So then actually current will flow back to the secondary. So you can choose the turn ratio by
anything because you have to have a huge drop in voltage for the mobile or the laptop
charger and thereafter you know you can also change it by the duty cycle. So thus the
operating in a discontinuous conduction mode the converter obeys the Ohm’s law and the
effective resistance is 2 n square L where L is a leakage inductance not the EMI filters
leakage inductance of this actually the inductor/D T square Ts.

Hence simply connect the input port to the AC line the power will be converted. So this is the
here you know you can see that what happen we have violated 2 things. This has a storage
element so we are saying that normal converter should not storage element input should
be=output, but here input is stored for very small fraction of time and thereafter it will be
transferred to the output.

And these are basic advantages since this power flies so what this is called Flyback

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Converter. So realization of the actually non ideal rectifier let us see that how we can model
this isolated DC-to-DC transformer. Some we require isolation for the highly sensitive
device. Of course you know if your mobile phone is worth of 30,000 if you can afford or
50,000 so you do not want that actually to simple spikes in the inputs your mobile gets
damaged.

So for this reason this gives a galvanic isolation from the surges and other volt stresses and
for this reason actually this isolation has been preferred for your costly sensitive low voltage
devices. So let me come to the actually the modeling part of this flyback converter. So same
way what we have done the ig is flowing and here you know we will change this transformer
and switch to the equivalent resistant Re that value is given by this.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:46)

So it is 2 n square L D T square Ts and power will flow to the secondary that is Ts and that
will be given by V* it that will be=R. Please understand that capacitor is placed here to
actually smooth out the ripple in case of the DC where there is no actually input here bulky
capacitor in the AC side or the ripple DC side. Under steady state conditions operate with the
constant D.

So if you have a constant load, but it will change why because you know I was telling you
that these are mobile charging applications. These are mobile charging applications there are
different mode of charging. Initially when mobile actually almost zero percent charge so it
will charge in a first charging mode so current through will be high. Since it is a chemical
process you know actually automatically charging will be slower.

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And then we will go for the different mode of charging. So if we assume that load it may be
actually you are driving the LED for the lighting purpose. So then you require a constant load
and ultimately you got a constant D may be. So adjust D to control average power drawn
from the AC line. So if you wish to change this R then something will change otherwise
everything can be fixed.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:21)

Now there is some issues here the converted design. So that is a huge topic of DC-to-DC
converter, but we have to consider it. So we have told you that to make it in a discontinuous
conduction mode we should select L a small value so that the same operates and occurs
through the line and the same occur. Again in case of that it is a buck operation as I told you
and since D2 you know that actually D v gt/Nv.

From there we can solve the value of D and ultimately we will find it out 1/1+vg/Nv. So
converter operates a discontinuous conduction mode every switching period where above
inequality is been satisfied. So we can see that when switch is on current will actually picky
that is a problem EMI EMC so current will actually picks up this is basically the average
current so this is dotted line.

So ultimately this switch in this switch will be on inductor will be building the current
through it. Thereafter this will flyback into the secondary or the time period of dt* Ts through
this actually the direct action with the setting winding. This has been not discussed here for
actually simplicity and the time of operation. Thereafter you know current through this

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actually that setting winding decayed and till that this d3* Ts there is no current into the
circuit and for them that leads to the discontinuous operation.

When is a continuous conduction mode actually this should be=0 and this to obtain the DCM
at all the points at the AC input sinusoidal the worst case voltage vg that should be Vm and
inequity is been satisfied. So this is quite applicable in the application specific case. I shall
continue to our discussion in our next class because for take a simple example you can use
your laptop in USA where supply volt is 110 and also in India that is 220 volts.

So how this application fit to this requirement. We shall continue to our discussion I hope
that actually students are finding this crystalline practical examples are quite interesting feel
free to feedback once you are attending the class in emails. Thank you very much for your
kind attention.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 17
PWM Rectifiers III and Power Factor Improvement Techniques

Welcome to our courses on Advanced Power Electronics and Control. Today, we shall with
our PWM rectifier and thereafter we shall see some technique on the improvement of the
power factor. So we were discussing about the boost control.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:45)

Now let us have to see that there is a different kind of control technique to operate the boost
voltage. Essentially, you know main function is that to maintain the output voltage most of
the cases of the boost one. So there is also a loop basically to maintain the voltage that is
called the outer voltage loop we are not little bothered about it. So let us consider that there is
a inner loop that will basically maintain that will basically deal with the current that is called
inner control current loop.

What happens here actually there will be a current sensing resistor or you can do it with a hall
effect sensor at present case and this is essential a PI controller. So is a practical PI controller
integration and parallel path and you have a current reference that will be actually compared
then this value of this actually error del I has been fed to the compensator. Generally, it is
nothing but a lead-lag compensator depending on your faster response and all those things.

264
We have to have a gain margin phase margin of actually the system in a desired level. So this
compensator essentially will do that. We will give you a desired gain margin and phase
margin. Therefore, there is a pulse width modulator. The pulse width modulator basically
generate the gate pulses and ultimately you require an isolations because you know pulse
width modulations is a very low frequency and sinking out the current for the gate driver is
not allowed for this numerical buffer to run high impedance mode.

This is one of the way to basically operate your boost converter that is called actually average
current mode. You can have another mode called the peak current mode there actually you
instead of you allow the current to boost up in a peak current mode and there also its own
advantage each has its own advantage. Essentially if you go over the stability analysis
stability analysis will be quite easy because you have a compensator, compensator ensure that
actually does not go out system go out of the stability.

So see that how this concept can be incorporated in a actually PWM rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:28)

So essentially you know you have a repelled DC here in your output. So ultimately you will
have a vt control and you got a multiplier. So you generally what happen instead of this you
generate a sinusoidal wave. Basically it shift back this waveform in this part. Thereafter what
happens most of the cases you will sense this current and you will sense this current and
ultimately you will convert into a voltage by multiplying with the effective value of the
resistor.

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But here in this case it will be op-amp will give you the gain and ultimately you get a Va.
Please note that actually you want actually this waveform and you want that current to also
follow this waveform and thus in input side current will be something like that we will be
contaminated with this envelope. So thereafter generally you have one block generally you
have a hysteresis block generally that will generate the hysteresis band.

And there after you got a compensator that is essentially a lead-lag compensator that will
ensure the stability of the circuit there at PWM again pulse is generated. I ask you to actually
students to refer back to our practical power quality improvement boost type converter and
generally this whole system comes under a single package of UC 5854 or 555 or so on. So
what is a basic features of this PWM technique? Current reference is received from the input
voltages waveform.

Multiplier allows control to emulate as a resistive load. So actually it will make it voltage and
current almost is in a same phase and compensation of the current loop is employed by this
basically a lead-lag-compensator to have a first time response actually low overshoot all
those actually ((desired features)) (05:50). Generally, gain margin we required to keep around
75 to 60 degree.

So phase margin also actually we require to have a stability point of view we required to have
something. So these all those tuning has to be done by this compensator.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:11)

Now actually we shall see that how does it operate practically. The current sensor has a gain

266
Rs. So basically it has been multiplied we have a scaling because most of them nowadays we
use LEM hall effect current sensor resistors. So that is actually va t Rs actually into
multiplied by this actually this ig. Then loop is designed such that va is almost=vr and
multiplier will ensure that vr= k* vg x.

So kx is basically a multiplier and that gives you basically v= vr kind of relationship. Hence
it emulates the characteristics of the resistance. So you can see that effective resistance of the
circuit Re=vg/i gt= vr kx control x/va/Rs. So ultimately you know you can make this is your
effective resistance comes into the picture and you know this can be simplified. So this term
and since if you say that va=vr so this term and this term will cancel ultimately you can write
that Re that will be basically the function of the control voltage.

So that will be basically Rs/kx*v control*t. So Rs is again mostly it is fixed and so by

controlling basically the control you will get a sinusoidal pattern into the input of this
rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:03)

So see that actually if you have a transformer kind of model actually input and output so you
have a effective Re and power will be transferred to the system. So Re will be basically Rs/kx
vx control where you apply the control in such a way that it always sees sinusoidal current in
the input of this rectifier irrespective of the load as well as the change of the source
disturbance sometime.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:34)

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So current control waveform so this is something we required to like to take an example. As I
told you know actually task of this converter is essentially to maintain the voltage here
constant. So this is when I was telling few slides ago that there is a outer current loop also. So
you have a voltage and it has been scaled down. By scaling down, you got a voltage
reference. The outer has been multiplied by a scaling factor or it has been filtered out by a
filter to actually suppress the high frequency noises or the ripple that will be there.

And ultimately this voltage will be fed to this actually y and same way this actually the
rippled DC that is basically vg dt at this point. Please mind it basically this rectifier does not
have a capacitor in the output thus we have a rippled DC. So that will be multiplied and you
get some reference voltage that will be actually compared with the reference current
multiplied by some constant.

So ultimately the current flowing through this part is there is input current to this boost
converter so it will be convert and ultimately these comparison will gives you the error.
Generally, error percent block fitted by a saturator so that actually you control over the duty
cycle because you know the control point of view there is a limitation on the duty cycle. So
generally we cannot go beyond 0.66 theoretically.

So this problem is there for the boost converter. So for this reason actually we have a limiter
followed by a compensator that will basically give you the shaping of the gain margin and
phase margin that will make the system prompt and you do not allow go to out of the control
loop and all those issues will be actually addressed here by the lead-lad-compensator. So

268
thereafter actually we have a pulse width modulator.

Pulse width modulator essentially generate the pulse and thereafter you got a high impedance
state that will actually drive the MOSFET or IGBT depending on your power rating. If the
power rating is low then generally this is the solution within a 500 watt or something this
solution comes out with a MOSFETs and if the power rating is higher than we required to
have a IGBT solution.

And if you have a huge power rating around more than 10 kilowatt then we may require to
operate actually this boost converter in parallel and there are many topology like interleaved
boost converter and all those things. So these can be incorporated according to the rating of
the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:31)

So let us understand how does it work? The Feedforward is sometimes is used to cancel out
the disturbance of the input voltages. To maintain a given power throughput P average the
reference voltage V ref 1 should be you know P average*v*Rs/ V square g rms. Now what
happens this is that is point voltage is actually V square g. So you have a peak detector and
you got V M and you got a multiplier.

So ultimately this output and this ripple voltage will be multiplied and will detect the peak.
So accordingly you can adjust that whether there is a sag or swell something like that and
accordingly you actually you get a value of basically kv xy/z square that essentially will set to
the reference current. So ultimately it will be compared with a Va so this will be a current

269
sensing resistor or hall effect sensor whatever may be.

And then this is actually PI controller this part basically integrate and this power is
proportional and generally it required to put a small resistance in theoretically to have a
bandwidth of the system. Bandwidth of the system will be related to the switching frequency
of this actually the MOSFET or the IGBT driver. So generally in practical cases most of the
cases if you use IGBT then frequency is restricted in around 5 kilohertz.

Then actually you can take this Rc bandwidth as basically 1/10 kilohertz that is actually 10
microsecond. So you can do in that way and calculate actual values of Rc and this gives you
the gain so how much scaling you require. This actually some of the effect and thereafter you
got a comparison from there you got a compensator. From the compensator we will basically
gives you the stability and the promptness same way as I told you there is a PWM and it will
work. So this is the overall control circuit of the boost type PWM rectifier.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:08)

So there is a Feedforward control please understand that. Generally, feedback control gives a
stability, but Feedforward control the promptness fastest in action. So Feedforward control
has been produced by this reference. V ref1= kv control * vg t/ VM square so this is actually
the Feedforward control block and the average power is then given by kv* v control/2*Rs
where Rs is the effective value of the scaling resistor.

So in this way this is actually used for control. Now we can go for the small signal analysis
for analyze the stability of this boost control converter PWM boost control converter.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:10)

Now it is a average model so any phenomena< 10% of the switching frequency can be
captured here and this is called small signal model. So what is a essential part of the small
signal model we give a perturbation in an around basically since the system is nonlinear you
have a switching you have a on and offset. So we did give a perturbations very close to the
operating point.

Then we see that what kind of actually how this system will behave and this is called average
modeling. So by average modeling we can capture the phenomena since stability which is
actually one-tenth of the switch frequency. So we give a perturbations vg with vg delta
similarly we have a perturbation vg dt delta and all given a perturbation all the parameter that
is I Ts v Ts v1.

Please note that what are the this is basically the input current i 1 Ts. This is basically the
voltage across the switches v1 Ts similarly the current in the model secondary basically v1,
v2 it is something like transformer why because you know if you assume that switching
losses and other losses are zero input voltage* input current should be= v2*I 2. So it is
something like a step of transformer because energy conversion holds.

So for this reason we will have this values. Now problem of this actually the present is the
variation of the vg because input voltage can vary because of the sag and swell of an I
variation in vg i1 and D are not small. So you can have huge variation of this. So we are
faced to design a control system that exist significant nonlinear time-varying behavior. So

271
this is something quite trivial you know actually lot may change sag may occur.

So that basically not restricted that these assumptions so that systems becomes little complex.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:41)

Now let us see that how can we operate it. When rectifier operate near to the steady-state then
we can say that actually we have given a very small perturbation or disturbance. So v Ts will
be actually the vt that is actual value+ delta vt. So we will say that actually this delta vt is
much, much less than this is actually the mod vt. In this case of the boost rectifier is sufficient
to linearize this equations for the average control.

So we can linearize it so we differentiate it with its neighborhood of the capital V. So v L di

dt=vg-of this differentiation. So to substitute it you know you get actually this value of v
delta and d delta.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:51)

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Thereafter we can get actually L did t=this value much smaller than the linear ac term. Hence
it can be discarded and we can basically this values because it is a variation of D and
variation of del v. This quantity is also small and this quantity is also small. So thus we can
neglect this smaller quantities and ultimately you can discard this linear equation comes out
to be this and thus your circuits equivalent circuit you can write ig s/ds=V/sL.

So you got this kind of circuit. So it is multiplied by dt*v so this becomes a equivalent
circuits.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:53)

So the previous approach is not sufficient to linearize that is what I am telling linearize the
equation need to design the rectifier average current control of buck boost, Cuk, SEPIC and
other converted topology. These are truly nonlinear time varying system so we will come

273
later and approximation approach is sometime is used these cases are the quasi-static
approximation we will come to the quasi-static approximation now.

Assume that that the ac line variations are much slower because your switching frequency is
in a range of the 10s of kilohertz whereas your supply frequency is 50 hertz. So any change in
basically the any operation in the range of the switching frequency with respect to that we can
suitably assume that the even though it is a varying sinusoidal wave is almost constant within
the short duration of time.

So that is called quasi-static approximation and we can find the slowly varying equilibrium
duty that is whole about it because this is the phenomena this is 10 milliseconds and so and
your switching frequency is of 10 kilohertz that is when it is actually 100 microsecond. So if
it is a 100 microsecond so what will happen actually it is 1 10 to the power -3 times of it. So
within that 10 to the power- actually if you can consider that within actually 10 to the power
100 microsecond.

So you can assume that that these value is linearized and this valued is almost vc.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

In the literature several authors are reported a success of using this method. So you can refer
to the paper and datasheets of the active boost rectifier. So you can find many reported
journals it should be valid to provide that the converter dynamics is sufficiently fast such that
converter always operates near to the assumed operating point. No good condition on the
system parameter which can justify the approximations is presently known for the basic

274
converter topology.

It is well understood that the field of the control system that when the converter dynamics are
not sufficiently fast then the quasi-static approximation yields neither necessary not a
sufficient condition for the stability. So if you increase the switching frequency of the supply
then quasi-static model may not actually predict your stability and other condition according
to the control system.

Such behavior can be observed in rectifier system. Worst case analysis to prove stability in a
stability should employ by simulations. So you have to do the simulations and find it out the
system is stable or not in worst case.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:30)

Now the control of the current waveform this is something we required to understand. So
current controlled another way of actually monitoring we have seen the average current mode
control. We have also another mode of control that is current program control. So what
happen you know got a vg that is a ripple RC coming from the rectifier boost topology.
Essentially you sense the current by ((CT or LEM)) (24:04) sensor.

And what happen here you have vt control and you will get an input so you can multiplier. So
you got basically essentially ripple kind of thing. So thereafter mostly what happen this
control can be also positive or negative. So make it you know this current like this some chip
uses that. So then what happens you actually then sense this current and ultimately you have
a Feedforward ramping block.

275
So what happen here you basically ramp on the current and it will check basically the clock
pulses and so you will take a input of ia for this interval of time. This is basically a time
integration thus actually it will vary and so ultimately it will add on. So this current and this
ramp on basically will be compared with the reference current that will be set by essentially a
kx*vg so that is compensating current ic then it will be compared with an op-amp.

And when this actually this current actually rises above this or there is a pattern you try to
cross this pattern then it will reset the clock. Thus the output of the switch will be off again
current will come down again same cycle will be repeated that is called control current
waveform mode and you have inherently you have done the short circuit protection here that
is one of the biggest advantage of it.

So you have a ramp control and thus you got a short circuit potential sometime it is also
called the peak current mode control. The current program control is a natural approach to
obtain the resistors emulations. So as if the system is connected with the resistors. The peak
transistor current is program to follow the input voltage which is very built in nature. The
peak transistor current differ from the average inductor current.

Because of the inductor current ripple and the artificial ramp added here. This leads to the
significant input current distortion. So for this reason we require to plan it accordingly. So
this distortion it is sometimes actually leads to the malfunctioning of this devices, but there is
2 advantage of this system. We shall see that later actually this reduces the order of the
system.

Ultimately if you have a second order system it can be under damped, over damped or
critically damped, but if you have a first order system it is naturally damped. So for this
reason you have a added advantage here.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:21)

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So this ig t what you are talking about may have operated in a CCM mode or in a DCM
mode. So this is the value in case of this actually in DCM mode that is i Lc square f vg-this
thing and in case if it is in CCM mode so value will change by this and CCM boost converter
will have this boundary condition. So ig Ts should be more than to be a in a continuous
conduction mode is that Ts V/2L.

This is something like the system parameter you are choosing the system frequency the
supply voltage vs vg/V or we can approximate like this. So it is desired that basically i c
should be actually vg/effective resistance and Re and multiple slope compensation ma
essentially we require to figure it out like this. So that value ma which you are setting that
will actually otherwise it will lead through a distortion.

So these we try to compensate the continuous mode of operation. Ultimately ma will be v/2L.
As we have seen the previous case same way this is the contour of the DCM and this is the
contour of the CCM for various values of the Re. Now when actually it is quite low load. So
actually we will find that it will go this actually CCM mode at this point of time where this
ratio vg/V will be close to one.

So for this reason operating this actually in a continuous conducted mode for a low load is
extremely difficult. Gradually when you have a very high load Re=0.1 of the R base. So there
what you can find that actually you have a almost continuous conduction mode started and
you will find easier to operate and R base is essentially is the 2L/Ts so this the value of R
base.

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So this is a characteristics of operations of the CPM mode boost converter characteristics. So
we shall continue with the PWM Rectifiers and some technique on the power factor
corrections in our next class. Thank you for your attention.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture – 18
PWM Rectifiers IV and Power Factor Improvement Techniques II

Welcome to our lectures on the advance power electronics and control. Today we will
continue with the PWM Rectifier the power factor improvement techniques. We are
discussing basically the control current waveform for the CPM mode same we shall continue
in our coming class.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

Essentially you know these are the frequency response you know. So what happen you know
this is the basically the sinusoidal waveform and this value is basically a modulated index is
something of the slope and R base is 2L/Ts and the peak value is basically easy it is a
normalized value. So what happens you can see that when actually I base value R becomes 2
I base than actually distortion comes.

And distortion will be lower actually we have Re=0.1 R base and this is the actual sinusoidal.
So more and more actually the current waveform will be picky if this Re is more than R base.
So we can meet harmonic limits if the range of the operating points is not too large. So if it is
actually huge variation of the load current that is form Re=10 R base to 1 R base that is what
we have seen in this waveform.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:07)

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Then what will happen in this range so we may not actually have a control over the THD of
the desired THD. So we have a control over the THD in a short range of time so accordingly
it will be designed. And thus what happens when it has a distortion we cannot control the
harmonic contain of the system. So difficult to meet the harmonic limits in a universal input
supply.

This is one of the biggest disadvantages of this boost type power factor corrections, but you
can actually for the fixed load it is very well designed, but if there you have a very huge
variation of the load. So it may have a problem of the distortions. Now to overcome this we
can think of some hysteresis controller, but what happens you know till now you had a
constant switching frequency and all those things.

So your switch you can choose a particular switch choosing on the particular frequency.
Moreover, your design of the boost inductor become easy you know that actually this is your
switching frequency. Once you go for this hysteresis control your switching frequency is not
fixed, but you can have some added advantage but it is limited by some percentage of it so
you can approximate it.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:43)

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And thus what happens you got a hysteresis control this is a hysteresis control. What happen
you have this vg which is basically nothing you have vg after rectification you got a ripple
kind of voltage thereafter you have a boost topology. There you generate a envelope a
hysteresis envelope which can be generated by a single open positive or negative band and
you can keep the current within a positive or negative band. So you can have a different kind
of band this is called actually constant band.

You can have some band is something like this it is called proportional band 1% band
because here it will be 0 and here it will be more and ultimately then you can see that actually
here current required to be frequency is very and frequency is quite low. And also here you
can see that here frequency if you keep it like this you can see that frequency here is low and
here it is high.

So you do not have cost and frequency operation and you can have this kind of operation that
is called proportional operation this is another mode of control or there is one Fairchild chip
that operates in this mode and UC 3854 operates in this mode. The critical condition mode of
boundary between the CCM is actually what happen you know you will allow the current to
grow according to your voltage limit.

So you will have a voltage envelope so and you will give some DC biasing so that you can
get a minimum current. So accordingly as this envelope changes you know currently you
allow to go and strike this envelope and thereafter current will be switching and a petal type
of waveform you may get and you may have a interleaved boost converter there is interleaved

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between another A they can super impose it and almost you get a sinusoidal waveform.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:04)

So this is the way of implementations of hysteresis control. Since you have high frequency
switching and you have a EMI EMC filter generally it suppresses the conducted noise and
you have vg that is of this pattern. Thereafter you sense it thereafter you multiplied you have
a kg and you have a same thing. What happened you know you got a ig zero crossings
detector. So it will actually fit it here and ultimately current you will be allowed to ramp on
till actually it touches this envelope.

So it has envelope so once it touches that envelope that will be reset again current will come
back then again actually once current touches zero then again it will be reset and current will
be allow to ramp on till it is actually touches the envelop in this pattern or this pattern. This is
the way of operation of the critical conduction mode control.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:19)

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So what is the advantage of it. This is the pros and cons of this actually first take the
advantage rather simple and then low cost ICs. So it does required to sense the vgt that is
rectified ripple voltage and accordingly when it touches this actually upper envelope switch
will be off. Low frequency harmonics are small with constant transistor on-time for the boost
convector and size of the inductor will be less.

Because it can operate in a discontinuous conduction mode because there you can find that in
a continuous mode control is quite difficult, but disadvantage is this basically it increases the
peak current and current become peaky and thus when current become peaky the biggest
disadvantage of it is that you have a problem of EMI EMC. Then thus increase conduction
loss and reduce switching loss require larger input filter, filter it out, variable switching
frequency.

And smear out the current EMI spectrum cannot be synchronized with the converter
switching frequency and this bleach band actually leads to the radiated noise. So these are the
disadvantage of actually control current mode waveform.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:46)

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Now we shall ensure that transistor is on for the fixed time t on. So this is you have a on time
control. Transistor off-time when inductor current reaches zero. Please refer to this actually
the model how you reset it and how it has been triggered here. So the ratio of Vg to I gt is
actually Re 2L/ t on and on time is a function of the load power and the average voltage. So it
will be t on will be actually 4 LP/ V square M and the inductor volt-second balance you can
do and from there actually you can calculate that actually if it is around 50% 30 off= t on
that= vg=- of this value.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:46)

Now solve for how the controller varies the switching frequency over the ac line period. So
Ts= t off+ t on. So Ts you know that this depends on the parameters which has been
described here that is basically average power, power and the average voltage and the value
of the inductor. So you put it like that ultimately Ts will be VM squares actually it will be

284
variable since basically vg varies vg is a ripple DC voltage.

So for this reason this term will vary ultimately Ts will vary. So when you will have a
maximum switching frequency when this value actually close to 1 basically it happens once it
is at the peak. So the peak you will have a large choosing frequency or a higher switching
frequency and at the zero crossing we will have a lower switching frequency. So similarly for
a sinusoidal voltage variation the switching frequency will be varied as follows reciprocal of
it that is V M square/4 LP 1-VM/V sin omega t.

And from there you know you can calculate what should be the maximum value of fs that V
M square/4LP and the minimum value of fs VM square/4 LP 1-VM/V and this equation can
be used to select the value of the inductance, but depends whether you have a large variation
or not. So it is very difficult to design inductor because inductor has to set for its switching
frequency.

And if it is a wide range of variation if it is actually within a mean value varies 10% it is fine,
but of course you know if frequency varies 1 kilohertz to 2 kilohertz or actually 10 kilohertz
to 20 kilohertz it is very difficult to design those kinds of inductor and then you will find that
roller will be defined because value of the inductance will change according to the switching
frequency please mind that.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:01)

So to control the current waveform we have a following discussions. So it is essentially a non

linear control because switching frequency is variable and instead of the average current

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mode control you have a variable control and can obtain simple control input waveform
without sensing AC input voltage this is also possible and with the operation of the in
continuous conduction mode.

So you do not require any input in your ac system. Mind you this same kind of system will
work for the single phase system, but we require to change for the 3 phase system because 3
phase does not have a replica to find it out. So we required to do some kind of modifications
to use it for a 3 phase system. The integral of the sensed switch current charge is compared to
a nonlinear waveform and a linear ramp and by a cycle bicycle basis.

Carrier waveform depends on the converter topology. So if you have a boost topology it will
be something else and it is a buck topology it is something else. Very low harmonics in
continuous conduction mode, but waveform gets distorted in case of the DCM so it is very
sensitive to the load. If load changes and your transistor occur DCM to CCM then you will
that THD is not acceptable to you. Peak current mode control is also possible with different
carrier.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:42)

So for phase shift different carrier is also possible so that you have a petals kind of waveform
another petal may be phase shifted by 30 degree you may super impose it and thus what
happen or you get a better THD. So this is a control of the current waveform. Now you got a
Ct so ultimately you sense this current and now it has been actually rectified and stored into
the capacitor.

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And of course you can discharge this capacitor by a switch. So then this value is spread to the
comparator and what happen you got this rippled DC and you can see the petals of it so it
required to be compared. So this is the value of is t and this is the value of the vc and
ultimately this will be value of V and this is a way of actually current will increase and this
will be the Ts.

So ultimately again it will be reset for the clock pulse once this linear carrier is over and
again capacitor will be discharged after when it will be required to reset the flip-flop to
capture the second cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:22)

So average switching current is basically this we can make the controller to regulate average
switch current by integrating it. So essentially integration can be done by the op-amp with the
capacitor feedback. Integrating monitored the switch current resetting the integrator to zero at
beginning of the each time period. See that this is basically the integration part of it so it will
store the integration of the current.

And you will reset it at this beginning of the each cycle. Turning off the transistor when
integrator reaches the reference value In the control actually diagram in the integration as
follows so v1 should be=1/C 0 to dT you have to integrate over it. So you can get that
basically vi is basically i s by n is a number of turns ratio of the transformer or the Ct *Ci*the
switching frequency fs.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:34)

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So what should be actually the emulated resistor. Emulated resistor as you know that it is Re
that is ig Ts= vg/Re so it will be vg/ist= dt there is the duty cycle*ig Ts. Relate the input
voltage to the output voltage and we assume that it is a continuous conduction mode then vg
Ts= d dot *vt. We have please recall in our previous class we have done the actually small
signal model so from there we can relate it.

So substitute the above equation how average switch mode should be controlled is i s=dt 1-dt
vt/Re v control. So this way you can control this actually charging of the capacitor and thus
the current of the switch.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:40)

So to desired control from this previous slide we can re write it as i s=dt 1-dt* this one from
there the control voltage vc become actually v control t/Ts 1- T/Ts for this and vc t+Ts= vc t.

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The controller switches the transistor of when integral voltage basically= carrier waveform
and leads to this actually this vi dTs should be=vt dT and thus that should be=v control dt*1-
dt and we can do a little approximations and after doing this approximation that this emulator
resistor with a control becomes dt 1-dt vt/is t/Ts.

So ultimately it leads to vt n Ci fs v control. So this will be the emulated resistance in case of

the current control mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:57)

So essentially the block diagram become this. You got a v control and you got actually the
current switch and you got a capacitor. Capacitor is required to be reset in every clock pulse.
Staring of the clock pulse ultimately it will compare with the vt. Once actually this results
becomes this becomes a current control and integrated go into reset by this switch. So please
note that this is a way actually we operate this actually continuous controller mode of
operation for this converter. So this is the explanation of this converter.

Now we have discussed for the boost PWM technique and its different way of control. Now
but it is restricted to the single phase supply and thus is restricted to the low power
applications, but in case of the higher power applications and the 3 phase system this kind of
system required to be modified because after rectification you know if it is a diode-bridge
rectifier you have a 6 pulse waveform.

So that the 3 phase waveform pattern is missing and you have a constant DC value and for
this reason all the methods is required to be change. Let us see let us have some analysis now

289
on power factor improvement techniques. So essentially you know that in power electronics
we have a displacement power factor and the actual power factor.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:50)

Displacement power factor decreases as average value of the output voltage Vdc decreases
with increase in the firing angle. Since this is your sinusoidal waveform you are triggering at
an angle alpha if you are increasing the alpha your displacement power factor is going to be
increased and thus you get poor power factor. This is applicable both 3 phase as the single
phase waveform as well as full waveform full bridge, half bridge so all kind of things.

There are 3 techniques to improve power factor. We have seen while discussing with the
different pulse converter that is 6 pulse converter, 12 pulse converter, 24 pulse converter, 48
pulse converter. So we can see one thing that is a extinction angle control. Generally,
thyristor can only give you turn on control turn off control is not possible. So we require a
full control switches like GTO or IGBT have a full control switches and to have a extinction
control.

So that you can actually you have a sinusoidal waveform, you can chop here and chop here.
So current waveform may be this, but it may have a THD, but it can have a unity power
factor. Similarly, you can have another method that is symmetrical angle control. Third
method that is quite important method is pulse width modulated PWM control. We shall see
all one by one.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:35)

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Now see that extinction angle control so what happen in this case. If it is required to be line
commuted it you require GTO otherwise you can have a actually a current that can be leading
so you can do that. So what happens your sinusoidal voltage and you have actually chopped it
before 180 degree and thus what happens you know this actually this is the current through
the thyristor and input of this current is given by this.

And you can find that the fundamental of this actual input current is basically the leading
because we have chopped at an angle beta. So this kind of thing is called the extinction angle
control.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:42)

So this control technique is applied on single phase full wave half controlled forced
commuted converter. Either you have to have a forced commuted converter or you should

291
have a GTO. Thyristor T1 and T2 are replaced by the self commuted switches power
transistors or it is equivalent IGBT, IECT, GTO. This controlled switch S1 is turned ON at
omega t=0 and turned off by the forced commutations when omega t= pi-beta.

So the turn on at omega y=pi and turn off at 2pi- beta. Output voltage is controlled by varying
the extinction angle. So you have a integration change and the waveform of the fundamental
component of the input current leads the input voltage and thus so what happened
displacement power factor is increased and this technique is useful to simulate the capacitive
loading without line voltage drop. So this is quite actually good applications for it
(Refer Slide Time: 25:13)

Now let us see that what happens to this average value and we have actually started at angle
alpha now we have a extinction angle control you will actually chopped at an angle beta. So
for this reason the average voltage Vdc will be actually you can write it 1/pi 0 to pi-beta
under root Vm sin omega t root 2/pi So you can get if you do that integrations effective value
will become actually V+ V cos beta.

So value of Vdc is varied from 2 root/pi to 0 as actually this beta varies from 0 to pi and
similarly you can have the rms value that is v0 you can same way integrate over it 2/2 pi 0 to
pi-beta V square sin square omega t dt= V/1/pi pi-beta+half sin 2 beta to the power half. So
again you have a double frequency repel and all those things so this will be the value and V0
also varies from you can see that you can choose pi= beta and we can have also if it is pi then
also this value becomes 0. So similarly this value can also vary from V to 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:09)

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Now another is a symmetrical angle control so you will chop from both the sides so you chop
this side as well as this side. So what happen here you have a upper 2 thyristor and thyristor
can be actually commuted it or you can have a forced commutation or you employ GTO. So
you trigger an angle alpha and thereafter you actually tear it off at an angle actually beta. So
you get actually this part of the performance and so on it will continue and we assume that
load current to be continuous.

So thus you have i s something like this and source current I will be actually steps and the
fundamental of it will be the sinusoidal one and you can see that it is at unity power factor.
And by changing this actually conduction angle and extinction angle you can also change the
power factor of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

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So this control technique is applied to the single phase half control force commuted which
converter as shown in the previous pattern. Thyristor T1, T2 is replaced by the self commuted
devices S1, S2. S1 is turned ON at pi-beta/2 and turned OFF at pi+ beta/2. So beta should be
the angle of conduction. Now S2 is turned ON at 3 pi-beta/2 2+3pi+beta/2. Output voltage is
varied by varying the conduction angle beta.

Gate signals are generated by comparing half sine waves of the DC signal and sine wave can
generated by using a full wave rectifier either of it. The gate signal can be generated by
comparing the triangular wave with a DC voltage and fundamental component of the input
component is in phase or you can change if you wish you can then we have to have a
different little change of this value.

Input voltage and thus displacement power factor is unity. So power factor is here also it is
improved. So you can do the control like this so this is the actually the triangle wave and this
is the DC the controller voltage. Ultimately you will have here you will turn it on and here
you will turn it off. So this angle is beta and you can change this level accordingly you can
get a lower conduction angle.

And you can bring it down you get higher conduction angle. So average output voltage is
same way you can integrate. So you will find that 2 root 2 pi Vm sine beta/2. Similarly, you
can calculate the rms value for pi-beta/2 to +beta/2 V square/2 sine square omega t.
Ultimately you get V/1/pi beta+ sin beta. So this will be the average value and this will be the
rms value for continuous conduction mode.

So for actually symmetrical control we shall continue to the another method in our next class.
Thank you for your attention.

294
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 19
Power Factor Improvement Techniques – III and Non-isolated DC-DC Converters

Welcome to our NPTEL lectures on Advanced Power Electronics and Control. Today, we shall
continue the remaining portion of the Power Factor Improvement Techniques that was extinction
angle control and all those issues related to the full control converter that and we shall start a new
important topic that is Non-isolated DC to DC converter. So please recall actually we were
actually discussing about extinction angle control.

To have a extinction angle control we assume that load current to be actually the constant. So
this is the load current.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

And you will trigger ON in some places, let us say it is alpha thereafter you will again actually a
forced converter if in case of a Thyristors or you will have a GTO then you actually require to
commuted by the negative get converter and so on. So current will be actually chock like this in
input. So due to that you know when actually it is not getting a current definitely at that time
actually free wheel diode comes into the picture and that makes the load current continuous.

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And ultimately this will be the Is1 and this is the actually current through the actually the
Thyristor. This is the actually the; upper one is the load voltage so you will have this kind of
chopping profile and this one will be the actually will be the input current assuming you have got
a constant load current and this will continue. So what will find to you know actually the
fundamental of this current is will be again will have a unity power factor.

Moreover, you can go for we shall discuss in detail about the selective harmonic elimination.
One of the problem is that you cannot have a dominating harmonics because it is a square root.
And since it is a single phase so you have odd symmetry so you got a harmonics thought
dominating harmonic. So by this you can eliminate the actually selective harmonics that will be
actually causing problem to it. So these are the few discussions of the PWF converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:05)

The output voltage of the single phase half controlled PWM converter is controlled by delay
angle; this one is a delay angle and extinction angle or a symmetrical angle. All these techniques
are only one pulse half cycle in the input current which we have shown in the previous class.
Current of the converter which results in generation of the lower order harmonics, so this is one
of the difficulty of it.

So if you have chopping on by extinction and the symmetrical control you will have a problem
of high THD because of the presence of the lower order harmonic. It is difficult to filter out the

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lower order harmonic because size of the filter will be quite big and bulky. But PWF control
converters, switches are turned ON and turned OFF in several times during the half cycle. And
you can shift those frequencies to the higher order and thus size of the frequency becomes lower.

Output voltage is controlled by, we shall discuss about choosing a particular elimination or the
particular selected harmonic that will be dominating in a particular case that is called Selective
Harmonic Elimination SHE, so that will be taken up by the subsequent courses. So when we will
actually talk about the PWF mean that is. But the PWF controlled converters, switches are turned
ON and turned OFF several times during one half cycle and thus it can mitigate the lower order
harmonics.

Output voltage is controlled by varying the pulse width. So if you vary the pulse width in output
voltage can be controlled. So ultimately this width can be change to change the output voltage at
a level to the lower. So because this duration is decreasing and thus overall output is increased.
Output voltage is controlled by controlling the pulse width. Get signal is generated by comparing
the triangular wave with the DC signals. In this case width of all pulses required to be the same.
And a lower a harmonic can be eliminated by selecting the number of pulses per half cycle that is
a part of Selecting Harmonic Elimination.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:48)

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So just see that this is actually the sinusoidal wave form and its replica. So you can change this
value Vc and thus you can change the value of Dm. So by increasing the number of pulse per
half cycle, magnitude of the higher order harmonics is increasing, which can easily be filtered
out.
Or you can have a triangular shape waveform and you can compare and you can actually get this
if you take it this way then actually pulses is increase if you take it upper way pulses is decrease
and average voltage come across the load will increase or decrease accordingly. Now let us see
that what is the output voltage you will get here.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:45)

Let us see consider that Mth pulse starts alpha m and with the modulation index delta m with a
average output voltage due to P number of pulses is required to be found out. So we can have the
summation 1 to P 2/pi alpha m to alpha m+Dm Vm sin omega T you can actually integrate
operate so you will root T/pi so you get a summation.

And if the load current with the average value of IA is continuous and have a negligible ripple
that instantaneous then it will be square F so thus we can apply the instantaneous Vr
transformation. So you will have Idc followed by actually the oscillating components
superimpose on the DC.

298
So we can check it out what is actually the fundamental kind of thing. And now if you have a
symmetry, if you have actually positive and the negative cycle symmetry that is average value;
DC is basically the average value we have; since it is a symmetrical pulse so Ibe should be equal
to 0. And also all the; we have since it is a sin wave we can choose voltage as a sin wave so we
have a odd wave symmetry.

Since it is a odd wave symmetry so all the actually even harmonics will be vanished. And thus,
you will left with basically this component and you can calculate and this value is for the odd,
this value is for the even because you know that cos is a even function and ultimately all the
coefficient of it will be 0 and will just left with the value of bm.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:46)

So you require to calculate the value of bm so it is 1/pi 0 to 2pi Is sin omega T so we have a P
such pulses in a half cycle so it is 1 to P summation of that if you do that integration you will get
basically 2iA where A is the constant output current by Mpi m=1 to P cos in alpha – bm square.
So you know you see that you can choose this actually alpha in such a way that value of bm can
be made 0, so if you trigger at ones you can actually eliminate only one alpha.

So in case that; since it is a actually all harmonic at present so 1st, 3rd, 5th and all those
harmonics will be present. You can choose in such a way that actually b3 can be made 0 then it
is set to be the selective harmonic elimination. And anyway let us comeback to the coefficients.

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Since A part is 0 so Tan phi is basically 0 and you got the magnitude is basically Pn/100 root 2
that is the RMS value.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:04)

Now, here the pulse rate are generated by as we have discussed here comparing the triangular
reference voltage Vr of the amplitude Ar and the frequency as of the supply frequency Fr with
the carrier sinusoidal voltage Vc of the variable amplitude Ac of the frequency double frequency
oscillation. So you have to rectify it and get it done. The sinusoidal voltage Vc is the phase with
the input voltage Vs and has frequency twice of supply frequency Fs.

So width of the pulse are varied by changing the amplitude Ar you can refer back to this slides
which has been shown you, so this is the discussions or modulation index M which can be varied
0 to 1 and the modulation index is given by the ratio Ac/Ar. The width of the pulse generated are
not same everywhere. The width is smaller at the center and increases towards the start and end
of the signal.

In this control technique what happen generally, the lower order harmonics are got eliminated
and as I have discussed little bit briefly how it can be eliminated so we got a less bulky system. If
higher order; lower order harmonic represent to filter it out and to have to have a desired power
quality, you require to put the bulky inductor into the system bulky filters into the system that

300
makes actually the system bulky as well as the cost increases. So this is basically as we have
seen that if you have only one triggering then only one harmonic can be eliminated.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:09)

Now we can choose a triangular wave that is quite higher than this supply frequency mostly
actually the Vc will be at the supply frequency. So accordingly you have a multiple pulses can be
generated and for this reason you will find that actually the width since you are comparing width
here it will be more and here width will be narrow. So in that way it will vary. So similarly you
can have this kind of variations of the input current.

And this kind of variation if you take the harmonic analysis you will find that lower order
harmonics are been eliminated. So this is the actually the consideration of sinusoidal pulse width
modulation technique for the converters which is used for AC to DC rectifications without
throwing much garbage to the system. Thank you for your attention and I continue to my in a
same class that is the next part portion of it that is DC to DC converter.

So DC to DC converter is very important for our day to day applications. Because why I require
a DC to DC converter is unfortunately unlike DC we do not have DC transformer. And most of
the cases the supply which you read rectified voltage if you have 2Vm/pi it is the single phase
value you would have read the diode which rectified and what you will be using there is a

301
difference. So you may require to boost the voltage; you may require to buck the voltage, you
may; you do not know when you sometime require to boost or buck the voltage.

And in those conditions you know, we require a different kind of converter that is basically a DC
to DC converter. Till now we are discussing the conversion AC to DC. Assume that this is
available to you constant DC or ripple DC and you want that a load will take a specific voltage
of the DC. So there is a huge kind of application like water purification application. It requires a
very high current and low voltage DC.

And your SMPS of mouse or all those things that actually require; your mobile charger, laptop
charger or this actually a mobile, laptop all are essentially DC which you are charging use for
utilities. So for this reason and we have actually.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:57)

Today we will discuss about the Non-Isolated DC to DC converter. Definitely there is another
part of it there is a isolated DC to DC converter. So input and the output stage has got the
Galvanic isolation. But SMPS is definitely the DC to DC converter, non-isolated DC to DC
converter. So of course depending upon the application.

We have three type of DC to DC converter circuits one is buck there is a that actually it is
essentially the AC equivalent will be the step down transformer and then Boost as name

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suggested the AC equivalent will be a step up transformer and Buck-Boost converter it is
something like track changing transformer or auto transformer or where you can boost up the
voltage where you can actually buck the voltage.

And since you cannot use transformers, static device we require the power electronic circuit to
do that. All the; in all circuits power devices are used as a switch and since it may have a higher
rating and for this reason we require actually high power switches. Device earlier use was
Thyristor that means basically the converter that is AC to DC converter.

And one of the advantage of using Thyristor, Thyristor no one can meets its power rating as we
have discussed in our earlier classes. And Thyristors has a actually one of the advantage in case
of the, in case of the actually AC to DC application is a line commutation. It is naturally
commutated by line so you may not require a forced commutation. And as I saying it requires
forced commutation which is extra circuit is required.

So here for actually you will find that for high power application this Thyristor will be replaced
by the GTO where you can turn ON and turn OFF at your will but frequency should be below 1
kilohertz. And power rating can move up to the level of actually 100 of kilovolts. BJT can also
use but BJT now has been faced out with the invert of the IGBT can also be used to substitute
Thyristor due to its self commutated transformer, self commutated characteristic by the Ib.

But since it require a very high base current and so with the invent of the IGBT BJT actually we
do not use nowadays power BJTs. And nowadays actually the MOSFET is used, MOSFET
power MOSFET has a power handling capability in a range of the volts in a range of the actually
sub kilo volt level, so and there switching frequency can be high. So if you wish to have a
compact DC to DC supply of the power rating below 100 or below 1000 getting a 1000 kilo volt
power rating will be difficult with the MOSFET.

And but you can; once can challenge it to do it so we can have that kind of devices and their
switching frequency can be quite high as high as actually 100 kilo volts so there you can find that

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actually we can use a very compact solution for the DC to DC converter. Most of your laptop
charges, mobile charges having a power devices are essentially MOSFET.

So the turn ON and turn OFF time of the MOSFET is lower than the other switching devices.
Frequency of the DC to DC converters using MOSFET is quite high in a way it can be as high as
actually 100 kilo volts. And due to reduced size and it reduces the size of the filters. And for the
high voltage applications and there is a high power application we use IGBT.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:30)

So why SMPS we are trying to discuss first essentially we think of pot kind of solution. But pot
will give you a loss? So you can have a DC supply and you can have a pot. From the pot you can
choose the output voltage. So what happen you know, if you actually your V1 I1 is a current and
V0 I0 is a output you will find that efficiency is quite low. Why because, you know there is a
constitute of current and some portion of the current actually is flowing to the actually this let us
switch.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:14)

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So you have this kind of thing essentially. So what happen you know current flowing through
here it is I and here it is actually I1 and here it is I0. So you know V2= essentially you know,
I1*I; V2=I1*R1 and similarly you can find it out actually an I=I1+I0. So you can find it out what
is actually the efficiency, efficiency will be given by essentially V0*I0. By V1*I1 you can split
this two voltages. And essentially you can write it in terms of V2*I2+V1*I1/V2*I2. So you can
divide it can you can get this results ultimately it will depend on this ratio.

So you can find it out the efficiency of this actually converter will be quite low because of the
constant dissipations of the current. So for this what we have you know, we have a switches,
ideal switches we have discussed characteristics of it. Once this value is ((high)) (21:59) I
impudence state that means it is OFF, no current flows so there is a no losses ideally across the
switch.

And if there is a energy stored into the system that will be actually fitting the load. And when it
is ON then power will be coming inductor will be storing the energy to dissipate it when the
switch is OFF, and you will get a average power into the system. So what happen you know, this
is the output voltage, average output voltage and when it is switched ON actually you will get the
voltage equal to Vs and when it is OFF actually we will get the 0 voltage.

305
And since it will be fitting this thing fitting the load so inductor current will actually ramp on
thereafter current will free wheel assuming that it is a continuous conduction mode, so you will
get the average voltage which is equal to output voltage V0 and where your input voltage is Vs.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:17)

So we can have the actually voltage time average ((graph)) (23:21) and find it out the actually
the output/input characteristics as well as the expressions. The circuit shown in the figure
consists of a one switch, a diode and the inductive load. The diode used is called we have
discussed already this is called Free Wheel diode as it allows the load current to flow through
when switch is turned ON.

Also, load is inductive, diode plays a vital role to provide the path for the load current otherwise
high spikes will appear across a switch and which may damage the switch. So Free Wheel diode
is actually given the purpose not only to fitting the load, when switch is OFF also to actually the
mitigating stress across the switch. The absence of the diode in the absence of the diode high
induced EMF of the inductance may damage the switching devices.

The switch is ON at t=0 and OFF at t=T ON during the interval of T ON that is greater than 0
and less than Ts then output will be equal to the Vs the supply voltage. After the switch is OFF
during OFF time interval so output voltage required will be 0 because of the Free Wheel action
because you will get the load will get the voltage from the; induct stored inductor NHA. So total

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time period t can be divided into the two part T ON and T OFF so frequency will be 1/T when T
is constant so V0 will be 1/T, V0 T V0 DT 1/T V0 T Vs DT so you can get actually Vs T ON/T.
And this is something like your transformer Trans ratio, so essentially you get k*Vs.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:26)

So while K is the Duty ratio that is T ON/T, so you can write in this format also. T ON T ON+ T
OFF. So range of the k will vary from 0 to k, 0 to 1 so you can choose any duty cycle for the
continuous conduction mode and you will get up actually direction relation between the input
and the output voltage. Normally due to ON delay the device k is not equal to 0 and has some
positive value because you cannot have 0 turn ON time as well as turn OFF time.

So similarly due to the requirement of the turn OFF time device is it will less than the value of 1;
maximum value will be less than 1. The average output voltage increases as a duty ratio,
increases. Therefore, a variable DC voltage is generated from a constant DC voltage. This is a
purpose of it.

But not necessarily you know, you may have a reverse converter where the input voltage is
varying and you require to actually get a constant DC voltage then also you can do that and duty
cycle will change to actually give you the constant output voltage but input voltage itself is
varying due to the irradiations or temperature like in case of the solar cell. Though, and output
voltage is less than the input voltage, so k is < 1 it is called the buck converter.

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Instead of the self commutating device, thyristor is used and then it is called the Chopper for
high power application. But the chopper require to be, require to come with the commutation
circuits.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:31)

Now Is is the source current. Now let us come to the another converter that is the Boost
Converter. So here actually you can boost the voltage. But there is a limit of it so practically,
theoretically speaking you can boost it any voltage from Vin*infinity but there is a practical
limitation due to the parasitics of the inductive capacitor as well as a switching.

And also this converter require actually mostly as a stable kind of system and since it is boosting
a voltage and there is a possibility that this voltage can go up very high but parasitics will come
into the picture and ultimately it will give you the 0 voltage after some duty cycle. So we require
to operate in a different control loop. So controlling of this actually boost converter is little
complicated than the buck converter.

So we will see that actually what is the application of it and most of the application we find that
you know, we have discussed please recall we have discussed in detail with the PWM converter.
So we have actually a boost PWM converter where actually we have boosted the voltage where
input is a sinusoidal ripple DC with after rectifications and there we have used the boost

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converter. So and mostly it is used for that purpose, mostly it is used for that purpose. As well as
its finds the application in case of the solar inverter.

What happen you know, solar inverter actually its DC output voltage we had to crack the
maximum power point it varies with the; it varies with the irradiations. So only in evening
maybe actually that it imperative voltage is matches with the desired dazzling voltage is required
to inject the power to the great. But rest of the time or the day time it may not match.

So for this reason we require to boost this voltage and ultimately you can fit it that voltage of the
output so that this kind of applications in this application boost controlled are been used as well
as preferred. And of course we can use a buck-boost converter, we shall see that. So we shall
continue to our discussions with the boost converter in our next class. Thank you for your
attention. I will discuss in the next class Boost converter.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 20
Non-Isolated DC-DC Converters – II

Welcome to our NPTEL courses on Advanced Power Electronics and Control. We shall continue
with the non-isolated DC to DC converter. We are discussing about with the Boost converter, so
we continue with that Boost converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:40)

So in a Boost converter essentially you will be boosting the voltage and since actually once
switch is ON so current input current will ramp on through the switch and when switch is OFF
then there will be a stored inductance; there may be a value voltage VL will appear across it.
And this voltage and Vs will basically fit the load and thus you will find that the voltage applied
across this load has enhanced.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:20)

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So this type of converter circuit, inductor is connected n series with a supply and switch is in a
parallel with the supply. Diode is connected with the series of the load to avoid the back fitting.
Here the load inductance is assumed to be very small. Switch S is ON and t=0 during the interval
0 to t ON and output voltage should be equal to 0 because you have shorted switch.

The current on the source Is, flows in the inductance L. In this interval value of the current
increases linearly so since di/dt is positive and the equation is Vs=L di/dt, ignoring that actually
switch is ON, the drawback that the switch is almost 0, so you will get Vs/L as ramp of this di/dt.
So when switch is OFF during that period actually t is less than capital T to T ON the current
through the inductance decreases with the same direction of the current. This is a DC to DC
converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:38)

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So ultimately the Vs=V0+L di/dt so here you will find that actually Vs=dt=Vs-V0/L. So as
shown in the waveform, the current varies linearly I1 to I2 that is Imin to Imax during the T ON
interval that is actually I2-I1=Imax-Imin that is essentially Vs/L*time ON that duty cycle when
switch is ON. Similarly, current varies linearly from I2 to I1 during the T OFF so di/dt can be
expressed as follows, so I2-I1=Imax-Imin=V0-Vs/L*T OFF. So we can equate both the equation
I2=I1.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:30)

And ultimately we can get actually V0=Vs 1/1-k and since k=T ON/T you can substitute that
value actually sometime it is written as 1/1-d, where d is also same as k. So the source current is
assume to be continuous and it is in a senior mode. Output voltage is higher than the higher than

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input voltage, for this reason this is called Boost converter. Instead of the commutated device
thyristor is used, it is called the Step-Up Chopper. So we can see that when actually it is when
we require a regenerative braking the DC motor so we use this kind of application called Step Up
Chopper.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:21)

So now let us come to the another topology that is whether you can step up as well as step down.
There will be position change, please note that. Change of the position of the switch. So we have
to have a we can; so when you have to switch will be in this position in series with the load and
inductor will be placed you know, when actually in parallel to the load and thus when it is switch
is ON essentially this gives you the Boost topology, because here there is a inductor and there is
a switch, and here it is just interchanged.

The another point to note that this actually polarity of the diode. Polarity of the diode is reverse,
in Boost topology you will find that polarity is just opposite. So how does it work? You know,
you may require to boost the voltage or you may require to buck the voltage depending on the
different kind of requirement.

Mostly it is required in case of the variable DC supply and you are going to feed a constant DC
voltage, and that kind of applications we may require to Buck-Boost, Buck and Boost the DC
voltage. So what happen initially you know, if it is switch ON this is same as your boost

313
operation and thereafter you know, you will have when it is switch OFF the energy stored into
the inductor will feed and ultimately current will flow through like this and then essentially we
will have a buck operation.

In recall this actually switch OFF part of the buck you will the same topology. But here this
inductor was placed. Here a diode was placed in this position thus this has been interchanged. So
you just couple this two and ultimately you come over with this topology called Buck-Boost. Let
us see that how you have a principle of operation of the Buck-Boost topology.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:57)

In this converter circuit, inductor is used in parallel with the supply, please note that. So in Boost
topology it is nothing but a boost topology when the switch is ON but position of the inductor
and the other switch has been interchanged. Diode is connected with the series with the load but
polarities opposite. Generally, you require a constant DC voltage to hold the DC voltage you will
have a capacitor is connected with the parallel to the load which is not shown in the previous
period.

Polarity of the voltage is an opposite of the voltage as shown in the figure previous figure. When
switch is ON the supply current Is flow through Vs, Is L during the interval T ON. The current
through both source and the both source and inductor iL increases. So di/dt is positive. Polarity is
induced, polarity of induced voltage is same that of the input voltage. So the equation of the

314
circuit can be Vs=L di/dt, so di/dt=Vs/L, when S is OFF inductor current tend to decrease with
the slope and that is basically then it will be –di/dt. So this is the case.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:33)

Essentially, let us see. The polarity of DC voltage is opposite of the Vs and the current path is
through the inductor L, parallel combination of load, C and the diode during the Turn ON
interval. The output voltage remains nearly constant as a capacitor is connected across the load
will hold the voltage and so the equation becomes L di/dt=V0 and thus diL/dt=V0/L, inductor
current varies linearly with iL1 to iL2 during the T ON interval; iL1 is considered as iL mean
and iL2 is considered as iLmax same in case of the Boost converter. So di/dt expression can be
rewritten as iL2-iL1=Vs/L*T ON.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:36)

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So similarly we shall write the equation for the T OFF interval. So inductor current varies from
iL2 to iL1 so L di/dt can be expressed as; sorry di/dt can be expressed as iL2-iL1 V0/VL*T OFF
and equating both the equations you know V0=Vs T1/T ON similarly again you can write
V0=Vs k 1/k/1-k where k=T ON/T, so you know that T=T ON+T OFF, so ultimately you get this
expressions as the transfer function.

So V0=Vs k/1-k such duty ratio 0.5 so you can find that so output and the input are the same. So
for duty ratio less than 0.5 it will operate as a Buck converter and duty ratio have a 0.5 it will
acts as a Boost converter. But mind it there is a this ratio actually increases quite non-linearly,
because you know actually you can take the value of 0.6, so what will be actually the value of
this transfer function?

So it is 0.6/0.4, so it will be actually 3/2. If it is 0.8 then it is 0.8/0.2 it is 4. So it will increase

quite drastically. So this is the one of the actually challenge. Increase of the voltage is not
propositional with the duty cycle. From the output voltage expression, it can be observed that the
value of k, if it is 0.5 to 0 the output voltage is lower than the input voltage so it will acts as a
Buck converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:48)

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Similarly, if it is above it so output voltage expression is observed that for k more than 0.5 to 1 it
will be actually using as a Boost converter. So it is observed that for k less than 0.5 and greater 0
output voltage is lower than the input voltage so it will be a Buck converter. When actually k is
less than 0.5 and 0 output is 1; the output voltage is higher than the input voltage so its acts as a
Boost converter.

Therefore, the different value of the; different k value of the converter is considered as a for the
Buck-Boost converter. Here inductor current is assumed to be continuous also it can be termed as
a Step up, step down chopper since it can have a Buck-Boost properties. Now we shall see that
how will control less output voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

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So all the three types of DC to DC converter, average value of the output voltage can be varied
by Time-Ratio Control we will see that, we have already discussed some control strategies in
case of the PWM converter. And also the Current-Limit control. So Time-Ratio Control is
essentially the control of the duty cycle. And we will assume that if it is not stated current is
continuous. So our assumption is quite simple, the load current is continuous.

So we shall discuss later and otherwise we will state that it is a discontinuous mode of operation.
Here the value of the duty ratio k=T ON/T. And of course this; we have rewrite the expression
we have taken the continuous load current. It is also classified into two types; Constant
Frequency Operations and the Variable Frequency Operation.

So in the constant frequency operation, frequency of this converter remains constant, so you can
you have ease of designing the circuit. What happen you know you can choose a particular
switch because you know that actually, if you have a higher switching frequency then you
require to use MOSFET but it has to require reduce the power rating. So choosing a switch
thereafter choosing the frequency all those issues will comes.

And if you know then actually the constant frequency is constant then design will be easier for
choosing the switch as well as design of the inductor and capacitor. But you will pay penalty
somewhere else we will see that actually the stability in other issues. Another is the Variable

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Frequency Operation. So ((hysteresis)) (15:10) controller and other controller the variable
frequency operations there you will change the duty cycles that will change the frequency and
you may have a constant T ON also.

So there you can have change the frequency and we will have a actually variable frequency
operation. In Constant Frequency Operation, in this control that is constant frequency operation
strategy T ON is varying keeping the frequency over a frequency kept actually a 1/T constant or
whole time period is constant. And this is also called pulse width modulation control.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:57)

Now what happen, this is the load voltage and you will actually; this is the value for k=0.5; 0.25
and this much will be the T ON and this much will be the T OFF, so ultimately this will be the
average voltage and this is for the variation of the T ON, T ON is varying from 0.75 and you can
see that this is the pulses. So this is called constant frequency operation with varying T ON.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:30)

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Now let us come to the Variable Frequency Operation. In this control strategy the time period T
is varied either keeping T ON or the T OFF constant. And it is called also the frequency
modulation control. The output voltage is varied by varying the duty ratio T ON/T or T OFF/T
whichever is a constant. So there are few disadvantage of variable frequency operation because I
told you know, we require to design the converter for the particular frequency depending on the
switch and the inductor and the other devices.

So that becomes a challenge. Here control the output voltage, here to control the output voltage
frequency has to be varied in the wide range, and for which the filter design will be difficult. For
this control strategy to control the duty ratio frequency variation would be white. In this case,
this possibility of interface of some other frequencies also come into the picture and ultimately
you may have a high spectrum and it may interfere with the other high frequencies component
and that may gives you the actually issues of the EMI, EMCs.

And large OFF time of this control technique may lead to the discontinuous current, and which is
undesirable, current become picky and you have a high EMI/EMC problems and whatever
expression we have derived that nothing is application in case of the discontinuous conduction
mode, we require to recalculate all the expressions and the duty cycles. And therefore, constant
strategy control is more desirable. But sometime we will require to force use a variable
frequency operation because of ease of control.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:53)

So what happen, therefore, control frequency control strategies is more desirable. So this is
actually constant T ON so you make the T ON constant and you vary the frequency. And
accordingly actually the voltage changes and here you vary you make actually T OFF constant
and you vary the T ON the duty cycle changes. So these are the two strategies for the variable
frequency operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:27)

Now we come to the another control strategy that is called a Current limit Control. Please note
that you got di/dt which is positive in case of the Boost converter, so current is ramping on. It is
any case, when your current is ON when switch is ON all those DC to DC converter we have

321
discussed current ramps on. And current is ramp on through the switch. So we require to actually
limit the switch because switch has a limited capability of carrying current.

So that is said to be the current limit control. So you will control, you will allow to current to
ramp on and it will actually transfer the energy and till it hits the current limit you will switch off
it. So automatically you will what will have you essentially these two methods is deals with the
output voltage. It does not take any input of the input current.

While changing this actually these frequencies you know what happen your while changing this
actually the T ON time keeping T constant you may actually cross the limit of the current which
has been prescribed by the switch we have chosen. So and you may ultimately you may lead to
the damage of the switches. But in this case, you know there is no possibility of the damage of
the switches because you are basically protecting the devices from the having high ((inrush))
(21:29) current and you are controlling the current.

All types of DC to DC converter current is assumed to be continuous that is what our thumb rule.
The current limit control strategy, the switch of the DC to DC converter when it is turned ON
and turned OFF that maintains the current actually switches between as we have seen, upper and
the lower limit of the current, that is basically maintain between the upper and the lower limit.
When current exists the maximum limit S then switch will turn ON and when current goes down
to the below the minimum limit it will turn ON it S will operate in a band of the hysteresis.

Like you will see AC will turn ON because if you are setting the switch let us say 25 degree
centigrade, when it will turn ON let us say it is 25.2 again it will continue to chill down and
while the actually your temperature goes below let us say 24 point it will again turn ON. So the
bandwidth is basically 4 degree. So it is something like this. This type of control is either
possible with the constant T ON or constant frequency.

We can do either of it. So generally, we will prefer constant frequency. So we will have a ease of
designing the component as well as choice of the switches. The type of control; this type of
control is possible when load is inductive. So please note that when actually you have this issues

322
are coming to the picture. And this type of control strategy reduces the ripple current with
increasing this switching frequency and the switching losses.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:43)

So ultimately you will have a iL and the Imax. You will be restricting it to the Imin and Imax
and ultimately you will have the switches that is Imax and Imin so T ON will be there when this
ramp on; once actually it is sitted to Imax come down and it will be following like continuously
it will follow.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

Now while discussing this control strategy we shall apply this into the Buck converter. And it is
quite relevant you know we have R-L load it may be so then the Buck converter or the actually

323
the Buck chopper its feeding a DC motor separately excited DC motor so where this is basically
R can be the armature resistance and this is the inductance part of it, it is a feed part of it that is
giving to the LA and you got a back Emf because motor is working and gives you a constant
voltage, so we can have something like this.

Or you may be searching the battery. So that kind of application also we can model as a R-L
load. So we have already discussed various type of DC to DC converter now let us discuss the
Buck converter. The output voltage and current of the DC to DC converter and these strategies
already been discussed.

So in this lecture detail analysis of the Buck control converter with R-L load, R-L and the bank
Emf or the battery is been considered and Thyristor as a switching device has been discussed. So
and this since it is a Thyristor actually we require to have a force commutation otherwise it will
continue to flow.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:56)

So you give a get pulse and if it is actually and it will trigger it ON thereafter, you may off
basically the you may off basically the get current. And current will ramp on. But if it is instead
of this Thyristor if it is other devices like IGBT you require to actually give a continuously get
voltage or get current.

324
So current will flow like this and accordingly actually the load will get the voltage Vs and where
this dotter line corresponds to the value of the back Emf or the batter voltage. So here you have
triggered it off by forced commutations or if it is IGBT then by actually the switches by
withdrawing the get pulses.

Then what will happen then voltage; load voltage will come down and ultimately since you got a
freewheeling diode ultimately current will take this shape and no voltage will be appearing to it.
And if it is actually commutated; it is actually discontinuous mode of conduction and current
become 0 at this point then again we have a motor inertia that will be in second and this
phenomenon are in microsecond; sorry this phenomenon is in millisecond or this is again the
voltage will be build up to the value of E.

Again, this thyristor is triggered and ultimately current will flow like this. Please note that this is
basically the current to the thyristor. So if you have a; if the load current is continuous then
actually back Emf will be not manifested in the load or the battery voltage will not be
manifested, you got this kind of waveform in a continuous load current and this will be the
discontinuous load current.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:22)

So let us see what we have observed. The procedure of finding the maximum and the minimum
value of the load current assuming the continuous conduction mode is required to be discussed

325
here and we will find out the equations based on the continuous conduction mode or critical
conduction mode.

There are two modes of operation during mode 1 when t=0 thyristor is ON, Df is OFF till t=T
ON. During this period the load current increases. The induced Emf across the inductor is
positive having the same polarity as that of the input voltage, opposing it. Mode-2, mode-2 is
started by commutations of the thyristors and t=T ON, thyristor get turned OFF by the auxiliary
circuits; we have auxiliary commutation circuits.

And Df get turned ON and so the load current is start decreasing and the induced Emf across the
inductor changes its polarity and this create voltage across the diode becomes positive till t=T or
the complete of the duration. So we shall write the equation for the T ON.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:54)

When switch is ON, the sequence of the load current during this interval is Vs=Ri0+L di0 + back
Emf, so you can take back Emf or the battery voltage in this part and you can rewrite the
equations. And we can solve this equation ultimately it will be a first order differential equation
and the first order any differential equation are the initial value problem, so to find it out the
constant A and B.

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The current in the load, current is as same as source current during this interval. The values of
the load current i0 at t=0 and at t=T ON are Imin and Imax respectively. So at the beginning it
was Imin so it will turn it, it will go up to the Imax, so ultimately we can find it out t=0 such as
A+B=Imin and at t=infinity that value=I0 that value equal to B so B-B R. And so A become
Imin-B E/R.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:10)

So we can substitute this results so the whole equation becomes I0 Vs-E/R 1-t/Tau+ where Tau is
the actually T ON. So Imin E to the power t/Tau. So at T ON, so I0=Imax so we can substitute
that value of the Imax here Vs-E/R 1-t/ instead of that Tau is a substitute T ON, so you get this
equation Imax/Imin=Vs-E/R 1-T ON/Tau. So this is the equations for mode-1. Mode-2 just
actually it will start from the Imax and actually aimed at Imin. So same equations but you do not
have any input voltage. So I0+L di/dt + E, so you can rewrite this equation like this.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:11)

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Same way you can have a solutions of the load current. So we can actually get t=0 so that value
equal to A+B*Imax t=infinity it will be actually B-E/R, so while substituting you can get the
value actually –E/R 1-e to the power –t/Tau+Imin E to the power –t/Tau. So once you write these
equations actually you get Imax E to the power T OFF/Tau-Imin=-E/R 1-T OFF/Tau.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:56)

So you just equate. Since Imax and Imin are the boundary condition they are same. So second,
this second expression is obtained mode-2 between Imax and Imin so for this two equations you
an equate. So Imax=Vs/R 1-T ON/Tau 1-t/Tau-E/R or you have this expression. Similarly, Imin
you can have the expression Vs/R T ON/Tau 1-e to the power t/Tau-1 or you can have this

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expression. So these are the actually the current varying between Imax and Imin in case of the
Step down chopper with the Thyristors or the Buck converter feed in early on.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:58)

Now let us analyze the Buck Chopper for the concept of ripple current. Because we want a
steady state current we have seen that while turn ON actually current goes to the Imax that is
coming to the Imin for the continuous conduction mode and this is the waveform for the
critically conduction mode. Now, as we have talked about the load current varies between the
maximum and the minimum values.

If Imax; Imin touches 0 then we will say that it is in a critical conduction mode. Therefore, from
this previous analysis we can write that what should be the content of the ripple that mean that
actually del I that is recall to Imax-Imin. So you can substitute, you can subtract Imax-Imin we
have got our expressions of Imax and Imin that is Vs/R 1-e to the power T ON/Tau*1-e to the
power t-T ON/Tau/1-e to the power t/Tau.

And if you simplify multiply this equations you know, so essentially you get Vs/R 1-e to the
power T ON/Tau*1-e to the power T OFF/Tau/1-e to the power t/Tau. Now, if you can
investigate this equations you know, let us put you know k is the basically the duty cycle. So k is
the duty cycle and it is T ON/T and the expression becomes actually Vs/R 1-e –kT/Tau 1-kT that
is basically T OFF/Tau/T.

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So essentially, its per unit ripple value if you say in terms of the percentage it is Imax-Imin by
actually the average value that is nothing but Vs/R it will be basically that will depend on 1-e to
the power kT/Tau*1-1-kT/Tau/1-e to the power T/Tau. Now accordingly you can see that the
value of this Imax-Imin will actually varying by this equations. So thank you for your attention.
In next class we shall continue with the different kind of isolated converter and different kind of
chopper in the next class. Thank you.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 21
Non Isolated & Isolated DC-DC Converters and Choppers

Welcome to our lecture on Advanced Power Electronics and Control. Today we are going
actually it is a quite elaborated topic that is left out portion of the isolated non-isolated DC-DC
converter and thereafter we will actually talk about SMPS essentially in isolated this is the DC
converter. And for the high power application there we have choppers. So let use actually talk
about new topology of the BUCK-BOOST converter that is called the Cuk Converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

Cuk Converter essentially a BUCK-BOOST converter but there is one difference in it. The
polarity of the output will be opposite to the polarity of the DC voltage supply, otherwise it is a
versatile DC to DC converter you can BUCK it you can BOOST it. So we have actually two
inducted here L1 and L2, it is actually because what is in the input side and constitute the part of
the circuit and this part is actually constitute the BUCK part of the circuit and we had already
discussed it.

And we have to choose this value of the inductor in a such a way in switching frequency so that
this inducted current are in a continuous conduction mode. And C1 and C2 are chosen in such a

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way that capacitor voltage will have a negligible ripple. So we can assume that DC1 and DC2 is
almost constant. And all the analysis done in the steady state of the circuits.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:12)

And let us go for the analysis of the circuit. So once it is ON so you have this characteristic. So
this switch is sorted ultimately you will get this polarity of this capacitor will get this polarity
and ultimately you know current iL2 will try to flow through this capacitor and will have a
opposite polarity here. And when switch is closed then basically what happen this DC1 will
come as a power of the input circuits and ultimately the iL2 will flow through this.

So ultimately iL2 will flowing through this and thus you will have a reverse polarity. So this is
the characteristics of operation of the Cuk converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:09)

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Now we can write the Volt-second balance that is actually Vin actually DT + Vin - Vc1 1-D*T,
where D is the Duty cycle that is Tm/T. Now Vm called to 1-1 Vm 1-D*Vc1=0 since. So from
there we can calculate the value of the Vc1, Vc1 will be actually Vm 1-D at a same expression
what we will get in a boost topology. Now again for the, we apply the Volt-second balance for
the second inductor that is output side that is L2 so V0+C1*DT V01-D*T0 so you can get and
balance it so V0 will come 1-D*Vc1 become –D Vim-D.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:17)

So from this expression we assume that this current L2 is negligible ripple and so iL2+i0 should
be equal to 0. From there we can write iL2=-i0=V0/R that is average current so D/1-D Vm/R. So
from the power balance if you consider that all devices are ideal so there is no losses, so you can

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write V1 Vin*L1 called to V0*i0 that should be equal to the V square/R so that will be given by
D square/1-D square V square/in, so essentially you know Vm square the input current become
D square/1-D square Vin by that. So this is the analysis of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:13)

So ultimately this is duty cycle. And we assume that this ripple current of this L1 is quite small
so it will restricted by this two zone and you have; it will come down like this once switches off.
And similarly L2 have a this kind of pattern and thus Ic1 will have actually this kind of pattern of
ramping. So similarly, why it is we charging so we will find that it will decrease to a voltage of
Vc1 max and ultimately again it will actually ramp on an ultimately this value is IL1 MIN.

So what you can see here, so this portion actually, so have up this actually Vc1 MIN value of the
Vc1 is this one, so inductor current is essentially will be actually storing the energy and this is
the area where it will be dissipating the energy. So and this is the voltage of Vc2 and this will
have a ripple and we will get this kind of voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:35)

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So from this IL MAX is definitely is basically IL MIN + VL DI DT that can be replaced by
actually this equation DVin/L1 so IL pick to pick ripple will be actually this essentially it will be
this term. So if you add up and divided it by 2 so that become the average value of the inducted
current so that value is basically 2D square 1-D square V square/in if you actually divide it by 2
then this 2 will get canceled.

So IL MAX essentially is that D*1-D square + RT/2L*D*Vin/R and IL1 MIN = D/1-D square –
RT/2L1 DVin/R. So we can write that actually similarly IL MAX=IL MIN – V0/L2 1- D*T so
you can replace this equation by Vin/ since actually V0 will have a negative sign of this Vin so
negative sign will be observed so Vin/L2*DT. So ripple in the secondary inductor will be
basically or the second inductor will be L2 MAX-L2 MIN then value will be Vin DT/L2.

So average value will be basically half of the load; average value will be half of this value that is
actually 2I2=2D/1- D Vin/R, so I2 MAX will be actually essentially will this value and IT MIN
will be essentially this value. So this will be the factor. RT/2L2* this factor this is a common part
of it. So all these analysis is being done consider that low inductor ripple and the low capacitor
ripple and it is in a continuous conduction mode.

So now require to calculate the ripple voltage. And this values has to be negligibly small. Okay.
So that actually you can choose in such a way that value becomes small. Essentially it has to be

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you know taken example you now actually what should the value of the ripple so it should be
restricted 10% of the average current so you know, Vin will have some let us say 10 and T on
can be you know actually 10 to the power -4 and you know this value can be of any value, so it
can be 10 to the power -3.

So the average is coming out to be actually little less. Okay. In that way actually you will have a
quite low ripple current and generally ripple current has been restricted around 10% of this
actually or the load current for a for this analysis. And if it is further more than the analysis will
change.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:16)

So for calculating ripple voltage same way we can integrate over the Vc1 for the T ON time of
the duty cycle that is 1/c1 0 to T IC1 DT, so it will we know that actually the same issue reverse
back to this actually this figure you can see that actually current which is actually flowing its
ICL1 in case of switch off mode and ICL2 in case of the switch on mode. So we can integrate
over it so this value will be essentially IL2*DT.

So from there we require to calculate the actually the ripple, so DT/C1 IL MAX + IL MIN + this
one, so ultimately so this value will be given by; so this is quite important because while you are
designing you will be asked to design that the ripple current. So ripple current should be 1% or
10% or 5% that will be prescribed by your actually requirement.

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So ultimately you know you have to choose this value. So because you know it is something in
your hand so because you know that what should be the input supply. So duty ratio will be in
such that you know actually will you will fix that L2 in such a way within a range that you get
desired ripple up to this. And same way here, so you require to have a desired ripple value may
be 5% of Vc1, so I0DT/C1 so from there actually you can restrict this value of the ripple.

So you can substitute in terms of actually if you do not want to keep the any term in terms of I0
I0 is something actually depend on the load so you can change this value actually Vin/R so
ultimately this equation becomes D Square Vin DT RC1 1-D square. So this will be the amount
of the ripple. And so, similarly, we can calculate the value of the second capacitor and similar
way and we lead to this expression basically Vin DT square 8Lc L2 C2.

So from there the second equation can be calculated. So this is the all the analysis so after this
analysis hope we can design actually BUCK-BOOST converter that will be given for your
design. So this is your input voltage and this is output voltage; and we want and this much of
ripple into the capacitor to capacitor and inductor and please choose all those devices. So this can
be a assignment and you required to find read out and design a actually Cuk converter.

Now let us come to the little high power applications. So generally this is a single switch and this
works very well for below let us say kilovolt level. So when you require to run a DC motor and
quite high rating then of course Thyristor is your only the choice or the J0. And you want a
different kind of operations of your DC motor. Because still now interaction DC series motor
still input into the applications and it has many utility and; since it is still existing and still it is
going a way and till it has a life we do not want to face it out.

We rather retrofit at converter in front of it that is essentially the chopper and that will give you
the more efficiency and the required performance. And for this reason we have a different kind
of chopper. Chopper essentially are the essentially DC to DC regulator gives you the unregulated
DC to the regulated DC but one basic difference is that its switching frequency is quite low and

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its power rating is quite high for this reason the Cuk converter mostly uses switches a MOSFET
and here you will find and it is a unidirectional and you will find that actually.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:07)

There is a different kind of mode operation on the chopper. First kind of mode is Class A
chopper that is essentially a first quadrant chopper, first quadrant means actually it will be
restricted in the Iv characteristics first quadrant so it is only the positive operation it means that
they will take voltage and current from the source and it will be sync. So only motoring
operation is possible mostly it is fitting to the DC motor.

And if you want the second quadrant operations, so this is a Two kind of second quadrant
operation is possible is this or this. So we shall see that if you want that regenerative operation so
we will have a actually a second quadrant operation and that is also basically Class B is also the
first quadrant operation but you will have some entities of the regenerative breaking essentially it
operate in a four quadrant. And thereafter you have a C chopper that will operate in both the two
quadrant.

And then we will have Class D chopper which is also to quadrant but it is basically it will change
the directions. And there is a Class E chopper it will operate both the directions as well as
regenerative breaking is possible. First A is the motoring, B is the regenerative, if you combine

338
A and B you can get C you get actually motoring and the regenerative actually constructive into
the same circuit so essentially this becomes the Class C.

And if you incorporate basically the directional change so that you can go forward direction the
reverse direction, then Class D chopper is used. And Class D chopper with the regenerative will
become Class E. So this is the actually the consideration.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:17)

Now this is the Iv characteristics of this the chopper so you got a one Thyristor mostly and it has
to be commutated by the conversation or you can use DTO. So you have a get pulses generally
you have a this much of get pulse it is not followed. But if it is other kind of devices like IGBT
or something because you know GTO are little constant get current to be maintained so that its
forward conduction not required to be little lower.

So for this reason we have drawn this IG current, if it is Thyristor it was enough to once it is
triggered so no more get current is require. So it can be GTO as well as Thyristor. So, and you
have a actually a freewheeling diode to actually once it is off so current will circulate to it. And
mostly it will have our LE kind of load because it is a fitting at DC motor you have a resistance
that is armature resistance or the you can model in the mechanical power of the energy
conversion as a resistance.

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And thereafter you get an inductor because there is a huge series thereafter you have got a ((back
emf)) (18:36) that can be modeled as a constant DC source. So you got a; and we assume that
current inductance is quite high and due to the heavy torch a current is continuous so you will
have a actually current once it is switched on so it is actually current will rise like this; once it is
switched off so actually current will free wheel through the diode so current will drop and so on
it will continue.

And output voltage since it is a continuous conduction mode so if diode is conducting and we
assume that drop across the diode is negligible. So once it is ON actually the whole voltage
comes across the load. Once it is OFF then voltage goes to the drop across the diode here will it
is neglected so we will get a 0 voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:29)

Now when chopper is ON the supply voltage phase is connected to the load so you get V0=Vs.
When chopper is OFF output voltage become 0 because of the freewheeling action, so ultimately
you can see that it is when; it is shorted since it is shorted so this output voltage become 0 and
load current continuous to flow in the same direction due to the inductive loading and through
the free wheel diode.

The average value of the output voltage and the current is always positive in Class A chopper.
And for this reason it is called a 1st quadrant operation and it is called a step down chopper as

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power is always flow from source to load and this type of chopper is used to control the speed of
the DC motor. Mostly this is series motor and defined it application in traction.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:29)

Now, this is a Class B generally it is use for please and see that actually this kind of thing is
essentially are basically if you consider this part of the circuit. From this part of the circuit and
just replace this thing switch and from here to here so it will see a boost topology. So this mode
of operation is been done when you want actually battery to be discharged and fit the more
voltage than the battery voltage or actually in a case of a regenerative braking of this DC motor.

So what happen when a switch is ON currently will ramp on and ultimately what happen when
switch is off then high voltage will actually come across it. So output voltage become V+LDI
DT = V0 and that voltage will be higher than V and ultimately it will fit the source, so for this
reason it is called a regenerative mode of operations or since I0 is a negative direction so this will
be a second quadrant operation. So we have a get trigger in pluses so it was off.

Once it is off actually you will have this actually current will go through it then after actually
ones it will be actually flowing like this and output voltage actually when it is ON essentially
becomes 0 and ones become OFF basically this voltage become V0 and this will fit the voltage.
So this is the pulses so till that time voltage was 0, a withdraw pulses voltage become higher you

341
are fitting in the source and ultimately this will be the chopper current I0 which has been shown
here.

At this point, diode conducts and after that you know, this current become 0 and actually the
switch conducts.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:04)

So when chopper is ON, the E the backend of the motor most of the cases will drive the current
through the L and R in opposite direction. So it will fit the source. During ON period the chopper
inculcator L stores energy, so output voltage V0=0. When chopper is OFF, diode D conducts and
a part of energy stored in the inductor L is returned to the supply.

So the output voltage V0=E+L(di/dt). The average output voltage is positive, but average output
current in this case is negative and its fit to the source. So therefore, the class B chopper operates
in 2nd quadrant and this choppers power flow for the load to source so it is known as step of
chopper and it is used for the regenerative braking of the DC motor.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:11)

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Now, Class C Chopper, essentially it will combine if you see actually this if you see this part of
the chopper is a forward conduction mode for the Class A chopper. And this diode essentially
makes it the CH1 if it is operated then generally D2 is operated. And if you want CH to be
operated then D1 is operated, So CH1 D2 will have will make this chopper class A chopper and
CH and D1 will make the chopper class B chopper.

And if you combine whole thing that becomes class C chopper that will operate in this quadrant.
So, your get pulses for chopper 1 if you ON the chopper 1 then voltage current will flow through
it and till this time actually this is ON. So CH1 will be ON and actually it will get the normal
load current. Then, automatically the free wheel action will start ultimately you will find that this
diode D2 is conduct. Similarly, thereafter CH will be ON and it will have a forward motoring
mode with the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:10)

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Then, so let us see does it operate. Class C chopper can be used for the step up and the step
down. Class C chopper is a combination of class A and the class B chopper. 1st quadrant
operation of CH1 and ON is on or D2 conducts and for the 2nd quadrant CH2 ON or D1
conducts. When CH1 is ON, load current is positive.

And ON time interval or the ON time interval of the output voltage V is a power flow from load
to source. When CH1 is turned OFF the energy stored into the inductor L forces current to flow
through the diode D2, so the output voltage becomes 0 when current continues to flow in the
positive direction. When CH2 is triggered the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite
direction through L and CH2 therefore, the voltage should be equal to 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:23)

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So when CH2 is turned OFF, the energy stored into the inductor drives the current through the D
and supply so the voltage becomes V. The input current becomes negative and power flows from
load to source. Therefore, in this type of chopper the average output voltage is always positive
but average output current can be positive or negative, so that is the thing. So it can be both the
polarity. So current is bidirectional.

Therefore, it operates both in 1st and 2nd quadrant. And CH1 and CH2 should not be turn ON
simultaneously generally when it is when used as a complementary logic so CH1 is ON CH2 has
to be OFF and vice versa. And it will lead to the short circuit of the supply. We have to ensure
that actually proper time gap is given between the turn on and turn off this devices or this is
actually diode comes into the picture, once CH1 is ON there will be a delay then CH2 can be
ON, and in between diode will flow.

Class C chopper is a combination of the class A and the class B chopper and it can be used for
DC motor speed control for motoring mode for armature voltage control and the regenerative of
the DC motor when you want diode actually the source required to be searched from this actually
the DC motor. So but there is issue involved, most of this actually you would have studied that if
it is; power flow is unidirectional, so while using this mode this mode we require to be little
cautious.

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This source will have a capability to observe power. Most of the cases you know actually we
generate this voltage by rectification by that diode which rectifier. And thus it is unidirectional
current and flow to the AC side to the DC side. Unless you use a full control converter or the
active rectifier so power is not possible to actually fit it back to the source.

So then what will happen if there is a capacitor this voltage will swell up, so this is one of the
issues while actually operating in a regenerative braking if it is run through the get mode. So for
this reason we may add a braking resister here if we want actually the protection of this set.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:33)

Now come to the Class D chopper. Class D chopper is essentially you know what it does do it
can actually change the directions of the motor, so it is reverse rotating is possible. And so it has
a forward motoring mode and the reverse motoring mode. So this IG1, if it is Thyristor it will be
it will require a very small amount of current. But we require to add commutation circuit for it so
either of it, so it will continue to conduct like that.

And in this mode we say that it is a forward motoring mode, so Thyristor T CH1 and the CH2
will conduct and ultimately will be rising in this direction as shown here. And then what happen
when it is Thyristor is OFF then diode will come into the picture of the conduction. So diode D1
D2 will conduct here and you will get a negative voltage. Since you are getting a negative
voltage while conduction of the D1 D2 for this it will operate 1st and 4th quadrant.

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Please remember that class C operate this quadrant and it is a combination of the motoring
forward motoring and the regeneration and it is the forward motoring and the reverse motoring.
So you will get this kind of voltages and ultimately as you see that you can make the directions
of the E negative it means that the direction of the; if you can make negative it means that you
can lead the motor to rotate in the reverse direction. So it is also a 2-quadrant operation.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:40)

Both CH1 and CH2 are ON at a time and output voltage becomes V0 and the current will flow
through the load. Please note that here the average output voltage is positive. You can actually
change it like this then output average assuming that current is a continuous conduction mode,
average output voltage can be made negative and thus you are applying a negative voltage and it
will be actually operating the actually in the negative direction.

When CH1 and the CH2 are turned OFF, the load current actually is assumed to be continuous
and so that it is actually has a high torch to deliver. And continuous to flow in the same direction
through diode D1 D2 due to the inductive load and this output voltage become –V. The average
load voltage is positive if chopper is ON is more than the time of T OFF and vice versa. So if is
T ON it is more than T OFF then it is the forward motoring mode.

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If it is T OFF in more than T ON it is a reverse motoring mode. And therefore, load current flows
always in a positive direction but the voltage changes positive where the load voltage changes to
the positive and the negative voltage polarity. This type of chopper operates in 1st and the 4th
quadrant that is actually the for the motoring purpose we say that forward motoring and the
reverse motoring mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:27)

So another thing is that Class E chopper there is a combination of all forwarding motoring,
regenerative braking, forward regenerative braking, reverse motoring and the reverse
regenerative braking. We shall continue to our discussion with the Class C chopper in our next
class. Thank you for your attention.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 22
Isolated DC-DC Converters and Choppers

Okay welcome to our lectures on the advance power electronics and control today we shall
discuss about the remaining part of the chopper there after we shall switch over to the isolated
DC to DC to DC converters. So let us come to the point where we have left that is basically class
E chopper.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

It is actually all the mode of operations for it is possible. So first quadrant mostly so first
squadron mostly CH1 and CH2 is on while it is actually current flow in these directions and CH2
and DH2 conducts. So when it is actually regenerative braking then just this will have an
interchange this nomenclature will have a inter change that is CH2 n D4 will conduct so CH2
and D4 will conduct and you will get a regenerative braking.

And since the voltage is positive and you essentially get a forward voltage mode and motor will
be actually operating in the same directions and it is that motoring and then the regenerative
braking. Same way if you wish to operate D3 conducts D2 D3 conducts and then for the

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regenerative mode then for this actually CH4 and D2 conducts then essentially your voltage will
be reversed.

And you will be operating in actually reverse motoring mode because your current is positive but
your voltage is negative. And it is just opposite to it where you have a regenerative braking and it
is possible to our regenerative braking and also in the reverse direction. So you will find CH2
CH3 will conduct this will be conducting so current will have a changes directions and CH2 and
D4 will conduct.

So here please note that in this mode and this motor essentially you see that one of the changes
here you can point it out very easily what are the things it will conduct. So here if current flows
this direction of course you have to operate CH1 and CH4 so this will be operating and since
current in unit directional so then the next case of course CH4 and D2 will conduct for octane
and current will be always positive.

And now in this genre you can find that CH2 and CH3 on same way so this will be on and CH2
and D4 will conduct here CH4 and D2 here it is CH2 and D4 just actually the mirror image of
this operation same way here and here you will find that basically CH4 D2 conducts here you
will find that CH2 D4 conducts and also the diode will have an interchange because D1 and D4
will conduct in this operation.

Because voltage is positive and in this case since voltage is negative D2 D3 will conduct. But
here this will fast on will be when D on will be operated by CH24 but first D2 and D3 will
conduct in reverse mode there after followed by CH4 and D2. So this is the 4 quadrant operation
of the chopper.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:38)

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So gradually let us brief on what we have discussed class E chopper is a 4 quadrant chopper
CH1 and CH4 are on then output current flows in the positive direction through CH1 and CH4 .
So the output voltage is positive and =V0 and it gives a first quadrant motoring operation when
CH1 and CH4 are off the output current I0 flows to the same direction to the load current D2 and
D3 due to the inductive load.

And current to assume to be the continuous so the output voltage becomes negative hence
chopper operates in the 4th quadrant when CH2 and CH3 are triggered there after then the load
current i0 flows in opposite direction and the output voltage also become negative and motor will
start operating in a reverse direction. So both V0 and i0 are negative chopper operating third
quadrant.

And there after when CH2 and CH3 are off and load kind flows in the same direction as before
through the load and D1 and D4 due to the inductive loading earning and hi constant current high
value of the current because of the may be the high track and we assume that current to be
continuous not necessary constant. So output voltage be can V0 and so it is basically the 4
quadrant operation. So since V0 is positive and i0 is negative again chopper will come to that
second quadrant.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:25)

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Now let us come to the new topic that is very important for more present perspectives this is
again as DC to DC converter and this DC to DC converter requires there is a little bit change of
this DC to DC converter what we have discussed it. So we all are aware of this term SMPS
switch mode power supply and switch mode power supply this name is familiar with our history
goes with the desktop.

So we say that switch mode power supply is operating already this is a faulty or whatever it may
be SMPS so there is a actually a point of using the SMPS. SMPS essentially as synonymously
used as isolated DC to DC converter so why isolation we have to flow power from input to the
output and that load may be very sensitive like your desktop like your laptop like your mobile.

And you want that disturbances also surges or any other disturbances okay input side should not
cripple or damage your highly sensitive load are you got a load side protections and for this what
you want you know in between there will be a flux linkage on galvanic isolation and due to that
you get a more controlled power or more purified power more safe power at the output and that
is a one of the best advantage of SMPS.

And SMPS you know this magnetics comes into the pictures are not bulky because you know it
uses the high frequency and the size of the core is reduced and you may have a compact
packaging also which who can refer you can refer to those actual charger of iPhone it is quite

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compact so it uses the same kind of circuit. So it is an electric power that incorporates switching
regulator to convert the electric power with high efficiency.

We can convert power and also with a huge change in an input and the output variation. Let us
see you are using a mobile charger and you have taken to the countries where it actually supply
voltage 110 volt it is an 220 volt in India. So you should be able to use that so their SMPS fights
its application like your laptop which are using in India it is not like that you would not be able
to use the same laptop charger in USA.

Because please understand that all of us most of the laptops are now manufactured in Taiwan and
it has been actually totally exported to the various countries so this has a compatibility is
available with your laptop charger. Like linear power supply SMPS too converts the available
unregulated DC to AC input voltage to a regulated DC voltages. Most of the cases, your plugin
so you get a rectification.

So far this you got a unregulated DC stage and you may your voltage may actually sack soil
surge anything can happen but you get a regulated DC at your output voltage. The SMPS input
supplier is drawn from the AC supply then it is rectified and filtered by the capacitor and you
have seen the challenges. Nowadays, actually modern way of rectification is a PWM rectification
which we have already discussed.

The unregulated DC supply across the capacitor then past the high frequency DC to DC
converter because in between you have a high frequency magnetics high frequency transformer
used in SMPS is small in size since you know that actually V=BANF there will be a cost and
generally if it is sinusoidal it will be 4.44. So if you can increase the frequency so the same
voltage reckoning for these value.

Essentially it is a B and the area B is the flux density and area of the A is the area of the core. So
B will be depending on the material you can choose a different material and thus value of the A
will decrease. The high frequency transformer used in SMPS is much smaller in size due to that

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and weight compared to the low frequencies actually transformer used in linear power supply
generally we have most of the use most of you have done

Basically used it for your BTB project all you will be using it so we use actually IC regulator
7805 that gives you regulated 5 volt and essentially what you do your solution is quite bulky
what you do essentially you actually rectify you have you use a very bulky transformer of 0 to 12
+ -12 actually 220 volt to 12 volt or 9 volt from there actually you get it rectified by a bridge
rectifier that you put a filter and then you put this 7805.

That is series IC regulator so that is a way of doing it and you can you have if you have used it
you can imagine that how actually bulky is your solution and instead of that actually same thing
is has been done by your laptop your mobile charger and how compact it is. So high frequency
transformer so the switch in SMPS is turn on and turn off at high frequency and that is a
challenge you know.

So for this reason what happened we generally preferred MOSFET as a suitable design and most
of your below 100 kilowatts these are all MOSFETs sorry below 100 watts these are all
MOSFETs.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

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During the ON time switch on time the switch is actually in a saturation mode so that you have a
low conduction losses or that negligible voltage drop across a collector and the emitter or the in
case of the IGBT or the drain and source in case of the MOSFETs. So if you require to go a little
bit of higher power rating then you get to use the IGBT. The OFF time of the switch is in cut off
mode and with a negligible current through the collectors and emitters or drain and source and
thus turn of losses is basically at the when it is switch off.

So there is almost open circuit condition prevails and when it is switch on short circuit condition
prevails. The voltage regulation in the same place its achieved by varying the ratio of T on and T
off. Same way we have seen that plug boost and plug boost converter and Cuk converter. So
some SMPS instead of using high frequency transformer. Use high frequency chopper is used for
the higher priority.

Generally, it uses GTO but of course you have to be operated around sub kilo hertz frequency.
So maximum you can go as high as actually a 1 kilo hertz and your power rating can be much
higher you know around 100 kilowatt. So let us come to the linear IC regulator you have most of
users used this.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

Actually I was naming 7805 7812 that is 12 volt regulated IC and mostly where actually input
and output are very close we will be using this kind of IC. So let us see the principle operation of

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this IC regulator. Mostly these are quite actually these are used for the for the great driver
circuits of this converters. The linear regulator system is used to maintain the steady voltage
these facts is a desirable resistors continuously adjust.

And a voltage driver network to maintain that cost and voltage but you have to ensure that this
input and output voltage are quite close to each other to have high efficiency the difference
between the input voltage and the regulated voltage is dissipated as a heat. So if it is a huge
difference the huge chunk of the energy is being dissipated as a heat. So that will be inefficient
solution moreover actually will provide a sink to the actually dissipate the heat. So there are two
type of regulator 1 is shunt regulator another is series regulator.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:43)

So shunt regulator is essentially who can simplify like this there is a you have studied in the
analogue electronics. So that is you got a current control resistance and this a Zener it will have a
sharp cut off voltage and you will get a regulated voltage here. So Shunt regulator provides a
path for the supply of the voltage but there will be a constant power dissipation across this R1
path supply the voltage to the ground through the variable resistance.

So the current through the shunt regulator instead of the flowing through the load uselessly flow
to the ground so it is less efficient than the series regulator and it can be used for the low power
circuit where wastage of the current is too small and generally it is used for the gate driver or

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actually or biasing of the transistors in signal level. Now let us come to the second point that is
this is a series IC regulator.

See that and what happened that these IC regulator actually will have feedback anyway there are
more common and efficient solutions actually what I was talking a little bit ago 7805 seven 0/80
0 table these are all series regulator. It works by providing a path from supply voltage to the load
through the variable resistance. Power dissipated by regulating the device equal to the product of
the power supply output current and the voltage drop of the regulating devices.

So actually if you variable resistance then voltage will change if voltage is changed and 1 current
will flow and then actually we have to regulate this voltage we will come the next circuit I will
see that how does it operate and it is operated by a feedback. So for the better efficiency and
reduce the stress across the devices regulator should be design to minimize the voltage drop.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:56)

So we can find this actually IC regulator everywhere for the low power applications in case of
the automation like you know you use mostly a multi we use basically a processor or the or this
actually microcontroller and you know the simplest microcontroller you might be using for the
BTB projects and all. So that is that can we use for the automation so you can use it for this
medical operations so you require a very regulated power supply.

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And they are actually you do not want that actually the switching. Switching willing actually
gives you the Mi MC and that is not actually possible to use so and that could be hazardous to
the patient so in that kind of applications we are monitoring any voltage or current. Voltage or
pulse rate or something or amplifying. So there kind of these applications actually this IC
regulator is preferred motorcycle E bikes and the small electric vehicles.

So they are also where voltage difference is not very large because you have a 12-volt supply
and also you have an almost 12-volt consumption. So there you can use you can use for the data
processing electro mobility and other drives and you can use for the lighting and the smart grid
technology.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:24)

Now let us come to the SMPS so you can use those things but if this actually mostly you use
those things for because you actually verify the concept without the prototype but in actual
practical application where power rating become high then we have to replace this IC regulator
by SMPS. One of the advantage of the SMPS of the it will have a lower weight with the power
rating and the smaller in size higher in efficiency reduce cost and lower power dissipations and
high power rating it is possible to go for the SMPS with a megawatt level.

Because you may have a offshore wind power plant and you would want to transmit that power
to the HVDC link and that is also possible by a DC to DC converter. Wide AC input variation

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range which as I was talking you know same laptop charger can we use to in India and the USA
but disadvantageous is that design is a challenge you know. So there is a potential for the future
engineer like you actually and there is a huge scope of and the huge job market for it.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:50)

So essentially this is a block diagram of SMPS you got an inputs it may be actually regulated
unregulated DC or AC. In case of this if you are using a solar panel kind of thing then it is a
unregulated DC because its input voltage will change. Input voltage and current voltage will
change according to the duration and the temperature. And this is a Mains input then they are
really rectifier so if it is basically Ac input.

Then you have a inverter chopper will see to it actually how does it work so and it will be high
frequency thereafter you have a transformer that is basically y high frequency transformer then
you have filters to filter out the ripples and makes it DC and this filter and before that there will
be rectifier and generally we use a different kind of rectification that is called a synchronous
rectification D on the MOSFET is quite low instead of the diode drop.

So we can go for the lower losses by switching also and there is a DC output and you will be
controlling the switching in such a way that you can get a regulated output voltage in this point
and you know there if there is a step down and step up operation you can play with the

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transformers trans ratio. So that is the one of the biggest advantage of it so if you are actually
bucking up voltage like 20 times 30 times.

Then actually one of the disadvantage of the continuous conduct of the non-isolated DC to DC
converter is that duty cycle will be quite low. So you know feel bucking to 300 to 5 bolt that is
actually kind of a bucking you will get in case of your laptop a mobile charger mobile because if
you have a you are feeding to the actually through a diode based rectifier the peak voltage of the
DC is around 300 volt and since it is takes a very negligible amount of the current.

So actually you get almost a 300 volt and you are actually getting a regulated 5 volt. So if you
use a non-insulated DC to DC converter so actually K actually what essentially you will get is
basically 5/300 and you will be forced to operate in a discontinuous conduction mode and what
we have studied all the analysis and this ratio is also flawed then. Because we are derived it for
the continuous conduction mode.

But here you got an advantage here so you can also play with the trans ratio you can actually
buck you can bucket by this transformer here and also you know you can have 2200 volt by 110
volt and you need not go to USA because if you are charging your mobile also in the trend that
also has a 110 volt supply.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:11)

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So it is a quite important aspect and its control is quite challenging and thus people like you has
an advantage to walk on it. The rectifier stages MPS is used when input is AC supply but SMPS
with the DC supply does not require a rectifier stage. So you can have a huge variation of your
input rectifier stage provides a regulator DC which further process to the filter in what does stage
converts DC to AC.

By running through it the power oscillators with a small with small output transformer frequency
ranging from 10 to hundred kilohertz. And the power rating is actually just reverse so it can go to
1 kilohertz to 1 kilowatt to 100 watt. For isolation the output from the input 1 frequency of
transformer is used which can step up or step down voltage according to the requirement. So as
the output requirement is DC.

The voltage of the trial the output transformer is again pass to that rectifier circuits and filter and
it gives you the refills almost a ripple free DC. Feedback circuit compares the output voltage
they will be outer we have discussed that thing in a buck and boost converter analysis. Feedback
circuits compares the output voltage with the reference voltage and produces a necessarily small
signals for the switching used for the control of the converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

Now this we have named 5 topologies of the isolated dissipated second converter and these are
essentially ascending order of the power. So fly back can be operated maximum around 250 watt

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it is a challenge to have a fly back to be designed mode than 250 watt. So there after till around 2
kilowatt. So all your laptop charger SMPS of your desktop your mobile charger essentially falls
into this category of fly back converter.

Now forward converter it will have a ranges of around 2 kilowatt and which you have which
might be using mostly of your power supply DC power supply in your labs or have a little high
current requirement like LED drivers or you have the for the lightings and all those issues you
may use the forward converter and if you actually of course you know getting the forward
converter over till 2 kilowatt It is also a challenge.

Because you know till now you can use MOSFETS now we required and basically switching
frequency it can go as high as a 100 kilo hertz for hard to switching and there is also a concept
called soft switching that is ZVS that is 0 voltage ad 0 current switching then you can go as I has
you know 500 kilohertz may be. Depending on this parameter of the MOSFETs otherwise
actually we restrict it to 100 kilo watts.

Because actually can this switching losses will predominates and so we have to choose higher
rating MOSFETS here and this can be maximum we can operate in a range of the 20 kilohertz
we shall see that why it has been restricted and there is a push pull converter so you can go out as
high yes 5 kilo watt and you can extend that range to the 10 kilo watt and thus you required to
use IGBTs and maximum frequency can we you know in the range of 10 kilo hertz.

And of course there is no harm we in push pull water operating for this 250 watts and you can
choose a switching frequency of 100 kilohertz. So generally we do not do that so we have this
kind of break up because this is simply a circuit and get really the number of switches get
increased. Because this solution is a 1 switch solutions this solution is also 1 switch solutions but
magnetics will be higher

We shall see that actually we should have a higher magnetic component here. Push pull is
essentially the 2 switch solution and half bridge is also 2 switch solutions and there after full
bridge is a 4 switch solution. Now there are few issues involved of the DC to DC converter since

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in between you have a transformer. So if you once you are basically a chopping this and thus
actually current will flow from this to this in case of the normal transfer operation.

You know fly back will be a different will come later so what will happen you know you will be
when you were chopping if you have this kind of voltages and we are applying to the this is a
voltage and we are applying the same to the transformer so then what will happen to the flux this
is the integration of this voltage. So it will ramp on until this point thereafter it will be like this
thereafter on this point and so on.

It will go up and after some point of time actually it will reach the phi m so ultimately this
transformer will be saturating no out no actually no voltage will be linked to the secondary. So
one of the requirement of this all magnetics based solution you require to reset the flux in every
cycle and you have to you have to apply somewhere positive voltage then in some way you will
reset it to the negative voltage

So that actually residual flux in this transformer becomes 0 this is the challenge here of this all
these DC to DC converter. We will see that and due to that switch we will have a high voltage
stress so you want to have this kind of voltage applied then you have to then you cannot continue
to apply negative voltage for the same duration of the time what do we essentially you do a
higher voltage.

And you try to reset this voltage flux this flux this integration of this time voltage come and then
what happened the stress across the switch becomes higher and it should have an also the reverse
blocking capability. So this is the one of the challenge you will see that as how you will reset the
flux. Sooner you try to reset the flux then it will give you a high stress across the switching.
Anyway we have another 3 4 drawbacks of the SMPS.

And we have to address it and we will find it out how it can be done for this is an design of this
actually isolated DC to DC converter little challenging. Thank you so much for your attention.
Thank you.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 23
Isolated DC-DC Converters-II

Welcome to our NPTEL lectures on advance power electronics and the control. Today we will
have a second class on isolated DC to DC converter. So you know we were discussing about the
fly back converter that is a simplest converter in many aspects we have talked about few aspects
that is quite actually required for DC to DC converter and essentially isolated DC to DC
converter comes out with a isolation by a magnetics on the transformer.

So we required to reset the flux in every cycle otherwise the transformer core is saturate and no
energy will fly primary to the secondary.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:12)

And for this it t has a unique feature it is a special kind of transformer and you can see that dot
convection is opposite to the conventional transformer which we have studied yet. So when the
switch is closed then what happens the current flow through this path and this diode is reversed
biased I will just come a little later . Then what happened energy is what happened you know
actually this inductor will actually energize and no current flow to the secondary.

364
And it is called inductor transformer, it has a small layer gap and it will be the energy will be
stored into this area. Once which is closed you required to have our resetting winding which was
not shown in the figure for sake of the simplicity then polarity of this device gets reversed
previously polarity was this one switches off polarity will be this then you required to have a
diode.

And then eventually you will fly back primary to the secondary. For this it is called the fly back
converter. So one of the advantages that is simplicity it and it is a one switch operation it is quite
compact size of the transformer is quite less because its but since it stores the energy in the air
gap so it cannot handle a huge amount of the power and another big disadvantage are big stress
will be on the switches because you require to reset the flux.

And for this you have a resetting winding and we will see that what are the voltage stress comes
out to across the switches. So let us see that wave form of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:16)

And consider that this is a continuous mode of operation when we want to have a continuous
mode of operation and analysis is easy your discontinuous mode of operation which we have
seen into the non-isolated DC to DC converter and analysis is quite complicated and also if you
for the transformer point of view it has a unique problem in that non-isolated in case of the
isolated DC to DC converter.

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This is the I primary and this is I secondary so and this is the value of the reflections and once
actually this is a pre-primary and this is a pre EDC and what happened you know when it is
switches off then polarity of it get reversed and that is proportional to basically V0*NP/NS and
that will last till that actual conduction period of the secondary current once and this is basically
this is the place where actually you got a discontinuous conduction mode.

And you have this current wave form and this is a continuous connection mode and you can see
that this is a wave current wave form and thereafter it is a voltage wave form thereafter it is a
voltage wave form of the primary and current has been dragged the whole time so that you get a
reset of the flux . So volt area curve of this and this should be equal so why do you can see here
you know actually.

Volt area curve=matches continuous conduction mode to stress across switch you will find less
and similarly similar stress continues and this is the constant DC output voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:25)

As the SMPS circuit is operated a very high switching frequency and the range of the 100 kilo
hertz generally MOSFET is implied the input voltage is considered to be constant because you
may have a ripple DC of 50 hertz or 60 hertz and compared to the 100 kilo hertz we can take it as

366
a constant . Any to maintain the desired output voltage a fast switching device like MOSFET is
used and MOSFET has fast dynamic control over the switch duty ratio.

Transformer is used for isolation as well as to get require voltage and the current in the output
side of the output side according to the input. Transformer 1 that is basically the primary and
transformer 2 that is basically the secondary winding of a transformer and maintained with the
good coupling so that they can be linked by nearly same magnetic flux and we say that coupling
is almost 0.95 and that kind of you know value .

Fly back converter is called inductor transformer because there will be a smaller air gap and
energy will restore into it as 1% and the primary winding and the secondary winding does not
conduct instantaneously they are more like a 2 magnetically coupled inductor.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:03)

The output side of the fly back converter is must simplest as for rectification and filtering only 1
diode and 1 capacitor is use for its compactness. So we will find actually the site of the filter is
quite less but since we are using a such a high frequency so size of the filter drastically reduced
when the switch S is turned off a snubber circuit is required to dissipate the stored energy and a
leakage of the first inductor or the first winding.

367
Coupling between 1 and 2 is considered to be ideal for this analysis but coupling can be as high
as 0.9 so the circuit operation is explained without considering the leakage reactance. For simpler
circuit analysis ON state voltage drop of the switch and diodes are neglected and transformer of
winding core loss are also assumed to be loss less so that we can use that actually input
power=output power condition. The input DC is assumed to be ripple free.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:18)

So this is our assumption based on our assumption we are going for this analysis . So mode 1
when switch is on so what happened when switch is on effectively sell he becomes this so
current will flow through it and this is NP/NS .So since diode is reverse bias no power flows into
a secondary. Since this polarity and due to the dot convention you will have this polarity so this
diode will have a reverse biased.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:54)

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Next when switch S ON I ON 1st winding of the transformer get connected to the input supply as
it is the time of the diode which is connected in series with the secondary gets reversed biased
due to the induced voltage in winding 2 or the secondary. Therefore during turn on interval of the
switch current flow in winding one side and no current flows to the second winding flux
generated is entirely due to the current in the first winding.

During this mode input voltage appear across first winding and inductance first winding current
increases linearly so the voltage expressions can be given EDC=L d/dt where EDC is the input
DC voltage and L is the primary inductance.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:00)

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This is primary instantaneous current through the winding 1. Linear rise of that current is shown
in the wave form and since L=l d/dt at the end of mode 1 energy stored in the magnetic field of
the fly back transformer is L pri Ip square/2*IP the magnitude of first wining current at the end
of the conduction period has been shown. During this mode load current continues to flow due to
discharge of the capacitor and assume that this is a continuous conduction mode.

Assuming the large value of the capacitor in winding 2 the voltage almost remains constant you
know actually on period of the switch. So you get essentially the V secondary=V0+EDC NS/NP.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:00)

This is a condition of mode 2 when switch is off and but what happened then basically primary
voltage will be V0*Np/NS so this will be the actually the primary voltage. So ultimately there
we have a voltage stress across a switch that is proportional to V0 NP/NS.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:29)

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When switch is off winding 1 or the primary winding current part is interrupted according to the
law of the magnetic induction and actually it has been switch has been put off the voltage
polarity across this primary winding actually reverses. Polarity reversal in secondary winding
leads to forward bias of diode and therefore current starts flowing into the secondary circuit and
it is going to charge the capacitor which was initially decreasing and the feeding the load.

The mode 2 as circuit 1 current stops due to the turning off the switch S the second circuit
current starts flowing immediately to avoid net mmf change abruptly. In this mode secondary
winding current actually arises from 0 to IP*NP/NS rise to actually rise off the secondary
winding current shown in the wave form which has been here. So this will be the value this has
been actually rice in the wave form of the secondary.

So initially this value will be IP*NS NP/NS, so this will be the value. To avoid any abrupt
change of mmf produced by 2 windings the magnitude of the current direction in winding 2 is
maintained properly by the help of this diode.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:13)

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And capacitor is normally has to be designed so large that one cycle does turn affects its voltage
so it should be able to actually deliver power for the 10 cycles in such a way actually it has been
designed. But after several cycler operation capacitor voltage builds up to its steady state value
so we required to build we require to take the voltage boost up the voltage in steps. Wave form it
has been found that the secondary winding current decays linearly.

And it flows it against the constant output voltage v0 so actually you can see L secondary
*di/dt=-V0 so where L secondary is basically the inductance of the secondary winding and I
secondary is the current in the secondary winding and V0 is thus stabilized magnitude voltage
which is the output voltage you want to achieve. So first winding voltage at that time once
actually the diode is conducting.

So that voltage stress across the switch that is basically the reflected voltage on the secondary is
V0*NP/NS and across the switch will be EDC+V0*NP/NS. Let us take an example you know
then only you will understand it better. So you are bucking let us say your laptop charger 310
volt that is basically EDC and to V0=20 volts for sake of simplicity or make it 300 volt and this
ratio NP/NS can be approximated to be 10 rest you can actually manage with the duty cycle.

So what happened you know you can see that so what will be the amount of the voltage V0 NP/
NS V0 is basically 20 +20*10 so this voltage become 200 volt so this voltage is 200 volts+300

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volts stress across a switch will be 500 volt this is the one of the biggest disadvantage of the fly
back converter. So it has to actually take huge voltage stress across the switch.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:05)

Now current path during this half period so this is a third mode of operation and when actually
current has decayed in case of that in case of discontinuous conduction mode and what happened
you know actually this capacitors essentially is the feeding this load. So let us analysis this part
of the circuit so this will be feeding the load and switch is off because it is in a discontinuous
conduction mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:51)

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So if OFF period of switch is large secondary currents get sufficient time to decay time to get to
0 and magnitude of the field energy is completely transferred to the capacitor and the load . Flux
linked by the winding remains 0 until next turn ON the switch is also off this is called
discontinuous flux mode of operation. So this switch is off and this switch I also off because it is
a discontinuous conduction mode and capacitor essentially feeding the load.

But if OFF period is small then next turn on switch occurs before the secondary current decays to
0. Then it is called continuous conduction mode during discontinuous flux mode this is one of
the actually features off the control point of view after complete transfer of the magnetic energy
to the output secondary EMS as well as less current falls to 0 diode in series with the winding
stop conducting.

Because there is no energy storage into the source but during this period the capacitor managers
to provide uninterrupted output voltage and this is known as the mode 3 of operation. So while
writing a state stress model of a discontinuous mode of conduction we have a three set of transfer
form three set of actually set of equations and it has to be linked and while linking you know
there is a challenge and we will find that there will be a 0 in right hand side of the ((s-plane))
(18:56).

And it is called minimal order system so controlling this kind of entity quite challenging the
mode two operation ends with the turn on of S and then the cycles repeats. So this happens only
in a light load condition.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

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So let us come to the advantage and disadvantage of the fly back and few words about actually
third mode. Third mode essentially problem lies that if you have a voltage error and you look at
to correct it really control system will correct it now opposite direction then you will find that
voltage sac will increase and thereafter it will actually correct. Discontinuous mode of
conduction or discontinuous mode of conduction is challenging.

Very challenging from the control point of view what this we want that actually that is to operate
this fly back converter to be operating continuous conduction mode let us see that advantage of
the fly back converter. The main advantage of this of the output filter and the output filter is vital
for the forward topologies. It is come to the forward topologies a little later and which is not
obligatory for the fly back.

It is not essential this is because the transformer in the fly backs acts as an inductor and not as a
transformer so it will store the energy while its current flows through the switches and the
inductor and that will actually go back once switch is off. In many situation an LC filter is added
in the lower side of the fly back regulator for condensing the output voltage ripple. So but since
voltage is quite low.

And you have a high switching frequency the size of this filters will be pretty much compact and
the voltage rating of a secondary component is quite low. Because there no secondary is being

375
stepped down to the application level. So ratings of the diode and other devices will be quite low
but there will be high stress across the switch. Since there is an air gap and energy is stored into
the air gap so there will be a problem of high EMI.

Because since always what happens you know where there is a change of impedance in this case
it is a reluctance L reluctance and the core reluctance there is always waves gets reflected and
thus flux will have a reflections in the boundary of the L reluctance and the core reluctance and
since it is on and off at a 100 kilohertz frequency so that gives rise to the EMI. So it will have a
high EMI.

More ripple current you have seen that current is picky in primary and the secondary and you
will see that to bring down these ripples dv dt=I so to bring down this ripple the value of the
capacitor required to be increased. Last but not least high losses across the switches because
switch is operating all the rating switch has to undergo a voltage stress + EDC to -EDC
something like that.

So 2 EDC voltage drop will be there while turning on and turning off so there is a huge loss and
also you are required to take the switches of the quite higher rating to sustain it.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:09)

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Now next topology we will discuss is the forward SMPS here this is a high frequency
transformer and it is almost same but you can see the dot . Dot is placed as per the core
conventional transformer but their component count increases if you go back to the circuit there
is just required only one single diode. So only one single diode but you will find that component
ground secondary has been increased.

So you require 2 diodes D1 and D2 and you know it is something like a buck topology you know
so this is so it bucks that voltages and it is isolated essentially it is a isolated buck topology
something like that most from the cases this voltage is less than the EDC at what essential you
get unregulated DC to regulated DC with an isolation. Since it does not store in energy so it can
handle around 2 to 3 times higher power then this actually the SMPS.

So let us see that how does it operate so we shall consider that same IL this is the load voltage
which is assumed to be constant.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:45)

This is the inductor current and which is actually assumed to be continuous and this is a primary
current and it will go to actually IMAX NS/NP and this is the primary voltage applied in the
transformer once switch is on once switch is off it will change this polarity and then value will be
= output voltage*NP/NS where EDC is the output voltage of this DC to DC converter. And this
is the voltage stress across the switch DS and this is the pattern of this CW.

377
(Refer Slide Time: 25:43)

Now see that how does it operate we shall come it is used for producing isolated and controlled
DC to control DC voltage from unregulated DC voltage. Energy efficiency of the forward
converter is more than fly back converter there is a less losses and second one is this compact
since energy is not stored unlike in case of the fly back converter . Si it is used for the higher
power application than the fly back converter.

But output filtering circuit of this type of converter is more complicated than the fly back
converter . So we can see that there is a diode 2 diodes and the AC filter basic topology of this
converter is given in the previous slides it consisting of switch in series with the first winding
and other rectifications and the filtering circuits is connected into the secondary or the primary
secondary of the transformer.

Load is connected across rectified output of the transformer. Here transformer used is desired to
be an ideal transformer with no leakage flux 0 magnetizing current and no losses to simplify the
analysis.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:14)

378
And this circuits is basically a DC to DC converter with isolation transformer to isolate output
from the input and to provide a scaling proportional to this trans ratio . When S is ON input DC
gets applied to primary winding for which it is scaled to voltage also appear into the transformer
2. Si it will be transferred according to the trans ratio . Dotted side of both of the winding will
now carry the positive polarity.

So therefore please refer back to the figure so this diode is D1 so D1 will be forward biased. So
scaled input voltages is now are applied to the filter and subsequently will be applied to the load.
The First winding enters the current to the dot where the secondary winding leaves the dot . The
magnitude of the current is inversely proportional into the turns ratio.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:30)

379
As transformer used here is ideal the net magnetic magnetizing ampere tuns of the transformer is
0 and no energy is stored into the transformer. When switch is turned OFF that S is off primary
and the secondary current suddenly becomes 0 that leads to the stress across the switch. Current
to the filter inductor and the load continues to flow without any abrupt change due to that
inductive property.

At this time diode D2 provides freewheeling path to inductive current filter inductor current
starts decreasing during the free willing period as it flows against the output voltage but due to
the presence of the large capacitor output voltage almost remained constant the ripple in the
output voltage should be in acceptable limit as given by the designer. So they will say that
actually ripple is 5% or 6% like that. Accordingly, you will choose the value of the capacitor.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:01)

380
The switching frequency is generally very high so that the next switching takes place before the
inductor current goes to 0. While simplifying the analysis ON state voltage drops of switches and
diodes are neglected. Leakage current to the devices during OFF state is also assumed to be 0.
The transformer used in the circuit is assumed to be ideal with no magnetizing current no leakage
inductance earn no losses.

As all the filter current elements inductor capacitor are assumed to be lossless. So efficiency of
the system is quite high and analysis become simpler. Input and output of the DC voltage I
assumed to be constant and the ripple free all the analysis is done considering that circuit is in
steady state condition. Thank you for your attention, I shall continue with the next part of the fly
back forward converter. Thank you.

381
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 24
Isolated DC-DC Converters – III

Welcome to our NPTEL lecture on advance power electronics and controls, so we shall continue
with our discussion on isolated DC to DC converter we are discussing the forward converter. Let
us go to the operation of the forward converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

The switching frequency is same as that of the fly back converter is generally kept high and such
that the next switching takes place before inductor current decays to 0. We want as a continuous
conduction for simplifying analysis we have already discussed that on state. All the condition of
ideal is considered that is that drop across that two diodes is assumed to be 0. Switches turn on
and turn off our switches is lossless and conduction loss of the switches is also 0.

These are actually the leakage current through the devices in OFF state is assumed to be 0
transformer used in the circuit is assumed to be ideal and coupling is 100% with no magnetizing
current no leakage inductance and no losses. All the filters element that mean inductor and a
capacitor assumed to be lossless the input and the output DC voltages are assumed to be constant
and ripple free. All the analysis is done considering circuit in the steady state condition.

382
(Refer Slide Time: 02:00)

So, see that this is the switch and you have to control this output voltage irrespective of the load.
Load may change but output voltage required to be maintained constant so what happen if you
couple you know equivalent and this circuit it is been shorted and transformer will transfer
power to the primary or secondary and essentially you couple the whole element here and that
boils downs to this part of the circuits.

Refer these things in to this part of the circuit is referred to the secondary so you have we know
that actually referring the circuit in the primary and secondary on the transformer. We have
referred this circuit into the secondary and thus you get NS/NP in to Edc so this is the effective
receivers voltage and this part of the filters come into the picture. And of course you can use T
filter sometime PI filter also.

Some kind of filter maybe used to get a better results because you have a here 40 degree K you
can increase that DK further.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:25)

383
It starts when switch S is on so the input voltage e DC it is connected to the primary winding
both primary and the secondary winding starts conducting at the same time when switch S is on.
Primary and secondary currents and voltage are calculated by considering the strands ratio
NP/NS as an ideal transformer when S is closed. D1 in secondary circuit is forward biased and
secondary winding voltage is scaled down by the ratio of NP/NS.

That D2 remains reverse bias in this mode so because you know energy is flowing for primary to
secondary and from this equivalent circuit it is clear that during the mode 1 condition voltage
across the LC and the load voltage is eDC NS/Paso, it is just like a step down transformer. This
is step down transformer so eNP/NS is the maximum voltage across the load considering due to
ratio = 1 so you will get less than the voltage than this fellow.

The mode 1 is called the powering mode as an input power is transferred to the source to the load
and next comes to the 2nd.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:05)

384
When this switch is off and thus D1 is off ultimately this portion of the circuits plays and it we
are assume that D2 is ideal that it can be shorted so you get this part of the circuit to be actually
constituted and the filling to the load. So, this is the oscillations of the network.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:32)

So, when S is turnoff primary and the secondary winding current other transformer becomes 0
but secondary site filter inductor maintains continuous current through freewheeling diode D2.
D1 is reverse biased so thus this bucking operation comes in to the picture apart from the trans
ratio bucking D1 is reverse biased during this mode and input is isolated from output. The
inductor current flows through the parallel combination of the load and the output capacitor.

385
During this mode there is no power flow from the source to the load but output voltage is
maintained constant due to large capacitor a charged inductor and the capacitor is used in the
circuit. It provides continuity in the load voltage but in this mode there is no input power
involvement capacitor voltage and the inductor current start decreasing while feeding the load
Therefore to maintain continuity in the output voltage AC is turned on again.

Mode 2 to maintain the load voltage within a desired tolerance band the filter inductor and the
filter capacitor value should be chosen sufficiently large.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:20)

But it should not be that much big or bulky that it will be costlier bulkier weightier everything
that can increase the cost size of the filter. So, design has to put a proper step to design this
isolated DC to DC this type of 7.40 to DC to DC converter. All the design should be and high
frequency to reduce the size of the filter circuits generally we can go up to a level of 1 kilowatt
with that and switching frequencies. Typically of this converter we can choose MOSFET to have
100kilohertz switching frequency.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:06)

386
Now what is the advantage of this forward converter type SMPS over fly back advantage with
respect to fly back when a transformer utilizations forward converter transformer transfers
energy instantaneously across the transfer across the transformer and does not actually stored the
energy. The resulting lower peak current in the primary as well as the secondary means lower
copper losses compared to the fly back.

The transformer can be made more ideal with much higher magnetizing inductance and no air
gap. Filtered output energy stored is mainly in the output inductor and the output capacitor can
be made fairly small with a much lower ripple current rating. The output inductor and
freewheeling diode keeps the output current fairy constant and the secondary ripple current is
dramatically reduced and it is when process is to reduce the output voltage stable.

That is the one whole purpose of it due to much larger magnetizing inductance load active so that
actually the current is less picky than this fly back converter. So, this is a one of the advantage of
this forward converter disadvantage you have a more component counts.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:03)

387
It increases costs the additional output electrical device and the freewheeling diode is needed
please note that since you are operating at a very high switching frequency this diode required to
be a very fast recovery diode and for this reason. It has it had to the considerable cost to the bill
of material minimum load requirement. That is also a feature you cannot keep your load open
circuited it significantly with the multiple outputs.

The gain dramatically changes if the devices go to DCM operation at light loads higher voltage
demand for MOSFET which frequently discourages the use of line applications. That has got to
work on 230 volt grids. So, these are few things we have to keep in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:16)

388
Now let us go back to the another converter essentially you couple one of the disadvantage of
this actually isolated DC to DC converter which we have discussed is that we require to reset the
flux and to reset the flux we have a constraint of the duty cycle and ultimately what happened
then you have to feed power from the store energy in fly back switches or no power flows
ultimately energy slice back and thus power handling capabilities is less.

And we cannot increase the duty cycle beyond 50% because then what happened resetting of the
flux is a very big pen otherwise the magnetics will saturate same in case of the forward converter
if you increase the duty cycle beyond some limits so resetting the flux is also a challenge. So, for
this reason we require 2 because we have always told you that actually we have solved few
problems in forward converter.

Because stressors across the switches here you know it is quite low because you do not have
once actually previously what is to happen once. Once it is switch off so since there is no voltage
across it so it is just blocking the voltage of VDC. It is not blocking the voltage VDC NP/NS *
V0 so stress across the switch got reduced. But resetting have the winding has to be ensured by
smaller duty cycle.

And thus power rating of the devices becomes lower so these are the few challenges which we
wanted to remove in case of the push pull converter where we can actually think of that one push
pull in for in actually one forward converter forward mode and another forward converter when
operate which has been actually put together in parallel to give the more power. Essentially it
will have a more power rating and you can see that.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:39)

389
This component count is also increased it has the 2 switches but we will see that what are the
actually the voltage is across the switch. And accordingly we will see the devices now you see
that these are the pulses of switch 1 this and this is the pulses of switch 2 and that required to be
separated by small time duration. And once actually since there is an inductance in the circuit so
there would be a spikes.

So, this voltage is the VDC 1 and this is the voltage stress across the switch q1and it will be
blocking that voltage still it is conducting then it will be a voltage of V in + the stands ratio of
NP /NS. So, they will have to block once this actually q2 is off so voltage will come down to the
level of BN and then once it is retriggered it will come down to the 0 same way we can have a
replica of it which had not been shown so this is the D2.

So, we assume that this switch is blocking that voltage since it start conducting initially so this
value is VN and thereafter and it is basically MP1 * S1 * V0 so this much of the volt is stress it
has to block then it is been triggered and same cycle continues. So, this is the current you make
continuous conduction mode for duty ratio for this devices and q1 is the current through the
devices.

And this is the current the inductor IL which will assure we have assumed that it has a quite
steady load and current is continuous.

390
(Refer Slide Time: 15:48)

Push Pull converter is isolated transformer isolated converter is a transformer isolated converter
based on basic forward converter topology it is been super imposed by the 2 basic topologies of
the wave form shown in the figure in previous slides. The high voltage DC is switched on to the
centre tapped of primary by a transformer by switch q1 and q2 in an alternate cycle. Q1 and Q2
create pulsating voltage as a transformer winding.

Primary transformer is used to step down the voltage as well as the isolated output input in push
pull topology there is a central tapped of primary and the central tap secondary. Q1 and Q2 are
given a pulses by the control circuit in such a way that it should create equal and opposite flux on
a transformer so you need not have to wait of the resetting winding to actually reset the fluxes of
the transformer.

So, there is no chance of the saturation of the transformer and you can take the duty cycle quite
high level so let us talk about the first mode of operation it starts with the turning on of the q 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:48)

391
This is a mode 1 in the steady state operation when q1 is on the dot end becomes positive and D5
reverse biased and D6 becomes forward biased. Please refer to the figure then only you can
understand it better. So, Q 1 is on so current will flow like this and ultimately this is the case of
the figure so D6 becomes forward biased. Therefore the output load current IL flows through D6
and N S2 inductor.

And the capacitor the input voltage is applied to the primary is scaled input voltage appeared into
the secondary. So, divided by N2/NS the voltage difference between secondary and the output
voltage applied to the inductor L in forward direction. Therefore inductor current value increases
from L1 min to L1 max subsequent time as shown in the wave form.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

392
Now there will be a small pause between the conduction of Q1 and Q2 otherwise slice shot will
occur so this small process has been neglected at the end of that t1 period Q1 is switched off till
time Ts Q 2 is turn on after the half of the full time period Ts that mean at Ts /2 as shown in the
wave form. When Q1 is off body diode of the switch provides the path for the leakage energy to
be flown and if you use instead of the MOSFET for the other device.

You have to give anti-parallel path for the diet and the stored in winding 1 also the output filtered
the D5 gets forward biased as D5 get forward biased half of the inductor current of the NS1
flows through the D5 and another half of the inductor current of NS2 flows through D6. This
result in equal and opposite voltage appears in secondary assuming both the secondary have the
same number of turns.

Therefore, net voltage applied across the transformer secondary during T off period is 0 output
voltage V0 is applied to the inductor L reverses the direction when both the switches off. Thus
inductor current IL decreases linearly from L 2 to L1 so it will come back to the thing.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:36)

393
And now voltage rating of the switch during T on period any of the switch that Vin is applied
half of the transformer of primary and equal voltage is included to the other part of the primary
winding. Therefore twice of the input voltage is applied to the half of the switch so switch used
in push pull converter should be rated twice of the input voltage as there is not much actually
advantage of it.

In practical cases this voltage rating of the switches should be this percent more than the
theoretical value for actually taking the factor of safety. So, we have the output input relationship
across the switches in the steady state condition the output voltage can be V out = V in NS/NP *
2D where T = T on/T where is the duty ratio.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:56)

394
Now what are the advantage of this type of push pull converter one resetting of the flux is easy
you need not have to we have not shown we require a compensating winding or the resetting
winding in case of the fly back converter as well as the forward converter for resetting the flux
and thus voltage stress that gives a voltage stress across the devices so for this reason here we
have we it is automatically resets the flux in every cycle.

And if it is a little adjustment it is required we can do by little change in that duty cycle but that
kind of facilities is not available in case of the fly back converter and thus you have been
restricted to actually use your duty cycle less than 0.5 so and hence power transfer primary to a
secondary is quite lower to drive MOSFET push pull does not necessary isolate power supply
that is one of the biggest advantage of it.

So, you can take the supply you can actually same supply which you are taking as a input of the
DC there you can actually scale it down by may be a small scale scaling resistance and you can
give the same power to the actually to the MOSFET driver chip. Peak current and sinks is
required so that core does not drip in to the saturation. Push pull is used for far away access latch
releases cable and security break cables.

7 Volt 19 cables are extremely flexible and make them ideal for the assembling of this push pull
converter. Push pull converter is of low cost thought it uses multiple switches but you will find

395
the rating of the switches is quite low and it can take more power than the forward and the fly
back converter. Transformer rating required is smaller than the forward converter. But only thing
you would have to keep in mind you required extra switch.

Push pull converter uses 2 switches which are not widely used in the flux walking phenomena.
That means flux balancing can be done central tap transformer is used in one of the disadvantage
of the push pull converter because generally we do not manufacture central tap converter. So,
now let us we have solved few problems. You know while in a first class other DC to DC
converter.

I said that there are 3 4 challenges in DC to DC convertor isolated DC first challenge is resetting
of the flux and in fly back you manage with the resetting winding and thus you pay the price
having huge stress across the switch and also you restrict the duty cycle less than 50% and thus
what happened. You transfer less power from the primary to secondary but it is l switch
phenomena.

Forward converter nowhere better actually since it will transfer the power from instead of the
storing. So, site of the basically electrical parameter gets better because forward converter is
more picky forward converters are less picky. Sorry, than the fly back converter so AM I MCS
and all those other issues are there where forward converter basically defeats the fly back
converter and in push pull convertor since 2 switch typology it resets the flux in their pre cycles.

And stresses across the switch is the stubble of this DC bus voltage and you can trust and you do
not have any limitations of the duty cycle so instead of.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:54)

396
So, instead of actually this push pull converter one of the disadvantage of the push pull converter
that it use the central trap transformer and thus it is with required extra winding and it is bulky
and costly and there we go for another topology since it uses the 2 switches it is the half bridge
converter. Half bridge converter uses 2 switches you have to give a DC blocking capacitor what
happens generally this q 1 and q2 may have a small difference of the time period.

It may be as low has 1% deviation or 2% deviation but 1% or the 2% deviations in to this

switching may lead to the saturation of the transfer. So, DC blocking transformer required to get
DC blocking capacitor required to keep so that what happened this actually this core does not get
saturates and we shall see that stress across the switches and all those issues here and we will
find it is better off than the push pull convertor.

So, this is the pulses and for the switch q1 and this is a pulses of switch q2 you can see that this
is a primary voltage across this transformer and it is VP and which is half of the voltage of the
DC link voltage. Since actually q1 is triggered current is flowing through this and ultimately this
point is blocking the half of the voltage. So, voltage rating of the switch is just by 2. Similarly
once actually you got negative cycles so you got a positive voltage cycles.

And negative voltage cycles when actually q2 is triggered automatically flux gets adjusted unlike
all the distributers you can whatever we have discussed till now we have not balanced the flux in

397
that way by switching way and here you have a chance to balance the flux balancing by really
applying the negative voltage across this transformer and you are setting the flux in every cycle
and so on.

And this is the current across the switch once it is triggered we assume that current is continuous
conduction mode. And thus q1 is actually current q1 is actually going on. Then after once q2 is
triggered then i q2 is going on and so on. And you have the inductor current that is L1 and L2
and it will be a super impose of L1 and L2 and that gives you this kind of ripple current so this is
the explanation of the half bridge convertor.

And it has a huge power handling capability power and since it uses 2 switches voltage stress of
this switches is half of the receiver’s voltage and all those advantages can be coupled in to the
system and it can handle the power in the range of hundreds of watts. So, this is the half bridge
convertor. We shall discuss about the half bridge convertor in our next discussions. Thank you
for your attention. Thank you.

398
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture 25
Isolated DC- DC Converters IV and VSI & CSI

Welcome to our NPTEL courses on Advanced Power Electronics and Control. Today first, we
will discuss with isolated DC-to-DC converter that is the remaining part of the isolated DC-to-
DC converter. We have discussed a brief configuration, we have discussed slide back, thereafter
we have discussed the forward, thereafter we have discussed push pull and we have discussed
also the half bridge and then we shall do the another topology, that is called the full bridge.

Then, we shall switch over to the DC-to-DC application essentially that will be the inverter
application and we know that there will be 2 kinds of inverter that is VSI, voltage source inverter
and current source inverter and different kind of PWM technique associated to it. Okay, let us
start. So these configurations you know, we have discussed in our previous class. We just little
bit of recap that it is a half bridge configuration.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:24)

So since you are doing the bucking operation, so beam essentially you will get the half of the
voltage and also you can control over the trans ratio as well as you can actually have a duty
cycle. So you have multiple advantages, once you have bucking through the half bridge

399
converter, but one essential disadvantage of it is that sometime, there might be mismatch
between these 2 switches.

So this small mismatch over a period of time may actually lead to the saturation of this
transformer, because of that there will be average DC in every cycle and that will be a cumulated
over cycles and that will be returned to the structurally DC passing of the transformer and it may
saturate. For this is what we required to give a blocking capacitor which will block the DC part
into the transformer.

So essentially this is the Tn time of the ICBT or mass spread depending on rating and nowadays
actually high band width devices are coming like SiC and GaN devices, so this rating can go
high to the 3 times more as well as the switching frequencies. So again this is the second PWM
and we have actually the BP that is across this transformer that is Pn/2 and accordingly this area
has to be matched with this area, that is essential purpose of it.

And the current through the switches are essentially from Q1, then actually the diode conducts
for the period. When it is off, we assume that continuous conduction mode and thus this region
actually current drops into the circuit. Please remember that in power electronics positive time is
associated with the switch and negative time associated with the diodes. So this is the time where
actually that diode conducts.

And also in this case, you can see diode D3 and D4 conduct depending on the different criteria
and this is the current through the inductor and we will have a ripple. That ripple will be
suppressed by this capacitor. So what essentially you get here. What is the advantage over the
other topologies that is actually we have discussed slide back, thereafter we discussed forward,
thereafter push, pull, then it is this.

One of the advantage is that its power-handling capability can be very high because you can
actually, there is no concept or resetting flux. You are resetting flux in every cycles and thus we
need not to have a resetting, winding and stresses across the switch also will be low. Now let us
see that the advantages of this half bridge converter.

400
(Refer Slide Time: 04:41)

Half bridge converter is the transformer isolated converter based on basic forward topology that
is actually dots or at the same point of the forward topology. The one leg of the converter is
formed by switch Q1 and Q2 and remaining half of the converter is formed by C3 and C4.
Therefore, it is called half bridge converter. Q1 and Q2 creates a pulsating exit to the
transformer. Primarily transformer is used to step down mostly of the pulsating primary winding
voltage.

And also provide isolation between the input and the output. During steady state condition, C3
and C4 are searched to the equal voltages, so that these junctions C3 and C4 carry half of the
input voltage potential. So that is something you require to remember it.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:39)

401
So these 2 voltages are equally divided, otherwise you have to provide the potential divided
network by connecting a small resistance in series with them.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:49)

So what you can do here when Q1 is on, the dot end of the transformer is connected to the
positive beam as switch on and the voltage across actually C4 is applied to the transformer
primary, so half of the input voltage is applied to the winding when it is actually Q1 is on and
that is the positive half of the cycle. In this mode, D4 become reverse bias and D3 becomes
forward biased, which carry the full inducted current through the winding 2 for the winding NS1.

402
Difference between scaled input applied to the secondary 2 and then output voltage is applied to
the inductor in the forward direction. Therefore, the inductor current IL rises linearly from L1 to
L2 within the limit prescribed by the designer. During the mode, sum of this scaled secondary
current and primary current flow through the switch Q1. This mode starts with end of T on
period. In this mode, Q1 is turned off till end of the switching cycle TS.

Q2 is turned on after half of the switching period TS/2. Therefore, during T1/2 period or some of
the both of the switches off as shown in the waveform. When Q1 is off body diode of Q2
provides path for the leakage stored in the transformer primary and D4 become forward biased.
As D4 become forward biased, half of the inducted current flows through D4 NS2 and other half
of the inducted current flows through D3 and NS1.

Therefore, equivalent opposite voltage is applied both the transformer secondary winding
assuming both the winding have the same number of turns. As a result, the net voltage across the
secondary becomes 0 and it maintains a flux flow conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:24)

And this second mode is the mode 2. Output voltage is applied to the inducted L in a reverse
direction when both the switches are off. Therefore, inducted current decreases from L2 to L1.
Body diode of Q1 and Q2 provide path for transformer leakage energy. After TS/2 when Q2 is

403
turned on, dot N of transformer primary is connected to negative Vn, input voltage is applied to
the transformer in primary in reverse direction when Q2 is on.

To avoid magnetic saturations of the core that assumed the number of turn of NS1 and NS2 are
the same and turn on period of the both the switches are same. After T on the period Q2 is turn
off till the value complete the duty cycle, that value corresponds to TS.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:34)

So what is the advantage, Advantage over the predecessors, these are flyback, forward, push,
pull. You will find that magnetic core is small, so you can actually in a same size you can handle
big amount of power handling capability, thus energy density is more. No air gap in the magnetic
path. So designing of this transformer is much easier than the flyback. Less stray magnetic field
because you are resetting the actual magnetic field by standing on the Q1 and Q2.

Disadvantages, this is not disadvantage. We must say it is limitation, they are functioning half of
the supply potential where switching transistors are equal to 2 times of the collected current as
comparison to the basic push-pull scheme. So this is the 1 of the things you have to keep in mind
reverting of the switches and we will discuss little later, it is not suitable for the current mode
control. Current mode control means actually there are 2 kind of current mode control.

404
We have already discussed, one is peak current mode control, another is average current mode
control. So in this current mode control, it cannot be operated. So it will be more suitable for the
voltage mode control.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:09)

Now let us see the full bridge configuration. In this configuration, actually it will be replaced by
the 4 switch. Thus actually when Q1 and Q2 on, then actually current flows this way. When Q3
and Q4 is on, current flows in this way. So it is a normal transformer operations or the inverter
operation. So what happen here, you know, it is quite simple in the sense and it has the
maximum power handling capability.

And what happened here where the transformer gets the whole voltages and thus you can have a
better utilizations of these voltages and mostly this is applied for the high power applications and
core is the smallest considering the KVA rating of the transformer and here what happen
generally, this kind of, since we have all the problem while starting, we have said that isolated
DC-to-DC converter has few drawbacks.

We have to mitigate the drawbacks by taking a proper action. First of all, we have to reset the
flux. Since we cannot use DC in transformer, there since you have an incorporated a DC
transformer into it, so we have to see that in every cycles, high frequency cycles, flux gets

405
resisted. Here you can reset the flux and since Q1 and Q2 conducts, there will be a gap, while
diode will conduct and thereafter again Q3 and Q4 conducts.

So automatically flux will reset in all the places and there is a huge rating it actually, it can
handle rating same of the supply voltage. So another aspect is that actually switching stress
across the devices since both the switches are opposing, this actually this voltage. So voltage
stress across the switch is minimum compared to this all other circuit where you have employed
the resetting circuits and also here you will get maximum power.

Here you get instead of VN/2 here you get total VN. So these are the few advantages and thus
what happen, so once you have actually reduced the voltage rating of this transformer
automatically you require to increase the current rating of the switches, that is one of the
drawback of the half bridge converter, because here you get VN/2 automatically instead of I1,
the 2I current will flow.

So current handling capability to have the same power rating, power handling capability of those
device required to be doubled, but here current handling capability of the device is half compared
to this half bridge converter. So these are the few advantages of the full bridge converter. Let us
analyze it. Very simple to analyze, so once actually you have T1 and T off consequently pulses
will be there. So you will get this voltage and you can see that your stress across the voltage is
VN.

Please note that actually once it is off, it is blocking the voltage that value equal to basically the
interim put supply voltage and this is the output inductor current here and we assume that this
actually the current is continuous and please note that these two switches both jointly blocking
the voltage B. So stress across the individual switch will be the half of the voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

406
So full bridge transformer is isolated buck converter. So you can buck the voltage since you
cannot increase the duty ratio more than 1. The basic diagram of waveform is shown in the
actually the previous slide. As per the schematic diagram, the shape of the full bridge converter
looks like the H and for this is called H bridge converter. Basic operation is almost same.
Transformer primary is connected between the 2 legs and by the switches Q1 and Q4 and another
is Q3 and Q2.

All the switches creates a pulsating AC transformer. Primary transformer is also used to step
down pulsating voltage as well as to provide isolation between the input and output. Unlike half
bridge topology, in full bridge topology, the voltage applied on transformer primary when either
of the switches is on is half of the input voltage with twice of the switching current where
voltage stress of the switch is twice of the input voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:14)

407
So this topology is not suitable for high power or actually around 500 watt. So that is the one of
the actually consideration we have to keep in mind. Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 are switches alternately
selected for the switching period. So mode 1 when Q1 and Q2 is on, for the period T1 starts at
the end of the winding, becomes positive with respect to the non-dot N and in this mode T4
becomes reversed biased and D3 becomes forward biased.

And D3 carries the full load current to the transformer, secondary winding, go up in NS1 as this
mode of the voltage is applied across the transformer primary. The switch carries the reflected
load current as well as the transformer primary magnetizing current. So this will gain both the
current. The difference between primary winding scaled voltage and while secondary winding
output voltage is applied across the inductor as it is same in case of the half bridge converter.

So mode 2, mode 2 is almost same, just we have to have another pair of switch. So at the end of
period switch Q1 and Q2 are turned off.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:41)

408
And remains in the state till the rest of the switching period of TS and in this mode Q3 and Q4
are turned off after some delay, because you want actually a diode to conduct, because when you
get the pulse unless current does not decay. So another pair of switches will not turn on. So after
half of the switching period TS, this mode Q3 and Q4 are turn off after half of the switching
period TS/2. During T off period, all the switches are off for some interval of time.

When Q1 and Q2 are off, the body diode of the pair of the switches Q3 and Q4 provides a path
of the leakage energy stored into the transformer. Primary so diode will conduct. So what will
happen, once actually Q1 and Q2 is conducting, then unless you trigger Q3 and Q4 till that time,
the body diode in case of the MOSFETs or the antiparallel diode in case of the IGBT are
connected to the opposite pair will take care of the conduction and it will demagnetize the
magnetic circuit.

So this is the 1 of the features please keep in mind. In this mode, the output rectifier D4 becomes
forward biased and it is carrying the half of the inducted current through the transformer
secondary winding. Another half of the inducted current is carried by the diode D3 through the
transformer of secondary winding NS1, therefore net voltage applied across secondary during
T1/2 is 0 and this keeps the flux density of the transformer constant. This is the way actually full
bridge transformer, full bridge converter works.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:47)

409
And after TS/2 when actually it is same as actually the initial stage, when Q3 and Q4 was on, the
dots end of the primary becomes the negative will respect to the non-dot end and in this
condition, D3 becomes reverse biased and D4 becomes forward biased. So D4 carries the full
current through secondary winding of NS2. As input voltage is applied across the transformer 1,
switches carry scaled current with the primary magnetizing current.

As input voltage is applied to the transformer in reverse direction, flux density core changes from
final to the initial value. The difference between primary scale voltage to secondary scale voltage
and the output voltage is applied to the inductor L in forward direction. So assuming that the
secondary winding turns is basically NS1 and NS2 are the equal to avoid the magnetic
saturations of the core T1. Q1 and Q2, Q3 and Q4 are kept same.

So this will ensure the resetting of the flux. So if actually this is the TS time, drawing on the
same positive Y axis, Q1 and Q2 if conducts and this is basically TS/2 you can start. Thereafter
there will be a delay and this actually ratio and this ratio required to be same to reset the flux.
After T on period, Q3 and Q4 remains off till the time TS, this is the time interval. During switch
on period of the pair of the switch of the switching stress over the other pair of the switches of
the entire voltage beam.

410
So Vout and Vin relationship, here you will find that assuming this continuous conduction mode
if it is otherwise stated, the relation between the input and output voltage is same. You know
basically 2VN*D where D is TN, TNS/NP. So you can actually play with the trans ratio and get
the desired output voltage. So what is the advantage of it. This is the simplest in operation and
you have 4 switches, stress across the switches is less.

You have a control over the controlling the duty cycle, so that you can actually actively reset the
flux and you have actually highest power density. So size of this full bridge converter will be
least than the other. So advantages are full bridge is used in application for the high voltage
requirement. Mostly you know this finds applications in offshore winter wind. So you may have
actually a seashore in a isolated island. From there actually you can put a huge windmills or wind
forms and of course you know, it may be DC.

And you wish to transfer this DC from the wind shore to this actually the mainland, so you can
use this kind of DC-to-DC converter and then actually instead of the stepping down, you may
actually essentially step up and you will fit to the AC to DC line sometime.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

Full bridge has slightly more voltage ripple than the half bridge. This is actually one of the
problems. So you will find that actually it will be to smooth out the ripple, it will be little bulky.
Full bridge uses for diode in places of just clipping of the half wave. It changes the polarity of

411
the half wave. Now let us take the disadvantage of the full bridge, of course the component count
is maximum, you use the 4 active switches.

Though the cost of the switches is drastically coming down, then of course that logic is gradually
getting negative and you have a derating of the passive devices and you expect that actually the
switch will last longer and thus the component count cost has been not at all a disadvantage now.
So since there is loss across the 4 active devices, 2 active devices always, so efficiency of this
kind of topology will be less.

The bridge has an efficiency of 95% since it employs actually the 4 switches or the 2 switches
consequently and the half bridge can have efficiency 99% for SI6 devices, GAN devices as well
as actually soft switching when it is done by ZVS or Z series. Therefore, actually the half bridge
is slightly more efficient than the full bridge, but power handling capability is maximum in case
of the full bridge.

Full bridge electrical converter is analogus to the half bridge converter; however, it has an extra
segment attached to the ground point to the load. So we have an extra element that is connected.
Full bridge would have larger loss and noises than the half bridge; as a result of the full bridge
converter has the most switch and the element. This is the overall discussion of the isolated DC-
to-DC converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:36)

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So we have discussed first fly back and it has power handling capability is around 100 watt and
if you see the switches, it is one switch and efficiency in the range of 80%, which is the simplest
circuit, it has uses one circuit, but this is the cause and power density is least. Then next comes
into the picture is your forward converter. So it can go up to 500 watt, single switch and
efficiency is little higher, because transformer there is actually a normal transformer.

So you can expect around 85% efficiency and thereafter it comes to the push pull, but it uses 2
switches and here this can be as high as 10 kilowatt. So thereafter you have half bridge and full
bridge. This can handle the power around 100s of kilo watt if properly designed, it can handle
the power in megawatt and efficiency is actually 99%. Maximum efficiency you will get in case
of the half bridge converter.

Full bridge converter since it employs more component count, you will find that actually it uses,
its efficiency will be little less around 95%. This is the some comparison of DC-to-DC converter
and this is the matrix and based on that you will actually choose different kind of DC-to-‘DC
converter for your application. Thank you. Thank you for attention. With next class, I shall
continue with another very important entities of power electronics, that is DC-to-AC conversion
that is the inverted operation.

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We shall start with the voltage source inverter, thereafter current source inverter and we will see
the different aspect of the voltage source and current source inverter by different kind of PWM
technique. Thank you so much for your attention.

414
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 26
VSI and CSI

Welcome to our lectures on Advance Power Electronics and Control. Today, we shall discuss
about another important entity of the power electronics that is DC-to-AC conversion and we
shall discuss about power electronics circuit. So we shall discuss about voltage source converter,
voltage source inverter and the current source inverter. Process of converting DC voltage into the
desirable repetitive voltage is called the inversion.

It can be of 2 types, 1 is structurally based on the topology and source are may be voltage or
current, you want that feeded by the inverter and we shall see that what are the different kind of
constraint and the applications of the voltage source converter and the current source inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:22)

Inverters are essentially classified into the 2 basic types based on the utilizations of the
commutation technique. Previously since power electronics comes into the pictures with invent
of the thyristors. So these 1 terms are quite important. So we require whether actually it can be
commutated by the external commutation circuits, so you required to have an external
commutation circuits to be placed to commutate it.

415
Or it can ensure that actual commutations like in case of the conversion, DC-to-AC thyristors or
line commuted. We will have some kind of thing like that, so that is called the cell commutation
and now external commutations, we have actually studied in the different kind of communication
technique for the thyristor mostly auxiliary commutation of the thyristors are being employed in
case of the thyristor.

Otherwise if you have G2O, you have to have the negative pulses to withdraw the devices.
Inverters, in which the energy required to turn AC are provided by the external motor or the
power supply. So that is basically the external commutation. Basically it is not possible that load
which will provide the proper counter voltage for the commutation, because you know there are
different kind of technique for the commutations of the thyristors.

You apply the reverse voltages and you bring the current below basically the below the holding
current. If it cannot be done by the load, because for example if you feeding a leading power
factor, then what happened current actually goes 0 before voltage goes zero. So it can be
naturally commutated. So it does not happen sometime, then we have to see that, we have to
externally do it by auxiliary commutation.

Basically, it is not possible to guarantee that the load is always provided, because load is
something that actually it is users choice not designers choice. So it will offer you the
commutation, then a cell commutation and if it is ensure that the load can provide the process of
commutation then we employed the cell commutating inverters and these inverters can be
actually used if it is cell commutation type than we actually withdraw by the get pulses.

These are essentially GTOs. It has highest power rating and the lowest switching frequency.
IGBT is the middle band in the row, medium power rating of the 10s of kilowatts and 10s of
frequencies and power transistor nowadays not used because power distribution is quite high, but
you can use the mosfet, which have a higher switching frequency, but lower power rating. So we
have a different kind of inverter depending on the source.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:04)

416
Source can be voltage and you are feeding to the load, then it is called voltage source inverter.
Similarly, you can have a current source inverter and you will see the different kind of control
technique for those inverters and most suitable method is the pulse width modulations, mostly
for the VSI you can use it and we shall discuss in details for apply to the both the cases and we
will see the advantage of the pulse width modulation over other different kind of converter
inversion operation.

Now the shape of the ideal VSI voltage waveform should be independent of the load connected
to the inverter. So this is the desirability because it will mimic the characteristics of the rigid
grid. So that is the desirability of the VSI, it will actually give you the desired voltage
independent of the load connected to it. So this inverter output voltage should not be distorted by
adding or withdrawing a different kind of linear or non-linear load.

So application of the VSI includes adjustable speed drive. Why adjustable speed drive, most of
this actually motors are induction motors nowadays and thus they run their close to their
synchronous speed either near to the 1000 ampere with 64 machine, if it is a 1500 ampere, which
is a 44 machine. If we require adjustable speed drive with the wide variation of the range like
modern lifts, elevators all those things, then what should you do.

417
So we required to actually have a power electronic supply that will give us variable voltage and
the frequency, so there VSI finds its applications, uninterruptible power supply, it is very
common use in case of the basically are desktop kind of applications. So we provide actually
power backup, once power is off, then it is called actually offline UPS. You can have a online
because if you want to process power.

Then actually once power is there you will take power from the grid and you rectify it through
the power factor rectification technique and it is feeded to the inverter to give a process power,
so that even this utility provides you the battery power that is get corrected and once power is off
that will give the voltage from the battery and if there is a brown mode condition, it will actually
give you the compensated voltage or the sag voltage.

So in those application also we use voltage source inverter and thereafter we have acti-filters.
Acti-filter essentially what does it do you know due to using these entities, we basically distort
the power quality. Power quality is a very big term. Two important entities of the power qualities
are power factor and TST. So these are 2 entities that actually affect it because of this adjustable
speed type and uninterruptible power supply and other different modern power electronic
devices.

Acti-filter essentially a solution provided by the power electronics to this problem where you
actively mitigate the harmonic and you improve the power factor that is called active rectifier
and thereafter we have a flexible AC transmission system that is fax. So it has a whole gametes
of solutions. These are series compensation, shunt and series compensation, angle compensation.
So all those things we generally find VSI and the voltage compensator and also photovoltaic
inverter is also the type of the VSI.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:53)

418
So let us see that this is the simplest form of the inverter. It is in a breach configuration and you
can first, we assume that load is highly inductive. So there is no challenge involved if load is
resistive. So voltage and current will be in a phase and thus you do not have much problem, but
if it is a lagging kind of aspect is there, voltage is lagging, kind is lagging the voltage by 90
degree then you will find that current is at peak when you require to switch it off.

So that is something the watts case condition and we require to actually take care of those
aspects. So this is the VS/2 and this is the voltage applied. Once Q1 and Q2 is on, so voltage AO
will be essentially the half of the actually the supply voltage and voltage BO will actually
negative. If you combine, then it will be a line voltage AB between these 2 and you will get the
full VS and you will see that actually.

This is the square wave is the voltage applied and we assume that current is highly inductive and
for this reason will find that current has been phased lagged by angle theta and always the same I
said to you diode basically try to decrease the value of the current whether it is a positive cycle
or negative cycle. So even if ramp is positive, please see that magnitude of the current is
decreasing. So than always you remember that the diodes are conducting.

So it sets a prelude to do actually the switches to the operation. So when you can see that when it
is ramping on in a positive direction. So of course that Q1 and Q2 required to actually bring it

419
up, till that time once it is not switched. So D1 and D2 will come into the picture and this will
actually try to decrease the current and will try to close to the 0 value. Thereafter Q1 and Q2 has
been triggered and that will ramp on this current straight away.

And here at this moment you basically withdraw pulses of Q1 and Q2, but since this current is
basically cannot change its direction instantaneously, so current will continue to flow and you
will find that so instead of the Q1 and Q2 current will flow through the load through basically D3
and D4. So this will be the path for the current. Now once D3 and D4 has been conducted, so I
have always said one start conducts, current falls.

So ultimately current will gradually fall once it is close to 0, you are supposed to turn on your
another pair of switches Q3 and Q4 and that will be continued and so on. So this is called square
wave operations of the inverter for highly inductive load.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:48)

So same thing can be extended for the 3 phase, 3 wire system for 3 phase inverter. Since the
power transistors are cell commutating, no special commutation component are included in the
circuit. So you will be using GTO, IGBT or power MOSFETs and so if you like to use actually
the thyristors, then you will require to incorporate the auxiliary circuit for the commutation.
There are different kinds of auxiliary circuit and it has been named by the name of the inverter
like McMurray Bedford Inverter.

420
We used to study in when our B.Tech. days, but now gradually it is phasing out with the invent
of this actually the modern switching since power transistors are cell commutating, no special
switch is required. In this circuit, the transistors are made to conduct and so that you name in
such a way that actually the switches, S1, S2, S3, S4 and you can give it because you should
have this subtraction and gives you 3.

Then, you can see that consecutive switches will come into the picture. If it is S1, this will be S4.
If it is S2, this will be S5. If it is S3, this will be S6 and we shall assume the same thing, we are
feeding highly inductive load.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:29)

Now we have a different mode of conduction. One switch will conduct 120 degree and we will
see that another mode 180 degree. There are 2 types of control signal can be applied to the
transistors, 180 degree mode of conduction and 120 degree mode of conductions. In case of the
180 degree mode of operations, each device conducts whole half cycle, that is 180 degree and
sequence of firing you will find that actually S1 if it is triggered, you will find the 3 devices will
conduct at a time.

So you will find that S1, S2, S3 are 123. 123 will conduct 12 and 3, so ultimately this will
conduct initially. Thereafter, next sequence will come that is 234. Thereafter 345, 456, 561 and

421
612. This has a sequence will gradually follow and we will find that first 2 thyristors 1 and 3 are
the switches from the upper legs and 1 in lower leg will conduct. Thereafter, 1 will be the
outgoing thyristors after 180 degree. So 234 will conduct incoming thyristors will be 4.

So there will be 2 thyristors from the lower leg and 1 thyristor will be from the upper leg.
Similarly, this will follow. Again, there will be 2 thyristors from the upper leg, with odd number
are upper and even number are for the lower leg and getting signals are shifted from each other
by 60 degree. For this, for 120-degree mode of conductions, each thyristors conducts 120 degree
and sequence of firing will find that 61 thereafter 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61.

Again it will be repeated thereafter. So first of all 61 and 6, thereafter 12, thereafter 23 and so on
consecutively it will carry on. So here you can see at a time 1 thyristor or the switches from the
upper leg and another from the lower leg, this is for the lower leg and this is for the upper leg
will conduct. So let us see different kind of mode of conductions for 180-degree mode of
conduction.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:58)

So each thyristors individually will conduct for 180 degree. So this will start at the at stop time
of switch T1 and this will be T4 and this will be again T1. So after actually we can see that.
Before that, T5 was conducting and when T1 comes into the picture and T3 was conducting. So
you can see that at the interval what are the devices are conducting. So you can see that is T1,

422
T2, T3, thereafter you can see that T6 comes into the picture, then T1, T2, T6 and subsequently
those series will come.

So VS will be actually the VA, will have this kind of pattern and thereafter you will get PB that
will be a 120 degree phase shifted and similarly you will have VC so that will be 240 degree
phase shifted or 60 degree leading. Now if you subtract this, you essentially will get the line
voltages PAB that is 2PS and this will be this kind of nature and so it will be steps and similarly
it will be actually for CA and similarly it will be for BC and it will be for the CA.

Both will have the same relations of the same phase shift. So these are 3 line voltages and these
are 3 phase voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:12)

Now you can see 1 thing. So if you can see that, so this voltage is essentially the 2/3rd of the
deceivers voltage and this is basically the neutral voltage, line to neutral voltage. So you will find
that a staircase voltage line to neutral in case of this 180 degree mode of conduction. Similarly,
this voltage will be actually BDC/3, thereafter 2BDC/3 and so on and same staircase kind of
profile will be followed.

If it is actually line to neutral output voltage for unground stair connected load, this will be the
profile, you will get it in case of the phase voltages.

423
(Refer Slide Time: 22:10)

Now let us see that the conductions for 120 degrees, mode of conduction, this is G1, G2, G3, G4
and all the pulses and switches will conduct for the period of 120 degree and then we have phase
shifted all these pulses will have a 60 degree phase shifted. G1 and G2 will have 60 degree phase
shifted and these are the gate pulses and corresponding switches will be actually T1 or S1 as you
have seen.

So this is T2 and T3 and so on. We assume that this will conduct for the same duration of their
respective gate pulses. So this is basically the neutral voltage and ultimately you will see that,
you know, when it is on upper thyristors was conducting 1 and lower thyristors 6 was conducting
and thus you will get this voltage at 120 degree time. After that, once T1 is off, then you would
not get any voltage across the BAN.

Then again after an interval of pi/6, the lower thyristors T4 is triggered and you will get –VS/2.
Similarly, in this case, you know the lower thyristors was conducting for the phase B, that is
basically the 2, thereafter it will be off for the period of actually 60 degree, then at this moment
actually T3 will be actually switched on and will conduct till the time of another 120 degree.
Similarly, this will be basically the case of first. T6 has been switched on.

Thereafter actually T2 is actually switched on, thereafter this is the case of T4 being switched on.

424
(Refer Slide Time: 24:18)

Now harmonic analysis of it. So what should be the RMS value of the output voltage since it is
an AC. We are interested to find it out this RMS value. So we require to integrate over it 2/pi 0
to pi V square ddt and you will get essentially the value=PS and now we require to find it out the
individual components. So you can find it out since there is symmetry involved, so only odd
harmonics will be present. So we have harmonics that is 1, 3, 5 so on to infinity.

So the fundamental RMS output voltage is V01(RMS) 4VS/pi root 2=0.9VS. For unload the
instant load current is, so you can actually integrate over it 1, 3, 5 to infinity for VSn pi under
root R square n omega L square sin n omega T-theta n. So this is the basically essentially you
divide it by the load, you get the load current. So basically this inductive component will change
and offer a different kind of impedance or different kind of different frequencies.

So it will be actually this nature. Now what should be the line voltage. Generally, what happens,
this is the average value. It should be 0. So we assume that there is exact symmetry involved and
we do not have any DC value and from the symmetry, we know that actually, the cos component
will be 0, we are left with only the sin component and so we can see 1 thing.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:23)

425
That you know till -5pi/6 to +5pi/6 a voltage actually for the phase A is –VS. Thereafter, till this
value, it is positive. So you can calculate and while by integration, the value of BAn will come
out to be 4VS/nPi where n can be any integer sin n pi/2sin n pi/3. So this will be the basically the
BM. So what should be the value of AB, AB will be essentially you subtract. So you will get 1,
3, 5 0 to infinity 4VS/n pi/sin n pi/3 sin n omega T+pi/6.

So similarly you will get these values R 120 degree phase shifted. So these values will lead the
phase value by 30 degree, so it is +pi/6, here it is instead of -120 degrees pi/2 and here it is
another phase shifted by 120 degrees that is 7pi/6. So this will be the expressions of the 3
voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:47)

426
Now harmonic analysis, so what is the amount of the harmonic present into the system. So line
to line voltage, RMS value of the component. So VL of course this voltage across the inductor
you can integrate over it. So 2/2pi, actually you will know that it will conduct for a period of 2pi/
3, so V square S ddt1/2. So this value will be root 2/root 3*VS that is 0.8165 something like that.

So similarly RMS values for the n-th component you will have to actually find the n-th value and
you will get 4VS/under root 2n pi sin n pi/3 for n=1, you will get P1=this value. So line neutral
voltage will be essentially VL/root 3 is basically root 2VS/3 that is 0.471. So this will be the
values for the line to neutral voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:07)

427
Similarly, we can connect the value for the Y connected load and so you can calculate, you can
substitute the previous values. So these will be values for the actually the different phase
voltages. Thank you for your attention. We shall continue our discussion from this point from
your next class. Thank you.

428
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 27
VSI and CSI -I & MLI

Welcome to our lectures on advanced power electronics and control. Today, we are going to start
out very important topic that is voltage source, inverter in water and current source inverter
followed by actually multilevel inverter. So these are the three few modern entities of the power
electronic circuits and it has got huge importance because most of the drives are essentially
actually are AC drives further required are separate dedicated AC supply.

And that can be fed through VSI and that can be fed through CSI and to cater the need of the
higher voltage and lower power issues that when high power factor low THD we will go for the
multi-level inverter. So we will see that what are the topological aspect what are the advantage
and where it can be applied. So as we have discussed in our previous class.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:36)

The VSI as the full form denotes is a output voltage is constant called stand with the output
current changing with the load types or values or the component. So ultimately it will be
something like the current may be the characteristics of the grid and on the other hand, CSI is a

429
current source inverter so current is a nearly constant and voltage changes according to the load
we see that actually.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:14)

This is a single phase realisations of the current source inverter that the simple realisations can be
done by basically essentially load can be connected here and with the pole is available here and
with the so current at this point here it has to be a current source this is an available change so
you can connect these two switches. So current will flow like this and you can connect these two
switches current will flow like this to the load.

So and will imply the auxiliary if you use the thyristor then we apply the auxiliary method of
commutations once this thyristor is triggered current will be through this and if you wish to
change the direction of the current into the load not here not at the point A point a will always
see that actually current is sinking and current view is always see that current is leaving. So what
will happen then you have to trigger this thyristor.

As you triggered this thyristor this auxiliary commutations comes into the picture automatically
current will wipes out and this capacitor will charges its polarity from this point to this point and
thus actually what will happen the current through this thyristor will fall below the holding
current and ultimately current will take this path and similar case will happen to the lower
thyristor also.

430
So essentially what you if you wish this actually a current source in order to be realized so you
can connect this switch and this switch current will flow like this but you know since putting off
this thyristor is a very big challenge so for this we required to have some kind of mechanism and
here it is applied the auxiliary commutation to achieve this and ultimately you know we can
assume that it is a pure inductor.

And we may have a realize this current source with an older source with the in finite theoretical
in finite inductance or practically you might take the L/R ratio near around actually 10 then you
can have that realization. So it can be 1 millinery and 0.01 ohm resistance. So it is a challenge
generally so that accordingly we can design we can have different values of combinations so that
this L/R ratio you required to have an 110 second.

So because these power electronics circuits operates in terms of the milliseconds so compared to
that you can say that 10 second is infinity that is a catch on it.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:26)

So you will give are triggering pulses if it is a thyristor it will be restricted to here so we need not
have to give a continuous pulses otherwise if you have an actual GTO and all those things to
make GTO in a turn on stage it is advisable to give him to give a little bit of a positive current or

431
this has been manifested and if you have a IGBT and other devices also you know actually you
have to give a continuous pulses.

And you will see that actually the voltage across the voltage that is connected in between the
thyristor 1 and thyristor 2 and also the thyristor 3 and thyristor 4 will actually change like this for
the positive negative VC02 positive VCO and this charging time and high current will definitely
flow. So accordingly current also will see the sequence of there and a load current initially will
change after an interval of time

so thereafter actually once this voltage changes thereafter it will be a steady state for the
operation then you initiate this physically the changes there will be a delay thereafter again the
same cart will be actually utilised. So this is the current through the capacitors and the diode so
diode will have this kind of former here at this instance essentially another sequence of the
thyristor Th2 and Th4 are triggered then here at this junction this are triggered and so on.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:03)

So this is the operation of it of course you can have a 3 phase realisations of it an you require it
to connect capacitor in all the individual lines so you require AB BC CA all those things in so
that actually makes the system little bulky because you required to have a huge capacitor and if it
is a power rating is quite high the insight of the capacitor also become large and we have a
calculation.

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Which you have done into the while you were studying in a basic power electronic circuit that is
auxiliary commutation. So accordingly the value of C can be designed and the calculated. So
according otherwise we have to design the value of the C properly otherwise their might be a
commutation failure and if the commutation failure occurs it will fail to work properly. So one of
the basic advantage of the CSI is that actually you require a switch with a diode.

So it makes the current unidirectional. So that is a one of the biggest advantage and will
inherently it is a short circuit protected because current essentially has been controlled and this is
the realisation of the 3 phase and after all it is all the same you can actually eliminate this to
capacitor you can think of. So there is a 2 block it can we can add another leg and connect the
capacitor in between thus it essentially becomes a 3-layer level CSI.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:38)

Now here we have to actually have a sequence so we have to have a sequence that is on and off
sequence please see that actually what are the name Th1 Th3 Th5 and Th4 and Th6 Th2 so 1 3 5
4 6 2 this is a sequence and if you basically subtract so you always get 3 that is a catch here so it
will start after 180 degree mode of conduction and individually will conduct at the layer of 60
degrees.

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All those things what you have studied into the 120 level 10 degree or 180 degree inverter same
is followed here so initially you can see that thyristor stage 1 is on and from the lower site
thyristor T6 is conducting. So essentially you get initially let us see so thereafter thyristor T1 T2
thereafter T3 T2 and so on the sequence will appear and we will have around 120 degree mode
of current it is not a voltage.

This is the basic difference between what you have studied discussed in 120 degree mode of
conduction for this inverter that was VSI now in this case it is CSI and all those things is
followed but only difference is that you will have a current into the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:06)

Now what are the difference between VSI and the CSI. So essentially if you can see that the first
wave form in case of the CSI you definitely will generate you have got a Mains by rectifications
maybe as a PWM technique or other so that power quality issues are being addressed thereafter
you will have to put a huge inductance and that will make this current almost ripple free. That is
what I was saying L/L ratio should be around 10 and thereafter you put the CSI.

And there is a change in the current configuration that switch should be current flow should be
unidirectional and for this reason you have switch followed by the diode it essentially makes this
current unit directional. So this is the combination of the CSI and in case of the VSI essentially

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to ripple out this volt to ripple LC will axle out the filter for this reason but this size of this
inductor will be quite low.

And you have to put a bulky capacitor to actually maintain that DC voltage was there. So you
require almost a constant deceivers for this reason we require a bulky capacitor here. The source
current IS has term specified that it should be all it is almost constant and this source voltage that
is voltage appeared across this capacitor is almost constant. Here since this actually current is
constant so or this an its output impedance is very high.

So you required to have a impedance matching and in this case it should be very low so it can
sustain different high load current. Output waveform so line voltage will be sinusoidal depending
on the load pattern it will lead or lag whatever maybe but you will have current will have a
square kind of wave form. Just reverse if it is 120 degree or 180 degree here I have shown it for
the 180 degree mode of conduction.

You will have this actually square kind of line voltages and ultimately this inductor ultimately
this you mostly it is fitted to the diodes kind of applications inherits the characteristics of the low
pass filter thus line current oil be almost sinusoidal in nature. So one of the biggest advantage is
that easy to control over current condition and design because current is already protected but we
require difficult to limit current.

Because of the capacitor and ultimately we required to insert the short circuit or load protection.
Output voltage varies widely with the change of the load that is a quite disturbing fact of the CSI.
But output voltage variation is small because of that capacitor that will maintain the capacitor
almost constant. So these are the few examples but mind it actually this will be fitted to the drive
and drive essentially if you take a simple drive that is that can we actually BYF control.

So that is you make the flux constant and if you are feeding to a simple induction machine you
know your torque slip characteristics will be actually in all the sleep or speed whatever just
reverser actually it is sleep written it should be 1 here it should be 0 here it should be this and if it

435
is a VA characteristics you can change to the actually synchronous speed by changing the
frequency.

And mostly actually I assume that is a low torque you will be operating here and here. In VSI
there is a biggest advantage you know why I am discussing drive you will find it out that you can
operate the motor in this region essentially this region this region. These are essentially at this
part of the torque slip characteristics are essentially the stable region but you know they will be
disadvantage.

If you imply or drive you will find with the CSI it has to operate this part of the region and while
actually the why is so actually that required a detailed study of the drives. So anyway so what we
can conclude here CSI also if you reply in a drive required a control circuit require a complicated
complex control system whereas VSI it is easy to control. So now let us talk about the PWM
technique.

We have already discussed PWM rectifier now we shall discuss this PWM in case of the
inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:00)

So simplest of this category are the single pulse modulation that we shall see that multiples
modulation thereafter quite important phenomenon so that well try to cover this class today that

436
is sinusoidal pulse modulation that is SPWM we should see that different variation of the
sinusoidal pulse with modulation that is modified sinusoidal pulse with modulation then the
space vector pulse with modulation.

In single pulse modulation there is only one pulse exist per half cycle the width of this pulse is
varied to control that inverter output voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:41)

So see that what happened you close this switch and this switch then current will flow to this
path and it is a VSI thus current is by directional so for this reason you will have an anti-parallel
diode to be placed with each of the circuit. Anyway so we shall see later how the diode and how
diode conducts and current conducts. But let us now analyse that how what happened essentially
if it is IGBT so you have to connect anti-parallel diode.

If it is MOSFET it comes with the body diode and if it is the GTO, you have to connect the anti-
parallel diode. So G1 G2 given pulses and see that how it will generate pulses so generally you
will have this inverted triangular wave form and it will start essentially it is just a phase shifted
waveform and it will start from the costs wave form something like that and it will be actually Ar
is the control signal you can vary this point.

437
And thus what happened the width of the pulse will change so you can and here since actually
you have truncated this part and this part it will operate a unity power factor. So this is get pulses
of G1 and G2 and this is a voltage of actually appear across the load When S1 S2 is conducting
and thereafter this will be the voltage of the load if S3 S4 are conducting and the width of this
pulse is considered to be 2d.

So the frequency of the reference signal determines the frequency of the output voltage. So it is
the air that will actually generate the ratio of air to Ac called the modulation index and it is
control the output voltage so this width will change and ultimately we will get a different values
of the RMS values of this voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:16)

So we can analyse it so the output voltage of the inverter with a single modulations that can be
calculated we have already seen so this value is 4 Vm/pi and these are the harmonic content so it
is so far for output voltage we can see that that is Vs/pi 4 Vs/pi sin nd sin omega t -3rd
harmonics 5th harmonics all the harmonic will be present due to the odd symmetry. So
fundamental will be essentially is 4 Vs/pi sin d.

So now there is an issue if nd=pi, then particular harmonic will be absent or d=pi/n then nth
harmonic will be eliminated from this inverter in this configuration you can eliminate only one
harmonic. Let us take the example of the you are feeding induction machine and you know

438
actually 5th harmonic generally you know 3rd harmonics it is not really harmful the co phaser sir
with the sinusoidal voltage and mostly you know for the higher rating it is a delta connected.

So it does not happen in a line lane but you know 5th harmonic is quite dangerous. Why it is
dangerous because you know if you will see that actually 6th harmonic will be also co phaser but
did not exist because of that even harmonic but what will happen you know so it is basically
lagging so 5th harmonic will appear to be the negative sequence and thus will generate torque if
it is component is low end high you know you got torque in negative direction.

Magnetic torque will be generating in the negative direction so what happened you know it will
give a torque ripple into the machine and also it will be damage the machine or it may cause
harm to the machine. So if you wish to eliminate this 5th harmonic then you can choose and you
can eliminate that 5th harmonic. So but you can eliminate it only 1 harmonic here.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:56)

So this is something you can see how the strength of this actually harmonic changes and we are
considering actually lower harmonics. The 3rd 5th and 7th are the dominating harmonic when
voltage is reduced and you can see that larger mono harmonics introduced at lower output
voltage if you actually increase the value of the d so magnitude you can see that initially when
actually it is 45 degrees.

439
You see that there is a high amount of 5th and 7th harmonics are present. So this is a 3rd
harmonic and this is the 5th harmonic and this is the 7th harmonic. Harmonic content can be
reduced by having many pulses of each half cycle so that is called multi pole pulse with
modulations.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:03)

So see that what happened instead of the one single pulses you will have a number of pulses turn
of pulses in 1 cycle. This method many pulses are having equal widths are produced in every half
cycle and repeated in the negative half cycle. The gating signals are produced by comparing the
reference signal with a triangular wave is almost same thing but we shall see that little change
and thus you know actually you have a lambda.

So lambda is given by pi-2d/3+d/2 this will be the actually the midpoint of this first pulse. So
accordingly you can design and you can eliminate it.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

440
So you can see that there is a number of triangular wave and so this is a carrier wave so you can
have constant with pulses of so many and thus what will happen you can see that it can have an
you can eliminate more than 1 harmonic we shall see that the expression then we will come to
the conclusion. Utility of the multiple PWM the frequency of the reference signal determines the
frequency of the output voltage. That is the square wave the ratio of Ar and Ac are called a
modulation indexing and controls the output voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:30)

So in this case so output voltage will be actually again it will only order 1 will be present it I s8
Vs/n pi sin n lambda while lambdas expression has been given sin nd/2 sin omega t. So you can
take 8 Vs/pi common so sin lambda sin d/2 sin omega t thereafter 3rd harmonic 5th harmonic

441
and 7th harmonic and so on. So fundamentals will be 8 Vs/pi sin lambda sin d/2 so this is the
actually the fundamental value of the voltages and maximum value of course you remove this sin
omega t you get the but here what you get essentially this maximum magnitude is also a function
of the lambda and d.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:31)

So for example you take that actually 2d actually 36 d=36 then actually you can substitute here
and you get the value is around 75% and the 2 pulses peak to peak. Peak value of the
fundamental 8 Vs/pi sin lambda sin d/2 so this value will be 54 if you make it 54 then this
voltage will come down to 63%. So accordingly you can see that there will be a different
voltages in a multiples converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:06)

442
So from there what we can conclude it is seen from the above that the fundamental component
the output voltage is low for the two pulse modulation than for the single pulse modulation. But
what is the advantage of it we have to check it we can we get a lower value but lower order
harmonics I eliminated and higher order harmonics are increased since our load essentially a low
pulse filter.

So higher order already been eliminated by the load itself higher order our filters easily because
and the filter size will also be less. The scheme is advantageous than the single pulse modulation.
So it gives you the lower THD but large number of pulse per half cycle requires frequent turn on
and turn off thyristors. and that require a commutation device and which is not possible and for
this is solution lies with the more modern devices like GTO or the thyristors.

But we are now talking about again devices accessory devices so nowadays this is not at all a
very big challenge and it will increase thus the switching losses. Now we shall discuss in our
next class with a sinusoidal modulation and we shall checkout advantage of it over the multiples
and the single pulse PWM converter. Thank you for your attention we shall actually continue
with the sinusoidal pulse modulation in our next class.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 28
PWM Techniques – II & MLI

Welcome to our NPTEL courses on the advance power electronics and controls. We shall
continue with rest of PWM techniques. We will start with sign PWM there after we will try to
cover multiple level inverter so as we were discussing in our previous class.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

That sinusoidal PWM actually an extension of the multiple PWM where actually the modulating
wave form instead the square wave we have sin wave. In this method several pulses per half
cycle are used as in the case of multiple modulations. But each pulses is modulated proportional
to the amplitude of the sin wave. So, in case of multiple convertor square wave we have got all
the pulses with the same width.

But you will have a variable frequency variable width pulses throughout it in central of the fence
you will have actually more width in the 0 crossing you will have a less width. Gate pulses are
generated by comparing the sinusoidal reference signal will with triangular carrier signal.
Frequency of reference signals decides the frequency of the output voltage the ratio of Vr/Vc is

444
called the modulation index which controls the output voltage and number of pulses per half
cycle depends on the carrier frequency the ratio of this.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:12)

Actually the carrier frequency of the modulating frequency this is the two type of the SPWM one
is bipolar and another is unipolar. Bipolar we will have a more harmonic and more
disadvantages. For actually time constraint we are going to discuss only the unipolar switching
technique the bipolar output voltage wave form contains more harmonic. Then that unipolar
PWM so far this reasons our discussion considered only the unipolar PWM.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:52)

445
So, this is a triangular wave and it has a frequency as much as high as actually 20 times and you
have a sinusoidal form you can see that at the 0 crossing weight is less and we will carry like this
and if you have this kind of pattern so this is called the unipolar modulation. It is very easy to
implement so one half cycle you have a shifted wave then afterwards negative half cycle
multiply with that minus one.

And we will have this shifted wave and accordingly the carrier will be gate pulses will be
generated and this will be compared with the op - amp. Very simply it will circuit modulating
signal and carrier signal bandwidth of the op–amp required to be at least 10 to 15 times higher
than the carrier wave to operate it properly and then he will have a pulses so modulation index.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:55)

Modulation index is the ratio of peak magnitude of the modulating waveform and the carrier
wave form. So, m = Vm/Vc so this MI moderating and controls the harmonic content of the
output voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:13)

446
Let see how does it done by increasing the number of pulses in both half cycle the lower other
harmony it get cancelled and what happened actually you are shifting the spectrum to the ratio
types. If it is actually one kilo watts carrier frequency and a 50 year cycle should be shifting this
actually this frequency band multiple by the 20 times more so but higher order harmonics will
get increased that is the 04.46 ratio.

Higher order harmonics can be filtered out easily because essentially all those devices you got a
copper you got an inductor. All the machines will have inductors your conducting line will have
an inductor and thus all will actually help you to actually minimize the effect of the higher order
harmonics. Higher value of m is more but leads to more switching loss. And that will reduce the
efficiency of the inventor and moreover we have discussed about the devices.

If you know we require we have a prescribed frequency for the prescribed switching frequency
for the prescribe devices. If it is GTO it cannot be operated over and above 2 kilos. So, around if
you wish to go above the 2 Kilo horse you have to be settled with the 05:49 so power rating is
quite low then. And then if you take a higher than this eligibility switch over to the MOSFET
then MOSFET can handle power only in the range of the hundreds of watts.

447
So, this is basically we have to see to it that it is not that can constraint that we can increase the
carrier frequency. Nowadays we have a very high processor and it can generate the digital pulses
at a very high switching frequency but considered also imposed by the features.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:22)

So, what is over modulation? When the peak magnitude of modulating signal exceeds the peak
magnitude of the carrier signal the PWM inverter operates under over modulation during over
modulation the output voltage increases slightly but you will generate more and more harmonics.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:51)

So, harmonics and there is an i triple e standard by i triple e 5.19 all those standards are there that
actually tells that the value of the allow harmonics of 5% is allowable in an inverter output

448
voltage. So, voltage THD allowed to be around 5% but inverter output voltage contains more
than 5% harmonics filter can we use to reduce the harmonic content so that is that actually the
bottom line of it.

You have to when you are giving to the customer so THD content has to be less than percent
smaller the size of the filter is enough for reducing the higher harmonics and thus it is become a
natural choice to use sign PWM grid with high switching frequency but bigger the size of the
filter is required for reducing the lower order harmonics. It makes the system costlier and leads
to the poor performance of this devices.

And hence the system without filter is need to be suppressed the harmonics now you will see that
let us now do the analysis of the unipolar PWM.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:19)

So, you have triggered an angle alpha again it will be triggered after angle alpha two and so on.
And we will have a kind of variable frequencies so we can find it out. We have an order of
symmetry that is only sign component will be preserved. And so Bn will be 4/Pi Vs 0 to alpha
sin omega t d omega t thereafter – because here you get – alpha 1 to alpha 2 sin n omega t d
omega t + again actually alpha to Pi/2 till this much sin n omega t d omega t.

449
So, if you can substitute and you can get Bn =Vs / Pi 4 Vs/Pi 1-2cos n alpha + 2 cos n alpha 2/n.
Now you can actually this is a concept of selective harmonic elimination technique. You can
choose you can make the value of the Bn is 0 by this 9.29 0. So, if you have 2 pulses this is an
actually you can choose the alpha 1 alpha 2 and salt online. To make this value 0 and particular
harmony can be eliminated.

For example, you can take a case that we want to eliminate the third harmonic and the fifth
harmonic and rest of the harmonic says high order. So, it can we filter it out.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:01)

So, the equation is actually for Bn you can substitute actually all those things will be 3 so you
will get this equations and for fifth harmonic you will have this and this should l be called 0 and
ultimately 1.018 to this equation and you can solve and will solve your alpha 1 should be 20 3
degree and alpha 2 should be 33.3 so what is the advantage of it. So, you can get eliminated
alpha 1 and alpha 2 by and thus get rid of the lower order harmonic take 3rd and 5th.

And by using the same equation we should have a multiple pulses we can eliminate the 7th 9th
and 11th harmonic and so you can find it out that if actually 3rd and 5th is eliminated so what
should be the harmonic content of the 7th harmonic what should be the harmonic content of the
9th harmonic what should be the harmonic content of the 11th harmonic so accordingly order you
are getting the THD prescribed by the standard or not.

450
(Refer Slide Time: 11:18)

Now the amplitude of the fundamental component of the value alpha one and alpha two is so you
can substitute these values. So, ultimately the fundamental value we will have a 6% increment so
that is 1.06 the amplitude of the fundamental component of the un modulated wave form is
actually 4Vs/Pi so that value is essentially 1.27 but it will have a degradation of this value from
this un modulated form but you get lower THD.

The amplitude of the fundamental wave form is 83% of the un modulated wave form so inverter
is de rated by 16% if you wish to use this ((sine triangular)) (12:16) wave selective harmonic
elimination that additional 8 commutation per cycle is increases also due to the switching losses.
So, these are the few take on from the multi pulse sin wave inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:31)

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So, now let us discuss about a very important topic that is still now we are discussing about your
PWM inverter now we shall discussed inverter topologies that is multi level important why we
require a multi level important. Essentially what we have discussed now we have restricted
ourselves to the 2 level inverter. Why we require multilevel inverter? Is that first of all there is
logic behind it.

Let us consider simple buck logic but it has to be since it has to be SC so it has to be like this.
But what essentially you are doing you know you get one while you are switching on. You can
have this voltage or 0 ultimately you will have that whole area match with this or you may have
a sinusoidal wave form or you will actually. So, this vault area will match ultimately to match
this volt area essentially what you will do.

You will inject more and more harmonics so but let us consider a simple case of a when you
switch on it gives 12volt but you require a 5 volt instantaneously. So, you will match you will
apply to 12 volt for small interval of time. Rest of the time you will apply t0 and thus you say
that actually this volt 14.07 matches theoretically it is okay but what happened? The power
quality decreases so you require a sinusoidal voltage and once you switch on.

When you have an almost a 0 voltage you are applying a whole DC voltage then what happens?
You say that actually volt idea matches but within that area essentially it is fill up by the

452
unnecessary harmonics. But assume that you have steps you can apply 6 volts as well as the 12
volt so once you want to generate 5 volt you can turn on only 6 volt. So, there is a less
instantaneous error between the applied voltage and the actual voltage require.

And thus that actually unnecessarily harmonic generation will be lower and this is the basic
essence of go for the multi level inverter so conventional when means actually we say that it is
two level and if it is more than 2 level. It is multi level it can be any level so as I discussed THD
of this voltage wave form and the output of this two level inverter will be higher because of
instantaneous difference of the applied voltage and the actual voltage.

And THD is low with the output voltage because you applied voltage and actual voltage has less
instantaneous since you are switching on whole DC bus volt switch you are getting plus this
actually the poll of the essential inverter goes to plus minus VDC so stress across the switches is
quite high but you have a choice. You may apply VDC/2 VDC/4VDC/6 depending on the level
you have chosen thus you will have less stress on this switch.

Since the device is not available to sustain high voltage and thus these two levels in water cannot
be used for high voltage applications as well as the high volt applications. But it can be used
since it can block higher voltages and individual switching rating. It reduced in the multilevel
inverter it can reuse for that higher voltage rating and applications and high voltage level cannot
be produced.

Like we require maybe the HVDC link and all those things there is a rectifications and some
ways inversion operation there you cannot achieve this high voltage level can be produced by the
multi level inverter since voltage drops heavily our builds up heavily while turn off volt will drop
heavily while turn on across the switch and build some heavily across a turn over switch so it
will be subjected to high humidity.

And all the switches has to be protected from the ill effect of the high humidity and one of the
minutes of this actually high humidity is the emi. So, it will have more electromagnetic
radiations and interferences since humidity is less so EMI also will be less since actually we

453
require the same output same THD because we want to ship the THD. So, if you use the two
levels in water we require to increase the switching frequency.

To achieve the same THD another e site of the filter and once you increase the switching
frequency you increase also the switching losses. So, it will have those more switching losses
since it gives a closer THD because of the less error in the instantaneous voltage and the actual
voltage. So, size of the filter is already dues you need not have to actually use high switching
frequency.

And thus you can use the higher rating switches and which enhances the power handling
capability. And apart from that it gives you the decent power quality so due to this all advantages
now we have entered into the domain of the multilevel inverter and we have leap and we are now
living in inverter on line inverter you see that actually if you have a solar inverter small solar
inverter in a roof top or in any other places.

Then also multilevel inverter to reduce the size of this actually the filters and apart from the high
power applications now let us sees their classifications of these inverters.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:53)

Multi level inverter can be broadly classified into 3 categories sometimes it is actually this can be
this coupled and this has been kept aside. So, anyway we decided to actually go back

454
conventional classification one is diode clamped multilevel inverter we see that topology we will
find that actually there are many diode put into the system and if the level goes very high the
number of diode is also increasing like anything.

Anyway so we shall see that advantage and disadvantage of the diode clamped multi level
inverter followed by flying capacitor multilevel inverter so we will find that actually voltage
multiple stage of the voltage is generated by the multilevel level inverter. There the cascade H
bridge multilevel inverter these are the 4 these are the 3 multilevel level inverter these 2 can use
a common this is also 1.

This source can be used for all the applications and thus we have operating advantages but up
and down count will be more generating higher level. It is basically very complex and it is
becomes bulky and whereas in a cascade multi-level inverter require all those multi level entities
request separate resource but it has a very big advantage that it is a modular in nature. You can
level them up to any level by the separate DC voltage. So, these are the three main entities of the
multilevel inverters.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:43)

Now let us go to the diode clamped multilevel inverter so here we can generate this is basically a
five level multilevel inverter and there are some calculations as we written. So, please understand
that choosing devices are 2m-2 so these are the IGBT are here at the switching devices. So, it is a

455
five level so it tells that basically you have 2m-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 so you got 8 such devices and if
it is a 3 level so you make it actually 3 here.

So, you will get 4 devices so this much to this much will give you the3 level and number of
voltage source in this case is basically what you required is a capacitor. It is basically this this
this they are 4 so that should be a - 1. But problem lies with a number of diodes and it is
increasing obnoxiously it is increasing like anything like rumour. So, that value is physically m-
1* m- 2 so here this 4* 3 that is 12 guides.

The thing about what we felt was 11 level inverter so how many diodes would be there so that is
one of the drawback of this typology. It employees huge amount of the diode every diode
basically consisting of the losses of 0.7 volt and it is since it is a power diode it generally have a
losses around 1 to 2 volt and what happened while having a path we will find that it all is close to
every single phase for us to at least one at a time.

We will discuss this conduction of different type little later and then what will happen that this
leads to a huge loss of efficiency and voltage across each capacitors you can it is a same thing
that is VDC/ m-1 and this is something while we studying the output you will get that is the line
voltages here we will have a steps of line voltages that is actually 9 steps voltage will come and
that is basically 2m-1 so you see that how it operates.

So, if you wish to get the voltage at a point a pole of the inverter required to get a PDC all the
upper switches all the 4 upper switches required to be on. So, just essay 1 essay 2 essay 3 essay 4
and this has a complete this has basically a simple logic. I do not have time to discuss because
this switch and this switch are complementary. Similarly this switch and this switch is
complementary this switch and this switch is complementary and this switch and switch is.

And we can see that we have formed this table also so all of upper switch yes is on then you get
the voltage equal to PDC. There is 1 1 1 so here you get the voltage hub PDC and the lower
should and all the lower switch should be off once you get one switch you get basically 3 VDC/4

456
so this voltage this switch requite to be off and this voltage required to be off ultimately this will
be the diode forward biased.

And till this to this it will be all on so all the 4 you will see that at a time or a set of 4 switches
are on and gradually it will shift one by one it is just like a switch register. It is easy to design
this kind of circuit in a digital domain so this all will be on and since the complementary. There
will be 0 so you will get the voltage up plus 3VDC/4 + and similarly if you wish to get VDC/2 so
here this switch to be off then.

Actually D7 will take care and this 4 switches will be on and lower 2 switches will off similarly
for D4 will get on and wish to get 0 voltage that all the switches should be on. Lower switches
should be on and ultimately this point should be connected to that this point and assume to be the
0 voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:56)

Now what are the advantages and the disadvantage of the diode clamped multi level inverter the
large number of levels can be yelled and thus will have a lower THD and it is a general
advantage of all the MLI and not only the resembling all the phases shares a common receivers
thus you not required a multiple voltages and multiple sources we will see later reactive power
flow can be controlled in this kind of configuration.

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We can have a DQ control at different kind of control techniques is employed mostly these are
the users for the wind form applications all those cases or the high voltage application where we
required to have a PQ control high efficiency for fundamental for switching frequency. That is
something we require to understand it fundamental switching frequency we have seen that in
case of the selective harmonic elimination is reduced by around 18%.

But here we shall see that you know it has got a higher switching higher efficiency and relatively
simple controls that comes with the comparison with the other two MLIs. These are diode clamp
actually cascade multi-level inverter because that incident of that clamp capacitor clamp multi-
level inverter has a huge number of capacitor then each voltage is actively maintained and thus
required more complex control.

Similarly the cascade multi level inverter we required to have a multiple voltage source and it is
we all assume that voltage required to be constant. So, these are a few challenges are these are a
few advantages of the multi level inverter but of course there are so many disadvantages. So, we
shall discuss the disadvantages and we will switch over to the next multi level inverter. Thank
you for your attention, we are looking forward to a very exciting next class also.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Lecture – 29
MLI –II &ZSI

Welcome to our lecture on the advance power electronics and control. Today, we are going to
discuss the MLI another multi-level inverter. And there after we shall discuss another important
typology of the inverter that is called Z source inverter. Now in previous class I was actually
discussing the diode clamped multi-level inverter please recall the circuit now actually we
already have discussed this.

Disadvantage and advantage of the diode clamped multi-level inverter but just it is a small recap
of the previous class that is advantages are actually the simplicity of the circuit and it can be
actually write it down in this 3 or 4 advantages the large number of levels yields a small
harmonic distortion and it is very common for all the multilevel inverter now it is not specific to
the only this diode clamped multi-level inverter
(Refer Slide Time: 01:32)

All the phases share that common dc bus. So this is a common for diode clamped multi-level
inverter as we will as the capacitor clamped level inverter. Reactive power flow can be
controlled high efficiency for the fundamental switching frequency and relative simple control

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methods. Because you did not have to balance we will see the next topology there we required to
actively balance the chargers across the capacitor.

Or you are required to maintain the deceivers voltage so these are the control complex controlled
application will be there and it is absent and thus it is quite simple in operation. Disadvantages
different voltage rating for clamping diodes are required. So different diode and block a different
kind of voltages so for this reason we required to have a different rating of the diodes. The real
power flow is difficult because of the capacitor unbalanced or imbalanced.

Need high voltage rating diodes to block the reverse voltages number of switches capacitor and
the diode required in the circuit increases with the increase in the number of output voltages and
levels. Extra clamping diodes are required and we have discussed actually that in the previous
class also that is if m is the level and you require m-1=m-2 this will be the number of the diode
required to construct that m level multi-level inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:02)

Now let us talk about another important topology that is called flying capacitor multilevel
inverter. Here you know actually you will have a diode we have discussed a 5 level multilevel
inverter for the diode clamp same it will be discussed here. So we have 4 level there after we got
this there after we got this capacitor and gradually it will be actually increased like that and if
you have a 6 level then there will be a 8 capacitor.

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So then we actually it would be 2 to 3 power there after 2 to 3 power 1 thereafter it will be
basically 3 thereafter 4 and 5 and so on. Depending on the level will have a number of capacitors
and M level flying multilevel inverter needs switches that is all same that have this actually the
diode clamp that is 2m-2 and number of capacitor is required is basically m-1 so this is actually
the level so you required the 4 such capacitor.

And number of capacitor links in case of it will be required with basically m-1 *m-2 /2 . But
there actually if you recall there is a capacitor that is m-1*m-2 so component count it will be less
and the principle operation is quite simple we know that actually we please recall that we have a
same switches S1 S2 S3 S4 but your logic will change a little bit and thereafter please recall in
your diode clamped circuit it was basically S1 prime S2 prime S3 prime and so on.

But the sequence will be changing so if this S1 the top switch is S1 the bottom switch will be S1
prime then we are complementary logic so what happened accordingly you will generate a
different name of voltage to this output voltage output terminal of the inverter if you wish that all
let us assume that all the cells are basically holding the voltage E then you one that actually 4E
voltage will appear across this terminal A.

Then all the upper switch is required to be on so S1 S2 S3 S4 should be on and all the lower
switch will be OFF and you will get the voltage that is =4E and if you wish to have a 3E then S4
is going to be off . If S4 is going to be off then automatically you can understand that S4 prime is
going to be on and thus what will happen you know this 3 voltages thereafter this capacitor will
come into the picture and this switch be on.

And ultimately this voltage will be subtracted and you will get 3E. So if it is on at this point 4E
will come you subtract -E you will get 3E. Similarly there will be another combinations you have
a multiple combination to produce essentially this 3E voltage you can also OFF S1 so you can
also OFF S1 and you can directly short these 3 switches this this this then also you have you can
have the same voltage 3E.

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So thus you can see that you know actually you can witch it off 0 0 0 S1 S3 S4 still you manage
to get the 3E voltages. So you have a more possibility and thus you can reduce the switching
losses and these are that quite remarkable advantages of it. But one of the disadvantage of it will
come a little later that actually all the voltages which you assumed to be E it does not withstand
because the charging either current is going from this point.

Or getting in depending on the actually the sequence volt current is lagging then it is a different
issue with leading there will be a different issue if it was a co phrase then it is quite easy to
operate it. Then similarly this 2E voltage also can be made with that various combination of 1 1
upper 2 switches it on and this load to switches can be actually on you can make this to lower
switches on.

So that actually the from this 2 voltage switches you get 2E and all lots of combinations are
there. Similarly 1E you can make any of the switches on and generate other switches=off and
you generate the voltage of E and similarly you can make actually all the lower switches off and
thus all the upper switch is on and the lower switch is off you will get a 0 voltage. So basic
advantage of this plank capacitor is that.

Its in variant capability to generate state in various compositions. So you can generate these
different voltages with a different switching frequency based on which actually switches was
conducting and thus you can reduce the switching losses across the devices.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:58)

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Now what are the advantage of it since already actually capacitor has been put in parallel to the
system so it eliminates the clamping diodes and thus and also it added advantage of lower dV/dT
stress across the switches. So dV/ dT stress across the devices will reduce and so we can choose
a lower dV/dT devices. Additional switching states also help to maintain charge balance of the
capacitor.

That is very important of what we have assumed that in all the capacitor being an equal voltage
and not necessarily any moment at the point A either current is actually getting in to the system
thus it is going to the capacitor the moment actually current pulling in to the charge and voltage
will swell off and reverse will happen eventually when current is leaving point A.So, current will
also what will happen.

Then voltage will swell up in opposite direction so for this to balance it we have a different kind
of switching sequence so that you can maintain the voltage E as required but it require a complex
control the close to operation. Disadvantage is that for this reason we require a complex start up
and we have to ensure that all the capacitors has maintained the value E then only you can start
with competition.

That is the first thing you will do while actually operating this flying capacitor multilevel
inverter is that you ensure that all the capacitor has been charged to its desire value lowest

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switching efficiency. So, because you know you have a multiple switching is require to ensure
that to maintain the capacitor voltage reportage and the switching efficiency will be poured.
Most of the cases you know capacitors are expensive and bulky and then the direct.

Are where you have a space constraints and you have a wet constraint like every annex and other
applications we generally cannot and this is actually quite disadvantageous to use this capacitor
flying capacitor multi level inverter voltage control across all the capacitor is difficult and you
know at some point we are require to have a state space analysis of it and we have to find it out
that whether all the capacitor voltage are observable of not.

That is one of the biggest challenge from the control point of view we have to make all the
capacitor observable as well as the control level to control the voltage of the each of the
capacitor then only function appropriately. Now let us switch over to another important multi
level inverter till now what you have discussed we had only one bolt source but in this consider
upgradation the cascaded h bridge multi level inverter require.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

Basically a two independent voltage source if you do not choose the same source an independent
voltage source then the residing voltage will shot and you will get 0 voltage and for this reason
we have to ensure that these are different. Now these are getting applications for green field solar

464
power plant because you know this voltage sources can be actually the solar panel and they can
be independent voltage source confirm there you can generate multi level inverter.

It will give you a better THD and size of the filter will be drastically reduced this is one of the
reasons the advantages of this actually this multilevel inverter finds its pre- dominance
application in solar inverter topologies so this is a 5 level cascade and H bridge inverter so this is
basically BDC and you can see that how will generate 5 level multilevel cascade H bridge
inverter is that.

Let us say that everything associated with this bridge is a and everything associated with bridge
B is too. So S1 S2 are the switches when it is closed or on. And let us consider that also this
SBS3 and SBS4 are closed. Then you will get a voltage actually 0 so you can actually make this
voltage 0 with various combinations. That is a one of the biggest advantage of it so you can do so
again you can reduce the switching losses.

So, a lot of permutation combinations are possible and as you can reduce that switching losses
and ensure the more conduction same way if you wish that actually voltage V out required to be
the VDC then also you can combination this one to be 1 1 and you can make SB1 and SB4 are
short so you can get basically VDC. So, one voltage will come across it and similarly you can
also shot any of the switch you can shot SB1 and SB4.

That mean this switch you can short also SB3 and SB4 you can short this switch also any of the
switch you get short you get this voltage only so it is VDC same way you can short this voltages
and let it operate. So, you get also VDC and if you wish to get 2VDC if there is only one way for
E voltage so you have to operate this switch and this switch similarly from the lower half you
have to operate this switch and this switch.

Thus you get total 2VDC similarly the reciprocal has to be done you have to operate actually this
2 switches shot there after this switches will give you minus vacancy in that way. Actually you
can do this sequencing and generate different kind of voltage level as required for the cascade H
bridge multi level inverter.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

So, what are the advantage of it quite simple circuit you know and it is a modular in there is an
then it has got least component count and these are modular in nature and you can add up to
several level where any level it has to add the number of the h bridge and you get a huge number
of multilevel inward. So, one aspect is a modular in nature second is a simplified operation there
is no charge balancing component count in this list there is no diode.

And nowadays since you use the high efficiency all our control switch whoever pretty high
efficiency the series structures allows us scalable modular modularized circuit layout and
packing due to the identical structure of the eighth of each H bridge no extra clamping diode no
voltage capacitors are necessarily. These are the main drawbacks of this multi level due to
multilevel inverter.

We have discussed earlier that clamp at the flying capacitor switching redundancy for inner
voltage level s is possible because of that phase voltage is the sum of the output voltage of each
of the bridge so you can have multiple redundancies and you can generate and volt it is thus if
there is any particular switch is damaged somehow so you can still generate a different voltage
level as dessert main disadvantage is only one that is needs a separate DC voltage source.

466
That is the main disadvantage of this cascade multilevel inverter now let us compare these 3
topologies are multilevel inhibitor compare the study of the among these different multi level
inverters topology.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:23)

Power semiconductor switches that clamp that is you require a 2m - 1 number of switches.
Flying capacitor also require a same kind of switches there is no more not much advantages on
the basis of the switches and here also require the same number of switches. Clamping diode that
you require huge clamping diode in case of that clamped multilevel inverter that is m-1 m-2 here
you require a 0 flying capacitor and also in cascade multilevel inverter it is 0.

Bus capacitor it is same for both and m-1 and m-1 and here it is basically half of it balancing
capacity at each phase. It does not have a balancing capacitor in the diode clamped multilevel
inverter it has actually m-1* m-2/2 half of the diode will be the balancing So, this and this can
compare and there is no balancing diode voltage and balance. There will be a voltage and
balance because of the capacitor may actually changes voltages because of the current sink.

And the current discharge from the capacitor and thus you will have a little voltage and balance
between those capacitors. Here it can be high if it is not actively maintained and for this reason
we have to actively maintain the capacitor voltages and here it is very small and because it is

467
associated with a voltage source. We assume that the voltage source actually has a constant
voltage and thus you do not have any almost no changes in the capacitor voltage.

And thus unbalance of the voltages courtiers applications. Application you find it is a motor
drive system STATCOM many applications in the same thing motor drive STATCOM and apart
from this motor drive and STATCOM we also find lots of applications for the cascade H bridge
multilevel inverter in renewable energy mostly in solar because of that availability the DC
sources.

Now let us come to another new typology it is invented FZ Peng and it has had a huge
advantages let us little bit brief state that the background of it most of the inverter we have a
delink voltage and we actually operate this inverter in to this mostly this a predominant inverters
and there operate it in many regions of the PWM inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:33)

And thus linear region of the PWM inverter is actually 0.707 thereafter drooping characteristic
starts and most of the cases if you have a state perspective modulation and all those things you
can get maximum modulation indexes in an amount of 0.866 but what does happen to know is let
us say most of their drives what does it do actually it will rectify the voltages and since these are
part of that and that will give you at least to hold drop.

468
Because to that at least comes into the picture and depending on the mode of operation to folder
hold on and thereafter and that is a dizzy link voltage you will be getting the average value and
once this average value you will get it and then again you multiply with 0.66 you will see that 60
will they will be a 60% amplitude of the voltage. If your line voltage which you are feeding to
the input of the inverter for followed by a for 10 converter or rectifier is a 400 volt.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

Then by this process actually you have 3 levels the three power supply you have a diode rectifier
and assume and you will get an average voltage here. This average voltage you know that
actually root 3/Pi and basically thereafter you have an inverter and its modulation index you will
sacrifice basically because it is a sity circuit and efficiency of the converter very simple when we
look at it.

It is around 80% or 0.8 if so happens since the series circuit so current will prevail what happen
there will be average voltage and you have a calculation voltage for ideal cases and since if
current is very high drop across this devices will be more and then you will find that loss also
will be more and thus this voltage will be actually rectifier to around 600 volt. And if you same
voltage if you generate and you will get you will see that.

If you are 400 volt line to line voltages here you will get actually little about 300 volt yes
because your drizzling voltage is around 600 volt root 3 root 3 VM/Pi. You can calculate and

469
you will get the results so but your motor rating is actually your motor rating is 400 volt and then
again you have to boost this voltages are some intermediate states has to be employed or if you
are managing with a device control.

So, actually you have to reduce to the 40 hertz operation instead of the 50 hertz operation you
cannot go to that maximum power rating of the machine. So, to overcome this problem precise
objecting discovered new topology which gives you the desire of the booster claim voltages so
let us switch over to the other slides. Now let us take to understand the advantages of that set
source inverter.So, the advantage of the Z source inverter uses the shoot through state.

To boost that input voltages which improves the inverter reliability and enlarges applications and
fields us shall see in subsequent stages in comparison with other power electronics converter. It
provides an attractive single stage DC to AC conversion with boost buck capability of the buck
boost capabilities with reduced cost reduced volume and higher efficiency due to the lower
component our numbers.

Z source in water z course in concept can be applied to various kind of topologies that is dc to ac
to dc and ac to ac and dc to dc power conversion. So, it is that versatile phenomena this is their
source in addition is Z source. Can be used as a voltage or current to fed ZSI 2 level are the
multilevel configuration. So, there are many advantages of the Z source multilevel inverter so
first of all we will see that by how it will introduce to suit to stage.

And boost up the voltage and if you want to buck up the bug the voltage you can play an around
the PWM.PWM will reduce the line voltage available from Z source inverter since we are talking
about the inverter we will restrict our discussion to dc to ac applications with a short of time.
Also, we will be restricting our discussions mainly in DC to AC inverter applications so apart
from that it can be applied in our various configurations.

And in later we shall discuss with the matrix converter and we have briefly discussed the initial
stages and matrix converter also actually is Z source inverter can be incorporated and while
incorporating the z source inverter what you will find that actually also possible to boost that

470
drizzling voltage at the output stage. Essentially actually a matrix converter is more fundamental
transformer but not only the voltages.

But also the frequency can be varied with the input and the output so thus we conclude today
discussions based on the Z source inverter. We shall continue our discussions with Z source
inverter in our next class and we shall see that different advantage of this typology. And there is
a different variant of the Z source. There is a new topic has been popped in after inventories a
invention of this Z source inverter process check in.

Thank you for your attention and I am looking forward to this discussion of the Z source inverter
in our next class. Thank you.

471
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 30
ZSI - II and Space Vector Modulation (SVM)

Welcome to our lectures on the advance power electronics and control. We were discussing with
Z-source inverter. So we will discuss about the Z-source inverter initially. Thereafter we shall
discuss today also the perspective modulation for 2 level as well as the 3 level. So we were here
basically.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

So the advantage of the Z-source inverter are as been discussed. Let us go for the detailed
discussions of the Z-source inverter now. Now this is the topology of the Z-source.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

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So you can see that, so this Z topology comes in various way. For this it is called the Z-source
inverter. You may have a DC voltage or current source. And thereafter, you have a cross linked
capacitor and followed by an inverter or converter depending on a different kind of applications
and your load. May be DC, then it is a DC to DC Z-source converter. And if we have a load, may
be actually AC and you are using an inverter, then it can be DC to AC operation.

Thus it can be an inverter. So it can be an inverter. And a switch or combination of switch or

device is generally used. And generally, actually you are not allowed to come back flow
depending on the kind of applications, if your solar application and all and you may have a little
modification depending on the different kind of application.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:10)

473
Now this is the equivalent circuit of the Z-source inverter. And if we wish to have a shoot
through state, then we require to short 1 line and this is the one of the disadvantage of the normal
inverter. Generally normal inverter legs are given a small dead time. So simultaneously shorting
of the inverter is not allowed in one of the leg. And for this then actually we require little
modifications so that we can give it.

And there is a different kind of technique of this, actually PWM that is called a POD, the phase
opposition dispositions. You can refer to few of those my conference papers where this kind of
technique has been discussed in detail. We shall keep those things in reference. So you require to
short it. Once you short this DC voltage, this voltage becomes 0 and ultimately what happens?

These 2 capacitors comes into the series and ultimately this diode gets reverse bias because this
voltage becomes higher potential than the source voltage. So these higher voltage of this VC1
and VC2 will appear. And once you again go to the normal mode of inverter operations, then
higher voltage will actually aid and thus you will get a boosted voltage into this line. So this is
the principal operation and this is non-shoot through state and this is the shoot through state.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:09)

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So these are the governing equations of the voltage fed ZSI. You may have a current fed as ZSI
also. So you will find that actually if it is shorting for a duration D, so VC1/VIN will be 1-D/1-
2D. Similarly, it will be same expressions assume that these 2 capacitors identical in nature. That
is 1-D/1-2D and IL1=IL2. If it is so, then current will be P/VIN. Similarly current into the
capacitor will be very small and that will be given by IPN-IL1 and IC=-IPN-IL2.

And this inductor voltages, VL1/VIN should be equal to VL2/VIN and that gives you the
voltages basically D/1-2D-the amount of the shoot through. Generally shoot through is generally
very less. It is basically only 0.05 to 0.2 of the total time of this duration. So it is 5% to 20%
maximum. Otherwise, we will have a stability issues. We have to stabilize the circuit. So this is
the applications, 1/1-2D.

Similarly VPN, the pole voltage, /VIN=SD bar, that means if it is 0.2, it will be 0.8, 1/1-2D and
that should be equal to 0. Similarly VD/VIN should be SD*1-2D greater than 0 and current
through the diode will be actually the voltage across the diode it is blocking is this much. And
current through the diode will be IL1+IL2+IPN and IN is the input current and that should be
equal to the diode current because when it is a normal inverter mode, then only current flows. So
let us see the operation. Let us see that at the instant you have 3 phase voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:00)

475
At the instant, you have a 3-phase voltages where A and C cuts and thus you can see that A
voltage is more, that means you are somewhere here. And B is actually lower. So it is more than
90 degree. And C is basically further lower. So this voltage is A and this voltage is B and this
voltage is C.

So this is actually the point may be we are discussing. And since it is the 50S supply and this is
around 10 KHz with respect to the snapshot in a switching logic which is actually 100
microseconds. You can take this sine wave as a state curve, okay. Because we have to switch
over to better understanding over it.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:58)

476
So let us take this is the sine wave of single phase and C phase will actually intersect at omega
t=30 degree and you carry on like this. And B phase will intersect at this point. And you may be
actually talking about actually this point where you have actually this value is a, this value is Va
and this value is Vb and this value is Vc. So it is somewhere here. So after 90, before may be
120.

So let us constrict our discussion at this point, what will happen depending on the different
voltage level as has been shown here. So this constitute your Va, Vb, Vc and that is drawn as a
straight line because basically switching frequency is around 1000 times higher or at least 500
times higher. So now see that the modified carrier based PWM, how it gives to the shoot
through.

So you will give a shoot through for very small interval of the time. So this is the switching of
the SA and here actually in this peak, in this peak, you give a shoot through. So what will
happen? Here it will be low and for this duration basically you can find it out the triangular wave
is more than the sine wave. Or since till that time, since till this time, triangular wave is more
than, sorry, triangular wave is less than this Va, so Sap will be on.

And for this duration, this will be off. Similarly for Sb, this one, so it will cut this point and till
this time, this will be off and this time, Sb will be on. And similarly you will have this logic. And
what you will do here, you see that. And thus you make transitions, switching transitions. You
start from the, just after this class or may be actually just after or may be in the same class, we
shall discuss with different state of actually space vector modulations.

Then it will be more clear, so you require to rewind this lectures again. 111 are actually the
rotations of the space vector. It means that for the 2 level inverter, all the upper switch is closed.
And thus you get a 0 voltage and the inverter. And thereafter initially when it begins, phase a is
greater than the triangular wave, thus you get 1 and other phases are less than this triangular
wave.

For this, this will be 0. And here, you will have transitions again. All the switches, actually all

477
these actually phases are less than the triangular wave. Thus you will make actually 000.
Thereafter again it will transition to 100 and 111. Now what will happen? In between this 100 to
000, you will give a small shoot through.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:25)

You short 1 of the leg. So to better understand it, so you have different switches and once
actually, this is Sa, Sb, Sc and these are all prime. Once all the upper switches are closed, you get
a 0 voltage that is 111. Thereafter, since a phase is positive, so it will be actually meant and other
2 phases are 0, so you will get 000. But again you will make it as transition to the null vector to
000.

While doing that, basically 0 means lower switch is closed. And 1 means upper switch is closed.
So for small interval, you will close this leg and thus you will achieve the shoot through. Let us
switch over to our slide again. Same thing happens here, according to the switching logic in the
negative part of this actually triangular wave, this actually dotted line is a 0 point. Then what will
happen?

The sequence of the switching will be 110. And then it will be switch over to 111. In between
that transition, 110 to 111, we will give the shoot through of phase. You will get from 100 to
110, sorry, pardon me, 110 to 110, you will give a shoot through at phase. Similarly once it
makes transitions, 110 to 111, give a shoot through to basically in phase c.

478
So this is the way introduce the equal shoot through in all the phases in a cycle and you get a
constant voltage. And this is the way actually shoot through has been incorporated in the Z-
source inverter. Now we have another topology of this Z-source inverter. These are the modified
Z-source inverter that is called quasi Z-source inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

The Z-source fed ZSI has some significant drawback. We shall criticize the Z-source inverter.
Namely the input current is discontinuous and you are blocking, please go back, you can see that
you are blocking it. And if you are using a solar inverter, if you are blocking it, you are shifted to
MPPT points.

And if it is a CSI, you cannot do that. So namely the input current is discontinuous in the boost
mode and that the capacitor must sustain a high voltage. The main drawback of this, that is why
we are saying the current fed ZSI is that the inductor must sustain the high current. So that is one
of the challenge and thus site of the inductor got to be very high to maintain the constant current.

Also control complexity is an issue when ZSI is used back to back configuration due to the
coupling of the inverter switching functions. There is a controlled technique and switching logics
will come and that has to be incorporated with the Z-source. So all those complexities will pop in
and ultimately that gives you a problem related to the controllability and observability.

479
So control becomes complex. And thus to improve on the traditional Z-source inverter, 4
quadrant quasi-Z-source inverters, aZSI have been developed which features several
improvements and no disadvantage over, as stated above has been removed when compared to
the traditional ZSI. So see that what is the difference between it. Please recall you have basically
a T junction. And capacitor has been connected between these 2 points.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:49)

And analysis becomes quite easier and you close this switch. So this is the voltage fed quasi Z-
source for the continuous input current. And once actually if it is little complex in operations.
Current fed quasi Z-source with a discontinuous input current. Voltage fed qZSI with the
discontinuous input current. And this is the current fed qZSI with the continuous input current.
All those actually, combinations are possible with the quasi-Z-source multilevel inverter. And
accordingly this circuit will change.

This is the most common circuit users that is basically voltage fed quasi Z-source inverter with
continuous input current. So that is quite trivial if it is discontinuous, that means loading is less.
And if it is discontinuous, then this actually this capacitor automatically once current does not
flow through the circuit, automatically comes at this point. And this is generally hardly used in
practicability, current Z-source, ZSI with discontinuous input current. But it is highly efficient
and it is quite used in many combinations of the circuits.

480
(Refer Slide Time: 19:29)

Now same kind of analysis can be done with the quasi-Z-source inverter but because of the
shortage of time, we have to actually brief it. And it is the modern research topic and many
researchers are working on it. The quasi-Z-source with the discontinuous input current has
several advantages over the basic ZSI topology including a lower component rating because high
stress comes into the picture and the ratings of this diodes will be very high in case of the Z-
source inverter, component rating.

Z-network capacitors voltage are lower than in case of both basic ZSI topology. The joint
earthing of the input source and the DC link, which reduce the common mode noise of the
system. A QZSI whit the continuous input current has one more advantage over this QZSI of
discontinuous input, that means the input current if it is continuous due to the presence of the
input current or the inductor, which buffers the source current and reduces the stress across the
sources.

So operating actually those, any converter, please remember in a continuous conduction mode, it
is easier. And apart from that, in case of the ZSI, actually is stress across the switches as well as
the source will be less if it is operated in the continuous conduction mode. Now same analysis
what we have done in case of the Z-source inverter, we can do it here. And it has been actually
compared in the same segment.

481
(Refer Slide Time: 21:33)

So VC1/VIN, it is same but in case of the VC2/Vin, you can see that this value is actually D/1-
2D. So it is just reciprocal and mostly this value is less than 0.5 because there is a stability issues
at 0.5. but most of the cases, if these value should be less than 0.3 because if you put 0.5, then
you can understand that system is unstable. So here you can see that gain here is restricted. So 1-
D, here gain is just reversed.

Similarly, power. Power will be the same in both the cases and same way this capacitor current,
these will be the same but this gain, VL1/VIN, there will be some changes here. It is actually
D/1-2D-SD/1-2D and this is the case. And this also will be the same. VPN/VIN and these value
will be the same. VD/VIN, this value also will be same. Here, input will be the diode current and
here input will be the inductor current.

So this is the one comparisons with the Z-source inverter with the quasi-Z-source inverter. Since
thus actually you can see that there is a specific advantage of this rating. See that since the gain is
lower with respect to input, so what you require to have, less stress on this capacitor and
capacitor rating can be lowered in this configuration. Same way we can find it out the value of
the inductor which has not been discussed.

Because we can discuss basically the voltage fed inverter because if you have discussed actually

482
current source inverter, we will see that the current, the size of the inductor will be lower in case
of the quasi-Z-source inverter for continuous input current. So now let us begin with our new
topic that is the space vector modulations which I was actually referring little bit ago for
discussions.

And the space vector modulations is essentially are a way of representing. We have already
discussed sine triangle PWM. In sine triangle PWM actually, there is a problem of utilizations of
the DC bus voltage. Because utilization of the DC bus voltage is a challenge here generally
actually if you consider that actually the M, modulation index of the PWM and the voltage gain
that is actually fundamental by VDC, up to some level, it is linear.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:40)

And after that the hysteresis come or the doping characteristic starts and this value goes to
actually 4VM/pi for over modulations. But it will be contaminated with the harmonic that we
have already discussed in our different discussions on this converter. So you have to be restricted
around this and one of the advantage of the PWM is that it shifts, this actually spectrum to this
higher frequency and thus you can basically, you can filter out with the smaller filters.

But this linear region is mostly restricted to 0.707. Now there is a way of actually increasing the
linear region by little bit of harmonic contamination. You can inject essentially a third harmonic
with some portion of it. So you can draw the third harmonic here. Or let us switch and draw it

483
and let us try to understand what actually I try to say.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:57)

So you have a normal fundamental sine wave. With that you have a third harmonic. Sorry it
should be coursed as a. Now you can see that if you inject these 2 harmonics, so what will be the
resultant waveform? Resultant waveform will be this depending on the percentage of the third
harmonic. There is a calculations of what is the. So what happen? Actually if you have a sine
triangle comparison, so here effectively if you analysis, you get around 16% more voltage than
the actual PWM voltage.

And thus we get a greater voltage and greater utilization of receiver's voltage. But there are
limitations because if you use the third harmonic injections, then it will appear in the phase
voltages down 9 voltages if it is actually the delta connected load. But same technique, it can be
incorporated in a different way. Main challenge we increase the utilization of the DC bus voltage
and one of the solution has been provided by the space vector modulations with loads stress
across the switches and high utilization of the DC bus voltage.

It is same as equal injecting the third harmonic but advantage is that stress across the switches
will be lower. Let us see that how it can be incorporated. Space vector representations of the 3
phase quantities, that is or the voltage current or whatever, it is xa, xb and xc because space
distribution of 120 degree apart. It can be represented as actually the a gives you the 120 degree

484
phase shift, a is e to the power j2pi/3 and thus x can be voltage, current, flux and does not
necessarily to be a sinusoidal quantity also. So this can be represented like that.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:27)

Now let us see that we will have a 2 level inverter and we have a leg A and this is the phase
voltage with respect to the mid-point of the capacitor. And this is the point N and this is basically
voltage BN, this is voltage CN and we will see that what will happen? When actually S1, S4 is
basically constituting the leg 1. Similarly, S2, S5 constituting to leg 2 and ((S3, S6 constituting to
leg 3 or)) (29:32) phase C.

So once S1 is on and you have a matrices of different combinations and S3 is on that means this
switch is on, this switch is on and this switch is on, all the upper legs are, switches are on and
then what happens? You get the voltage VAN, you get the voltage VBN, you get the voltage
VCN and ultimately since all this point is coupled to the point P, this point is attached to the
point P, this point is also attached to the point C.

So voltage across it, across the load will be 0. So for this reason, we shall see, we shall write the
convention here we are following actually the convention followed by ((bin wu)) (30:37) you can
refer to the other book also. They are using a different kind of convention. So they are using the
+++ or 111, whatever may be. Here we are using PPP. So this point is P. For this we are writing
PPP.

485
So it is S1, S3, S5. Similarly, once all the lower switches are closed, so S1 is off, thus S4 is on.
This actually complementary logics. Similarly, you get a voltage 0. Similarly, S3 is off, S6 is on
and similarly S2 is on. You are here that is S4, S6, S2 and you get a 0 voltage. So irrespective of
this level that gives a 0 voltage to the load and for this reason, these are 2 represented are called a
null vector.

And we shall continue to the another vectors since this are combinations of the 3 bead you can
consider now. And thus you have actually 8 states. And we shall discuss all the 6 active states in
our next class. Thank you for your attention. We shall go into the deep discussions of the SPWM
in our next class. Thank you.

486
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 31
SVM II and AC to AC Converters

Welcome to our lectures on NPTEL lectures on advance power electronics and control.
Today, we shall continue with the space vector modulations we have started in the previous
class. There we shall see a different type of direct AC to AC or indirect AC to AC conversion
technique. So we have already discussed you know actually depending on the switches,
please refer to our previous discussions.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

So we can you know actually you have a three-phase voltages and you know that actually we
can represent in terms of polar coordinate that is some resultant vector and theta and this is
the reference you required to generate and you will be generating with the switches when
actually it is POO that means your first leg is switched on and other two legs lower switches
on. So PPP we have discussed and OOO other to null vector.

PPP means all the upper switches on and OOO means all the lower switches on. Now if you
wish to get Va totally then you will apply POO. If you wish to get -Va you will apply
basically the voltage of OPP. Similarly, 120 degree apart the phase b you can apply 010 or
OPO similarly after 120 degree apart so these are actually the line voltages so OOP and

487
thereafter you know actually if all these three are positive voltages and if it Va if you write it
will be –Va.

Similarly, if you write this one as +Vb it will be –Vb. Similarly, if you write it is +Vc it will
be –Vc. Now you have to identify a sector and accordingly the switching will be done. So for
this is to generate this voltages it can be in any quadrant, V1 to V6 are the active vectors and
they are stationary vector, they are not rotating vector mind it. Rotating vector is your actual
reference and we shall take a snapshot.

During the snapshot, we shall consider that we V reference and this theta is actually the
constant. So we have actually identified 6 sectors. This is sector 1, sector 2, sector 3, sector 4,
sector 5, sector 6 and so they have a 6 active vectors and thereafter a zero vector and reduced
redundant switching states are PPP then all the switching states on and 000 or OOO all the
lower switches are on.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:05)

Now we know that actually for 3-phase 3-wire system what is the basic of actually putting
this V ref and these things because you know that we have only all this vAO, vBO, vCO. If
you have 3-phase 3-wire system, its simultaneous value will be equal to zero and we shall
convert 3-phase to 2-phase conversion. What we have done actually resolver of force for two
perpendicular coordinate is the same thing.

So this is be your stationery alpha beta frame and this will be the transformations that will be
the 3-phase to 2-phase transformation and once we get these transformations you know, we

488
can write like this. That is Vt=v alpha+j v beta and we should align one of the vector with the
vector alpha. V1 can be aligned with the vector alpha and 90 degree to be it will be the j beta.
So this kind of polar representation is valid by it can be established by this theory.

So we can write essentially the reference vector equal to v alpha+j v beta or it can have a
polar representation under root of V square alpha+actually Vr will be actually underscore of v
alpha square+v beta square. Similarly, so Vt can be actually inverse transform that is 2/3
vAO actually vBO e to the power +120 degree and vCO e to the power 240 degree or -120
degree. Now you see this.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:13)

Please recall in our previous classes actually upper 3 switches+abc are S1, S3, S5 and that
will be represented here as all the positive phase on that is PPP and ultimately you will get a
null vector and once all the lower switches are on that means 000 or OOO that is S4, S6 and
S2 you will get essentially also the zero voltage. The switching state let us see that what
happen in a switching state when it is POO that when you are here.

So essentially what does it signify? From the upper part of the inverter S1 will be on, S6 and
S2 will be on. So once upper part of the switch is on, vAO will be 2/3 of Vdc, you can
actually draw the geometry and vOB will be actually 1/3 of Vd and similarly vCO will be 1/3
of Vd, you can add and you get zero voltage and so V1 essentially you know we can write
that this axis also you can write d axis if you rotate it.

489
So we can write that is V1=2/3 Vd*angle is basically 0 you have aligned alpha with this
reference. So similarly for any vector you can have that is if it is a second vector k=1, 2, 6
here will be 2/3 Vd e to the power j k-1 pi/3 where k can take any value 0 to 1, 2, 6. So
similarly this vector has been explained similarly you know just opposite will be this vector.
Then, what will happen, will find that actually S4 is on from the lower side.

And S3 and S5 are on from the upper side. So here essentially you will get in this
combinations V4, V4 will be actually vAO will be -2Vd and other two values will be actually
vBO will be again 1/3 Vd and vCO also will be 1/3 Vd. So in this way all the voltages can be
calculated.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:25)

So then our task is basically to find it out the theta and thereafter the theta and V reference
will be told to you or to find it out which vector will be applied to generate this voltage state
or whatever the electrical quantity you are asking. So we can have a polar substitutions and
will write V ref=V ref e to the power j theta and rotating space omega=2 pi f, angular
displacement theta t=0 to t omega dt, so you can actually integrate and we can find it out
what is the value of theta.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:11)

490
Now you can see if you that actually V ref actually this angle is theta and this is been actually
can be manufactured by the combination of V1 and V2 and for some instant of the time let us
say T1 or Ta so V1 will be applied and another portion of the time actually let us say Tb so
you will apply the voltage V2 and rest of the combinations you know then you have to apply
the null vector to fill this actually filler of Ts.

So let us find it out the relationship between V ref and VAB. V ref is approximately
approximated by two active vectors and a combination of the zero vectors actually PPP or
000. V ref rotates one revolutions and VAB completes one cycle so length of V ref
corresponds to the magnitude of VAB.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:26)

491
Now see that then we shall go for the Volt balance method that would basically balancing the
flux. So V ref*Ts we can write that should be equal to V1*Ta+V2*Tb and rest of the time
you will apply the null vector to balance the value of the Ts. So Ts=Ta+Tb and rest of the
time you will be applying a null vector. So Ta, Tb and T0 dwell time for V1, V2 and V0
where Ts is the sampling time.

So it can be actually 100 microsecond let us say if it is actually if your switching frequency is
10 kilohertz, it can be 100 microseconds, Ta can be actually 30 microsecond, it can be 40
microsecond, 30+40=70 and rest of this things will be the null vector that is also will be 30
microseconds that is something like that. So V ref=V ref e to the power j theta we know that
actually it is V1 2/3 of the DC link voltage and this value essentially will be 0.

So we have to take the imaginary and the real part into the account and we have to balance it.
So real part in alpha axis, V ref cos theta*Ts should be equal to 2/3 Vd*Ta+you can see that
you know how this component has been made you know so you know you will have 1/3 of
Vd Tb. Similarly, for the y-axis, you have to take a component of it. So in y-axis what you
can see that it is essentially it is made by only these vectors.

There is no entity of this V1 across the beta axis so for this reason V ref sin theta*Ts will be
1/3 Vd*Tb, it is a simple mathematics you know actually this is this angle in 60 degree. So
you know you get if you take a position it is sin 60. So Ta essentially if you can substitute,
you can find it out, so root 3 Ts V ref/Vd*sin 60-theta and Tb will be equal to root 3 Ts V ref/
Vd sin theta.

So ultimately you get T0=Ts-Tb-Ta so that will be the amount of duration where null vector
is applied. This is a very simple problem; you will be given this actually the V ref value and
the angle you require to find it out Ta, Tb. So V ref location versus dual timing, how you will
actually switch it on, this is one of the requirements you have to keep in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

492
Now you have seen that you know actually Ta=Ts we say actually this one is something like
sin angle modulation that is root 3V ref/Vd as a modulation index. So this is actually
modulation index of a and this is the modulation index of ma sin theta and this is the basically
the value of the T0. So what you can see here you know you can actually split it till 30 degree
okay. It is quite clear, so this will be the vector actually will be contributed more till 30
degree.

So Ta will be more and Ta=>0 and Tb=0 for actually if your reference is aligned with the
alpha axis. Now till actually till this reference similarly Ta is>Tb. At 30 degree, Ta=Tb
because it is the perpendicular bisector so both the vector will have a same value. Then 30 to
45 degree basically Tb is>Ta and at 60 degree definitely all those things will be made by Tb
there should not be any component of Ta.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:28)

493
Now modulation index range we have talked about the saturations of this modulation index
over modulations because you know that actually over modulation if you have a square wave
that is all over modulation and you get the value of 4 Vm/pi and thereafter you can increase
this value with injection of the third harmonics and one of the basic advantage I have
discussed with this space vector modulation is that it is equivalent to the third harmonic.

But with the less stress across the switches, so what can be the maximum V ref max. So you
know that this is basically 2/3 of the receivers voltage*actually root 3/2 so this value can be
Vd/root 3 and so modulation index max can be 1 and modulation index can be actually 0 to 1
and effectively you can see that you can have the value of Vd/root 3 as effective V max
value. So this is the value you can generate by your space vector modulation.

Very simple thing actually, you have to divide it by 1.732 that is around 60%. So now let us
understand what should be the switching sequence and the starting point has a great
importance.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:11)

494
You consider that your starting point was OOO that means all the lower switches are on and
you recall that you have actually reference vector this is V1 and this is V2. You will be
generating with POO and this you will be generating by OPO. Now see that what will
happen, if you go back you see that this voltage is PPO so let us mark it actually PPO, so
same voltage vector has been chosen here.

Now actually you have started from the OOO then definitely your one change will be actually
POO so you can go here. So thereafter you can have a one-bit change then you will be here so
PPO. Then, once this is for Ta and this is for the Tb. Now you have to apply null vector. Of
course, if you go to actually OOO there will be a two bit change we will apply PPP. This is
also a null vector.

Again, instead of actually starting from V1 this since it is a one bit change you will go for
PPO so your computational burden will be reduced. Thereafter, POO thereafter OOO so both
the cycle will be combined. Since you are actually operating your switching frequencies at
least ((50)) (20:01) times more than your supply frequency like if you have a 50 hertz it is
your supply frequency is 50 hertz that you want to mimic.

And your switching frequency should be around 250 2.5 kilohertz so within the two, three
instance you can take that reference as a constant. So similarly for vAN you know actually
this phase will be on for this deviations. So once this switch is on second bit or MSB then
only this voltage will be on and that continue till that point PPO once this again go to the
POO it will go back.

495
And phase C will come into the picture for those very small duration when actually PPP all
the upper switches are on and this is a way so. This is the duration has been splitted you will
give the durations T0/4 or 000 and Ta/2 here, Tb/2 here. Thereafter, T0/2 in this duration,
thereafter Tb/2, Ta/2 so total will be the total cycle can be generated by this. Now the basic
requirement is to minimize the number of the switching per sampling period.

If you actually switch this state to this state what will happen you will have a more switching
losses. We required to reduce the switching losses for this reason one which change that you
know one switch, one switching transitions if you can achieve that will try to reduce your
switching losses. The number of switchings per sampling period is Ts, implementation
transition from one switching state to the next switching state involves only two switches in
the same inverter leg.

So that if you can ensure the number of switching state is also reduced and switching losses
will be also reduced.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:14)

Now see that this is the example of the undesirable switching, if the V1 and V2 are swapped,
see there is no change in phase A because it was on for continuous durations so first you have
a null vector 000 thereafter it is PPO so vAN will be 1 or high and continue till this time. So
again the second will be high for this duration. Again, there is it off, again it is on, again it is
unnecessary toggling in between and thus it will give rise to the high switching losses.

496
And Vd will be actually the phase C will remain same. So total here switching is basically the
10, if you go to the previous slide, total switches are 6 so it is 4 times more switching has
been done. So almost 60% more will be the switching losses if you have unreasonable
switching. So for this reason, switching sequence has been presented here. So if it is actually
000 you should go to POO and thereafter PPO, thereafter PPP, thereafter it will be again
PPO, thereafter POO, thereafter 000. So this will be the sequence.

Similarly, if you start with basically 000 if you are in a sector II switching logic will be OPO,
thereafter PPO, thereafter PPP, thereafter PPO, thereafter OPO, thereafter OOO. Similarly, in
third sector you start with the same OOO, thereafter OPO that is same but this will change.
So Vb theta was PPO then here will be OPP that PPP again the mirror image will be
followed.

Similarly, this way all the sequence has been if you are in a particular sector, particular
sequence you require to follow to minimizes the switching state. You can achieve with the 6
switching only in a whole cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:51)

So you see that example, so this is basically the sectors and this is a sector 5, sector 6,
thereafter sector 1, sector 2 and so on. This is the way your switching changes and this is the
vAB and this is the Vd voltage has actually the DC link voltages and this is the vAO and this
will be your actually the line voltages and you can see that modulation index is basically 0.69
around 70% and Ts is 1.1 millisecond and frequency is just close to 1 kilohertz that is 900
hertz, so you will get this kind of results.

497
(Refer Slide Time: 25:45)

So what will be these, so how can you eliminate this is the question arise, how can you
eliminate the even-order harmonics that is generally you have seen that due to the symmetry
that does not presents. So you can be actually eliminate in a two way that first take the
sequence A, so sequence A, so you have actually you have a logic like you want to generate
vAB you start with the 000 that OPP thereafter all the sequence will come.

And you can see that actually this starts and end with basically the 0 and this side also 0 and
here there is another sequence that starts with P and ends with the P. So can you infer
anything from these two logics? So if you start this pattern, so what are the switching states?
So this is the OPP, thereafter this is a BAM, this is the CEN that what you had got in this
actual reference case but actually here A phase is actually less content and C phase is the
more content.

And thus AB you will get this kind of sequence and it is unnecessarily switching. Same logic
you know if you start with this way, PPP and end with the PPP then you will get actually less
switching and this starts and end with actually all the positive cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:44)

498
Now even-order harmonic elimination, please go back this is the sequence A, so you start
with 000, we say that it is a sequence A and you start with actually PPP or 111 that will say
that a sequence 2. Now see that actually this hashed is sequence B and this part is sequence A
and you will find that this line this THD line and you have to have combinations or even-
order harmonic eliminations by a here then a here.

So b here then b here c here so if this has to be this way combined. So what happen, you
require to operate in a sequence a, you cannot mix the sequence A or sequence B then what
will happen, you cannot eliminate harmonics, even-order harmonics and you know you can
see that how this ratio if it is actually reduced, THD has been actually reduced. So this is the
modulation index.

So if you increase the modulation, THD will increase. This is a first fundamental increase
linearly and these are actually 75 procedure 3-phase 3-wire system. Then, your harmonic
content 6n-1 and you will find that these are the harmonic content. This analysis is done for
the 60 hertz and for the sampling frequency of this much. So please note that we required to
eliminate the even-order harmonics, so we cannot combine A or B sequence state.

If you wish you can go for the sequence state A or sequence state B so then only you will find
to further symmetry you know there is you can go back with the symmetry.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:11)

499
So due to the symmetry you know all this odd harmonic will be or all the even harmonic will
be vanished but here you know this symmetry is actually missing, you know if you see this
line you know it has a symmetry. So for this reason actually, we will have all the even
harmonics present into the system. Thank you for your attention. I shall continue with few
part left in the actually space vector modulation technique in our next class. Thank you.

500
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 32
SVM III and AC to AC Converters

Welcome to our NPTEL lectures on advance power electronics and control. Today will
continue with space vector modulation but it is applied for the multilevel inverter. Let us see
that we have discussed for the two-level inverter how this concept can be extended to the
three-level inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

We shall revisit diode-clamped inverter again but purpose here to discuss the diode-clamped
inverter is something else we will be discussing three-level inverter and its space vector
modulation for this purpose we require little actually recap. For this reason, I decided to again
speak about the diode-clamped inverter. So as you know that basically you know it is a three-
level inverter diode-clamped inverter.

So it has been realized by the 4 switches and switch pairs actually Sa1 and Sa1- and Sa2 and
Sa2- receives the inverted gate signals. So this switch and this switch are inverted in actually
will have inverter logic and this a2 and a2 prime will have an inverted logic. So for this
reason, one of the four binary combinations is Sa1 and Sa2, 1, 0 is not used since it does not
provide any current to flow to the load.

501
So we have to remember that there are few actually states which cannot be incorporated in a
diode-clamped inverter and all the switching devices in the three-level NPC needed to block
half of the receiver’s voltage that we have discussed already in our diode-clamped inverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:11)

Now you know that actually the different mode of operations, once you get this voltage Vdc
basically you will have this S1 and S2 are conducting. Thus, you get the total Vdc and you
know when you want basically Vdc to be conducted again you want to get a zero voltage you
can get this S2 and S3 as conducting and similarly once you want to get the lower DC bus
voltage, it is –Vdc then S3 and S4 should be conducting.

See actually you can say that this one is Sa1 and then this one will be Sa1 prime so S1 and S3
are the complementary logic and S2 can be said to be Sa2, similarly it can be said to be Sa2
bar. So this is the way we will be synonymously choose the represent when we say actually
will prefer this kind of notation for sake of simplicity it is actually correlated. Sa1 is S1 and
Sa2 is S2 and Sa3 is actually Sa1 prime and S4 is Sa2 prime.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:31)

502
Now this is the logic. Now we will implement the space vector modulation. The space vector
modulation for the three-level NPC will be explained here and can be extended to the any
level NPC and students required to actually understand it and question can be given for the
higher level NPCs also. Hence, the operation of this inverter’s phase leg can be represented
by different way of notation; different book follows the different notation.

For this reason, we try to incorporate all the notations so that student does not get confused
and different kind of notation have actually put into the different kind of books. So basically
switching state P, O and M that is actually some books also write 1 actually. Basically, 1
which is way to the two-level space vector modulation. We are happy to do with 0 and 1 and
going to say three-level generally actually we have to choose basically this one or we
sometime rate +, 0- either of this notations will be used.

So where actually –Vdc stands for N, 0 stands for O and the positive Vdc stands for P. Some
authors represent that is what said is basically that is what I was representing -, 0, + or 0, 1, 2.
Now let us see that how many states are possible, taking all the three phase into the account
inverter has a total count of 3 to the power 3 that means 27 possible combinations of the
switching projects will be possible.

But the other redundancies and there are some actually states which cannot be incorporated
getting the logic that S1 and S3 are the complementary and S2 and S4 are the complementary
and for N level switches, the NPC will be actually into the power sorry if it is actually 5 level
it will be 5 to the power 3 combination switching states will be there. For these three-level

503
NPCs among 27 states, there are 8 redundant states and so we will have 19 basically the
position vectors available, let us see those.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:52)

And to find relationship between the switching states and the corresponding space voltage
across there is some procedure used for the two level inverters. So that procedure will be
extended, this concept will be extended to the three-level inverter. Based on the magnitude,
the voltage vector can be divided into the 4 groups, one is actually the zero vectors because
we know that actually in the two level inverter either 111 or 000 was the actually the zero
vector.

But that is basically where it will be represented by this OOO or 000 or NNN, minus minus
minus for the magnitude of the zero vectors. There will be small vectors that are V1 to V6;
we shall show that all vectors will have a magnitude of Vdc/3. Generally, actually all the
vectors of the two-level inverter has a magnitude of that if you follow the ((bin wu book))
(06:53) it is actually 2/3 Vdc, so it will be half vector for this reason or small vectors.

Each small vectors has 2 switching states 1 containing P and the other containing N and
therefore can be further be classified actually P-type or the N-type small vectors and medium
vectors basically these are the medium vectors it is for we name them to 7 to 12 those
magnitude basically actually Vdc/3 and the large vector will have a magnitude basically 2
Vdc/3.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:39)

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So this is the three-level diode-clamped inverter and these are the different vectors OOO so
this is a zero vector, thereafter you can have this state if you want to get it here you have a
combination to choose, there is a redundancy here, it is POO that means this switch would be
closed and here you have to manage so get POO. Again, same state you can get here with the
ONN similarly but you know if you wish to generate basically this vector 13 or basically
what we have seen please recall.

Basically, 1 to 6 are the small vectors so 1 to 6 are the small vectors so this vector is actually
1, this vector is 2, this vector is 3, this vector is 4, this vector is 5 and this vector is 6 and if
you extend till this, this is 13, this is 14, this is 15, this is 16 and this is 17 and this is 18 and
you know there are few vectors this is basically vector V7, V8 these are half angle vector,
angle is 30 degrees.

So along this actually there are these numbers of vectors available and we have to generate
the different switching states based on that. See we require to do little bit of calculations, we
can see that this vector is this sectors or it may be in this sector then what we require to do we
require to shift the origin and ultimately this may boils down to actually a two-level inverter.
So since it is here since this vector is located we have to find it out actually the hexagon.

Let us assume that it is available here instead of here. Then, what we will choose, we will
choose these numbers and ultimately you will shift this origin, so ultimately you have to add
this vector basically V1 and thereafter you can think of this is actually made of now this

505
vector we require to generate. Now of course, you can be sure that so this is actually the
categorically it becomes again a two-level inverter solution.

And because you can see that here in this particular hexagon what are the switching state
available to you, so this is basically you know this is not a three-level switching. In this
hexagon, it becomes basically a two-level switching. Why? Because you see the state
available to you, add this PNN fine so it is positive and others closed. So here it is basically
this is a one bit change PON and here it is PNO.

Similarly, here actually you can get OON or POO so thus any these vectors you know it boils
down to a actually a two-level inverter and ultimately because of this a symmetric switching
pattern, students are required to go through the ((bin wu book)) (11:18) books which is very
well explained in that particular books. Now we have to find the timing of this actually
vector.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:27)

So we have taken this part of the vector that actually will be there. So see that we have this
reference vector to be generated and that has been made by you know V0, V13, V1 and so
on. Ultimately, you can understand that actually you have to make this vector by this. So we
required to calculate the time duration for the individual vector to generate this V reference.
The dual time calculations for the NPC inverter is also based on volt-second balancing
method as we have done in further two-level inverters.

506
The reference vector V ref can be synthesized by the nearest stationary vectors, these are the
nearest stationary vectors and for instance V ref falls in the region 2 of the sector I, the
nearest vector that will be actually used to actually fabricate these vectors are V1, V2 and V7;
V1, V2 and the V7 so this vector is V7. Now let us see so we required to calculate the time
for the each relation.

So this class it should be equal to V ref and rest of the time should be given to the null vector
and Ta, Tb, Tc equal to should be Ts and where Ta, Tb, Tc are the dual time for the V1, V2
and V7 and V2 respectively.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:15)

Now you see that will calculate it, the voltage vector V1, V2, V7 and the reference figure can
be actually shown there since actually these voltage V1 is the small vector, its magnitude is
basically Vd/3 and V2 is actually the vector half angle vector that is Vd/3 it is 60 degree.
Similarly, this is the half angle vector actually V7 it is root 3 Vd/3 e to the power 30 degree.
So for this reason, this is your V reference.

Thus, we can write this volt equation balancing so 1/3 Vd instead of V1, root 3/3 Vd for we
can split into axis of the cos and sin, so thus it becomes this and 1/3 Vd also cos and sin and
now you can see one thing. Actually you can equate the real and imaginary part that is
actually real part and that is the imaginary part.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:23)

507
And splitting the real and imaginary part what essentially you get this and imaginary part is
this. Now we require to solve these equations, another is Ta+Tb+Tc=Ts then from there
actually you can get basically Ta equal to now we have to substitute this, this is something
like modulation index in a sin triangle PWM so that is root 3/Vd so ultimately you substitute
here so you get Ta=Ts 1-2m sin theta similarly.

So this will be Tb will be this and Tc will be this okay. So these are actually the expression
for Ta, Tb, Tc, very simple expression and since you know the theta so of course you
substitute and you know the magnitude of V ref/Vd. So all those magnitude will be given and
you can calculate all the timing required for you.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:22)

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So this is all about to calculations of the NPC. The overall requirement of a switching
sequence of designing NPC inverter are as follows that is briefing out how we require to do
that. The transition from the one switching state to the next switching state involve only two
switches in the same inverter leg. That is what we have actually what we have done you
know we have actually though it is a three-level inverter in a particular hexagon; it behaves
like a two-level inverter.

One leg being switched and other legs are switched out. Transition of V ref moving from one
sector or the region in the next sector require no or minimum number of switching. So that is
something we require to be actually incorporated and the effect of the switching states of the
neutral point deviation require to be minimized.

Based on this principle, we shall actually calculate the switching timing of the reference
vectors for diode-clamped three-level inverter and of course you can actually go for any level
of inverter by same method.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:35)

Now let us see direct AC to AC converters. The AC to AC voltage converters operates on the
AC mains and we required to have it. Problem is that you know most of the cases actually we
require AC to AC conversion. For example, we take an example like modern elevators and
air conditionings. You got a compression that is AC and you are feeding with the AC but
problem lies you know you require variable frequency AC and variable voltage AC.

509
But that cannot be actually achieved without the help of the power electronics. So for this
reason, we can have AC to AC regulators or converters. AC to AC voltage converter operates
on the AC mains essentially to regulate the output voltage, portion of the supply sinusoidal
appear at the load while the semiconductor switches block the remaining portion of it. So
essentially this is basically we have seen this example like you know you may have a try at
that is essentially a simplest actually AC to AC converter.

But it actually chops the portion of the voltages in both the direction and it is applicable for
the low power loads and if you increase the power then you can have a antiparallel thyristors.
Anti-parallel thyristors can actually generate essentially are AC to AC conversion. So these
are basically the different way of AC to AC conversion and apart from that you know you
can have this combination also that is load that is AC and you can have SCRs.

So this SCR can be shorted or opened depending on you can convert AC to AC that we will
see later these circuits and these circuits.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

So this is the example of the AC to AC conversion of the single phase AC regulator operation
with the resistive load. So this is the applied voltage and you have thyristors, thyristors is
triggered at an instance here in the positive half cycle. So you gate actually the V load as a
green portion of it and a load actually the red portion of it. Again, you have trigged in a
negative half cycle so this one is this thyristor is actually triggered.

510
And thus you get a lower portion of it and essentially thyristors blocking voltage is basically
the pink one. So what should be the average value of this voltage, you can integrate over it 1/
pi 0 to alpha V square sin omega t d omega t and essentially this will be the actually the RMS
voltage of this AC to AC conversion with dual thyristors. So the fundamental current if can
be represented by if=under root 2V/R pi so this is actually the voltage so we have to divide it
by R.

So you can get this value plus this value so this will be the current and average power you
have to multiply with this actually Vl*Il. So if you multiply definitely you will get V square/
R pi pi-alpha/2+sin 2 alpha/2. So this will be the average power across this basically RMS
power across this load.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:24)

Now if it is inductive load, then essentially what will happen actually current will lag so this
is the kind of thing and here at this stand current becomes zero. So as long as current is
conducting any of the thyristors, you will get a voltage across a load. Then, once current
becomes zero then only you can chop and so you have to chop it, basically chop the voltage
when the current become zero.

So this is the one of the distinction while operating. You cannot turn off the thyristors at your
will once this current goes zero then only you will turn it off and that duration can be
extended if you wish and accordingly things will change. So thereafter again you have to turn
it on, so you again this current again you have chopped it at this point. So you are blocking
this voltage whatever the voltage part which has been missing Vth here.

511
And thus the load current you know will be actually iss is this basically this source current
and plus the thyristors current that is basically itr where this blue one is i load and green one
is iss and this one this tr is essentially the thyristor current. So there is a distinction how you
trigger if your load is inductive for AC regulator.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:26)

So you can have AC to AC converter single phase so you are getting this thyristors and this is
essentially a tap changer which is frequently used in our transformer applications for
regulating the load voltages. So this is where actually you are getting TR1 so once you are
getting TR1 and a single phase regulator as a static switch it will work so it will be having a
delay of angle alpha.

We assume that you know it will be delayed by small angle alpha and generally loads are
inductive so this will be the profile of the current and it has been delayed like this so we will
get this kind of profile of load voltage across the load so that is for and this one this red one
for when actually upper thyristors is gated and TR1 actually red one is for the when lower
thyristors is gated so that amplitude will come down, same sequence will be followed.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:41)

512
Now this concept can be extended for the three-phase system. Once you extend it for the
three-phase system, you have a three-phase three-wire AC regulator with the balance resistive
load. So since it is nothing special here of the resistive load, you will get same thing, so you
have to maintain the sequence, most positive phase should conduct from the and we have to
see that most positive phase and the most negative phase of the thyristors.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:17)

So it is the same sequence has been followed here, so what we have seen in case of the
converted into the AC to DC application, these are the three-phase voltages and these are the
actually these are the phase voltages, these are the line voltages and you have to get it since
the inversion operation you know you will actually you will give to the gate Ig1 and it will
conduct for the actually for alpha equal to here it is 120 degree.

513
So it will be actually given a k triggering at an angle of 120 degree and it will be off at this
point. Similarly, another positive side thyristors that is Ig3 so see that this is actually T1 and
T4, this is T3 and T6 and this is T5 and T2. So another positive thyristors will be triggered
here, so another positive thyristors will be triggered actually at an angle of 120 degree.
Similarly, this is for the g5 and this is for the g2 and g6.

And essentially what voltage you get is basically you know if you see that you know this is
the voltage you will get and since from upper end only T1 is conducting and from the lower
end this voltage is conducting so will get this voltage. Since this duration there is no
thyristors is conducting, there will be a gap. Thereafter, a pause of 120 degree, so there will
be no thyristors is conducting and will get a huge pause of 120 degree.

Thereafter, again these spikes will come and you will get these voltages and instead of that if
you change this voltage to 60 degree or triggering angle at 60 degree so you trigger it here
from a zero crossing of this and C phase is essentially this part. So you can find that
corresponding to it, it will conduct previously actually you know g5 was conducting so you
are getting voltage.

Here you can see that in this configurations 5 and 6 is conducting, thereafter 6 and 1 is
conducting, thereafter 1 and 6 is conducting, thereafter 1 and 2 is conducting, thereafter 1, 2
is conducting but voltage is same so you would not get any voltage similarly you will get a 2
and 3 is conducting same voltage but actually 2 become more negative than 3 and thus we get
a negative voltage and so on.

And effective value of ECC will be equal to 0.5 in this configuration. So this is the way
actually by triggering thyristors we can have an AC regulator. So similarly you can have a
three-phase delta connected AC regulator for balance three-phase load.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:02)

514
Now again you trigger at an angle 120 degree so this is actually Ig1, this is for Ig2 for
duration of 60 degree and you will find that basically you know this is Iab, this is Ibc so the
negative part of it so Ibc basically this is Ibc and this is Ica so Ia will have this kind of
situations, Ib will be this kind of situation since the delta connected so you can talk about
more about the current.

So there will be a different between the line voltages, there no difference between the line
voltage and the phase voltage but there will be difference between the, these are the line
current and these are the phase current for angle 120 degree. So you get this kind of
configuration.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:01)

515
So what happen three-phase AC regulator is actually we can have a different kind of
configuration. This is essentially a delta connected load where current is the consideration
and thereafter you may have some places you have neutral point so neutrality available so
this is basically three-phase four-wire star connected system with neutral and you may have a
control delta so actually your basic difference is that you know this point actually connected
at this point. So this is the 2, 3 configurations that has to be considered.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:55)

So let us see in a compression table, so three-phase AC regulators rating of the parameter

used in the three-phase AC regulator. Delay angle alpha in 150 degree the maximum input
line current is Eac/root 3 Z and maximum power dissipation will be the same so for the
thyristors it will be actually VRWm/Vac. So it will around 20% more. I peak will be actually
1.44 that is two times more.

And mean ac current of the thyristors it will be 45% and mean RMS current will be basically
70% or 1/root 2. Delta connected three-phase AC regulator so your minimum line current is
basically root 3 Eac/Z. So maximum power dissipation is this so you have thyristors rating
will be more and peak current rating will be actually thyristor current rating will be reduced
so this one is actually preferred.

Though, again you can see that it is for same delta connected load of a three-phase system
this value is same, this value is same, this value is same and this value, so there is no
difference of the three-phase three-wire AC regulator and three-phase delta connected load.
So these are essentially same and three-phase three-wire load for 180 degree you can see that

516
this value of the maximum input current is the same but here this ratio is reduced so you have
an advantage.

But the peak current ratio will be the same is higher, so but mean is same and the thyristor
rating is same and control delta which we have same. Here you can find that, these values are
actually the same of this 180 degree open action. So delta connected three-phase AC
regulator what you get in 180 degree mode of conductions, you get same thing in control
delta for 150 degree mode of conduction.

So far this reason, control delta sometimes is preferred over the delta connected three-phase
normal load. Now till now what we have actually discussed essentially, we have actually
controlled the magnitude ok now till now what we have actually discussed essentially; we
have actually controlled the magnitude of the AC system but that actually essentially it is
something like you are applying reduced voltage to the machines.

But with a modern control technique is placed, we require to also control the frequency of the
regulator or the output. So for this reason, we require a converter which not only change the
magnitude of this actually applied voltage but also the frequency of this applied voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:38)

And for this reason cycloconverter is a direct-frequency changer that converts AC power to
one frequency to AC power at another frequency by AC to AC conversion. Cycloconverters
are used in high power high application drives driving synchronous and induction motor that

517
usually phase controlled and they use thyristor due to their ease of natural or the phase
commutations. So let us see.

So this can be actually this frequency can be changed, this is something like universal
transform but not only the magnitude but also the frequency of this input and output can be
changed. So we have discussed about dual converter while discussing DC to DC converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:41)

This is one of the example of the essentially a miniature of the cycloconverter but this you
have we say that it is a P-type converter and this is a basically the inversion operation you
feed this actually the thyristors and ultimately you got an AC load here and here also you got
an AC load, so here previously we had DC to DC converter. Here it has to be operated in
alpha and it has to operate at 180 degree-alpha.

But here this load is DC so for this reason what happen you have actually Vm sin omega t
and this side also you got Vm sin omega t and you will control in such a way you get a
different frequency by subtracting or adding and this will be the control circuitry that will be
controlling this actually the phases of this two voltages.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:50)

518
So let us take an example, so this is the example and we assume that load is resistive. So this
is the P-type converter when it is on so you get these positive voltages and you continue to on
for few seconds so you get only this kind of waveform. Thereafter, you turn it on the lower
converter or the N-converter so then it will generate the negative portion of the waveform and
thus what you will get, you get some harmonics.

So you will get this actually the amplitude of the voltages, so this basically acts as a
frequency step down transform. So by chopping basically in this way, you are getting high
frequency to low frequency conversion and this is a way you will get and if you have a RL
kind of load where voltage and current will have a phase lag then you have to actually turn it
on when current through the thyristors, turn it off when current through the thyristor is zero
so will get this kind of Is into the system.

So this is the operation with the RL load. So this is the example of the idealized load voltage
and the current waveform with the RL load. So this is the source voltage, this is actually
output voltage and this will be the current load and this part when it is actually negative
portion of the current that will be controlling by the N-converter, when both are positive then
it is basically rectifying operation.

Then, it will be contributed by P-type converter, again it will continue its continuity and this
will be alpha then, this will be 180 degree-alpha because it will be operating in a inverting
mode. Similarly, here in this case, this cycles and this cycles are having 180 degree-alpha for
shift and this will have basically again if it is alpha here again it will be having 180 degree-

519
alpha. This way you will be sequencing and thus you will be generating this actually high
frequency to the low frequency.

Now this can be extended to the three-level inverters, it can be extended to three-phase
inverters.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:50)

And thank you for your attention. This will be discussed in our next class so this is the
combinations of the thyristors that can be used for the three-phase half wave cycloconverter
and same thing you know you can extend to the this is a complex circuit, we have to explain,
explanation require time so for this we are postponing our discussion in our next class. So
this will be the three-pulse cycloconverter supplying the three-phase.

We shall start from this actually three-phase cycloconverter in our next class. Thank you for
your attention.

520
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 33
Cycloconverters and Matrix Converter

Welcome to our courses of advance power electronics and control. We are discussing about
the cycloconverter. Today, we will continue to discuss cycloconverter and thereafter matrix
converter will be discussed.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

So as we have discussed in previous class, cycloconverter is direct frequency as well as the

voltage conversion. So cycloconverter is essentially a direct frequency changer to convert AC
power to another frequency and cycloconverter is used for the high power applications in
driving synchronous machines or induction machine this kind of where it is actually. It runs
in a constant speed at a constant frequency.

They are usually phase controlled; they use thyristors because of the high power rating with
the invent of the IGCTs. Gradually, this technology will evolve and we may see that actually
phase out of this technology.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:30)

521
So we have discussed in previous class also, this is little recap. So what is the difference
between this dual converter and this? Binary dual converter what is to happen you know
essentially is that we had our DC load here but you will have AC load but otherwise it will
act on a same manner. So this converter will be said to be the converter P once it will be
switched off the positive cycle will be generated and once it will be switched on the negative
cycle will be generated.

And so that you can have a variable frequency as well as variable analyzed value, so this is
the configurations of it, so if you want AC load and you can think about power can sink this
way and it can go out this way and the control will ensure that a different kind of switching
pattern.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:27)

522
So if you wish to step down the frequency, you can also step it up but mostly these are step
down for the way up control and other issues so what happen you know till this time, your
switching continuously the converter one and thus you get and you can control the magnitude
by controlling alpha and thus you get basically consecutive positive cycles and fundamental
will be this.

Similarly, it will be a consecutive negative cycle fundamental will be this but mind it this
simplicity arises due to the RL load as for only the normal resistive load but if you have a RL
load and if you assume that actually high current flows then switching will be little difficult
because you have to turn it on when the current through the thyristor is going to be low or
zero. So for this reason, you can see that you want to generate this profile.

You will be actually switching on this portion of the voltage alpha should be changes.
Thereafter, you will increase actually decrease the alpha so you have a more conduction
angle gradually condition angle will increase and thereafter again it will reduce the
conduction angle and thus it will track this envelope. Similarly, it is repeated in negative half
cycle and thus what you will get this is the output voltage, across this AC load and this is
output current across this is AC load for RL or inductive loading.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:07)

Now same concept can be actually used for the three-level half-bridge converter. So you have
basically, you have discussed about we have already discussed basically half-bridge
converter. Two half-bridge converter will be actually connected and thus what will happen so

523
if consecutively positive half cycle is triggered, node will get this kind of positive half cycle.
Then, if it is negative half cycle is triggered node will get a negative half cycle.

And all the free phase can be constituted, here only single line diagram has been showed. So
proper diagram three-phase three-pulse cycloconverter of the three-phase load should be like
this. So this is for the phase A, phase B, phase C and this is the thyristors and this is for the
positive part of the voltage of phase A and this will be the negative part of the voltage for
phase A. Similarly, this will be for phase B and phase C and so on.

And thus you get a variable voltage and frequency at the three-phase output, so you can see
that you know this is for the half-bridge configuration or half-wave configuration. So in this
case also, you require for each phase you require 6 thyristors and thus total 8 thyristors is
required but if you wish to have a full bridge so number of thyristors will be 36.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:47)

Thus, what will happen you know, this is the way you will generate? How you will generate?
First, you will trigger actually the phase A of this voltage and this portion of the voltage you
will get. Thereafter, again you know depending on the positive sequence, you will get this
kind of voltage and gradually you will trigger on. This is corresponding to the 1, 2, 3 and thus
from positive because till this point phase A have a maximum voltage.

After this basically after 120 degree phase B will have a positive sequence so then voltage
will come from the phase B and that has been marked as 2. Similarly, you know it will be
from phase 3. Similarly, again after 360 degree apart this phase A will be positive that is

524
marked as 1 and again it will be triggered and there alpha will be changed to actually increase
the magnitude.

So fundamental will be actually having this kind of pattern. Same thing is repeated but this is
for the inversion operation and this is for the rectification operations. Please understand that
here it is considering that RL load till this point, voltage is positive, current is negative. So
amount of the energy spent here is essentially negative. Here basically the rectification
operation again at this point voltage become negative and current become positive so it will
be again inversion operation.

Similarly, when voltage and current both are negative you have a rectification operation. So
in that way, you have to actually generate this. This is an example of the output voltage
waveform of a single phase of the three-phase of three-pulse cycloconverter operating at 15
hertz from the 50 hertz supply at power factor 0.6 lagging.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:02)

Of course, you can have a circulating current mode operation. This is something it is
interesting to note. So we have seen that once voltage is positive and current is negative that
is it is inversion mode when both voltage and current are positive it is in a rectifying mode.
Now let us see that it is a P-type output converter and it is operating in such a way this is a
rectifying mode and when N-type is operating, so this is the inverting mode for it.

When P-type converter is generating a positive voltage, we will say that it is a rectified
operation and P-type converter is generating a negative voltage then we will say that it is a

525
inverting operation. Similarly, a N-type converter is generating a positive voltage will say
that there is inverting operation and wants the N-type converting generating the negative
voltage we say that it is the rectification.

So output voltage of the load if you combine these two process, you will get essentially this
and this is the reactor voltage that appear across these inductors because there will be an
instantaneous voltage difference between this actually positive and the negative converter and
this will have a ((peaky)) (09:35) and thus this will be smoothened by this actually the
inductor and you will have these value of the circulating current.

And you have to allow the path to flow this circulating current. That is the one of the greatest
challenge of the cycloconverter.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:52)

So see that we wanted to basically a stepping down of the frequency and thus from the 50
hertz you try to get this maybe 15 hertz or something and desired output is this this is the
voltage and this is the current and it is lagging by something. So what happen initially, since
the inversion operation? You have a choice, you may use actually the negative converter and
you can generate the negative part of it.

So for this reason at this time you know P-type converter has been switched off and whole
contribution is coming from the N-type converter. So it has been switched till this point
where voltage and current actually current is crossing 0 and this becomes positive and till this

526
from this point onward P-type converter will take the lead and ultimately it will conduct till
the voltage becomes zero that means at this point.

So till this point, then also what you generally do, we do not generally switch it off and
generally it will continue to work in an inverting mode. Thereafter, once current also become
negative, you switch it on the N-type voltage and effectively you will get this load voltage
across this actually the reactor. So this portion is inverting, thereafter rectifying, thereafter
inverting, thereafter rectifying.

Mind it, after rectification again inversion operation starts and thus actually it will continue
with the N-type converter. So now you have understood the logic why we are starting with
the N-type converter because at this point N-type converter was functional.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:12)

So this is the realization you know that require 36 switches so of the three-phase six-pulse
cycloconverter. Ultimately, voltage becomes half in case of the half wave so that much of
rectification cannot be done and so this is the individual load of three-phase load and this is
the supply and you can generate this actually different kind of frequency and the voltage
depending on the requirement.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:47)

527
So same thing this is a desired voltage and this is the output voltage, this operation is
inverting operation and for this reason generally it is followed by the negative half cycle so
you will be switching on this load voltage in such a manner you will get it. From there, there
will be a transition of rectification mode and similarly it will be converted into the it is
inverting more thereafter again it is a rectification.

So this is the way we actually operate cycloconverter but one of the challenge is that it
require huge number of switches that is one of the biggest challenge of it. Now another
problem is that current has to be have given a path one challenge because all thyristors of the
current controlling device, so controlling is very difficult and commutation failure anytime
may occur. Apart from that, your this reactor voltage is basically a spike in nature.

And that cause lot of stress on the inductor and also actually causes the EMI, EMCs. Now
can we have another type of AC to AC conversion? Another challenge it should have you
know basically we try to mimic the characteristics of the transformer. So essentially what you
want to do? You require to step up and step down. Here you can play with the frequencies,
you can increase the frequency, decrease the frequency but generally voltage have been
bucked or reduced.

But we can have another type of converter that we will be discussing right now. That is also
an AC to AC conversion and there that is one of the modern actually area of research and also
will see that its efficiency and applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

528
So AC to AC conversion, this is the overall actually the positions of pictorial representation.
We can have a converter with the DC link that means first you convert AC to DC followed by
DC to AC conversion. So we require DC link and thereafter we may have and thus we require
a bulky capacitor and in between you may actually have an AC to DC or DC to AC followed
by a current link, then we require a bulky inductor.

And we may have a hybrid matrix converter, hybrid direct matrix converter and hybrid
indirect matrix conversion. So there will be some portion of the DC link and now we are
interested in this part like we have studied cycloconverter. We like to remove the DC link and
thus we have matrix converter. We can have a direct matrix converter, we can have a indirect
matrix converter and direct matrix converter will have a conventional matrix converter as
well as there will be a full bridge matrix converter.

Similarly, indirect matrix converter will be there, AC to DC and DC to AC converter with

link capacitor, full bridge matrix converter and sparse matrix converter or it is called SMC or
VMC or UMC will see that and three-level matrix converter. So cater the need of the higher
voltage rating or level is required to increase so there we have a chance to actually increase
the level by multilevel instead of the three-level we construct multi-level matric converter.

Now what is the utility of the matrix converter? So these are few things since it is a modern
topic it is not available on the many of the books. So for this reason, I tried to actually
simplify this content by saying some introduction.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:44)

529
These two stages of energy conversion is a popular approach in recent industrial applications.
So we try to remove the bulky DC link with the capacitor or inductor. Nowadays, in almost
all industries, conventional AC-DC-AC conversion system is used like DC link capacitor in
between which makes the system bulkier and the costly. To avoid this, MC was introduced
which works on the single stage as well as two stage topology without DC link capacitor in
between.

Matrix converter arranges semiconductor switches into a matrix configuration and control
them to convert an AC input voltage to the desired AC voltage. So let us say you have V/f
control, so we require precisions of V/f that can be done by the matrix converter. Since the
input AC voltage is not converted into the DC voltage, so energy storing element like DC
link electrolytic capacitor or if it is a current source, then we require high inductor, it is no
longer required in this case and system become compact.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

530
So matrix converter topologies are basically divided into the direct matrix converter and the
indirect matrix converter. In case of the direct matrix converter, there is no intermediate
stage, so it will be direct conversion. The input fixed AC is directly converted into output
with output variable AC but in case of the indirect matrix converter, first input AC voltage is
converted to the DC voltage.

And in next stage, it is converted to the variable AC voltage. The switches in the indirect
matrix converter are controlled in such a way that fictitious DC link is created we shall
discuss in detail how it has been done which is quite interesting phenomena intermediate
stage avoiding use of the DC link capacitor.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:20)

531
Now this is the example of a direct matrix converter and it is abbreviated as DMC. So you
have three-phase matrix converter and mind you that there is also a problem of the circulating
current here. So you want a bidirectional switch, so because current and voltage can have
different kind of phase lag and phase lead and thus it will conduct. So for this example if you
consider that between A and B, if B is>0 and you have given pulses to both T1 and T2.

Then, path of the current will be this. If VAB is<0 then path of the current will be through
this. Then, what will happen then you know if voltage or current has a phase lag, if voltage is
positive, current is still negative, then also you know since pulse has been actually
continuously given to turn it on, so it will continue to flow in that mode. Then, only when
current goes to 0, then only it changes the tracks of these two points.

Essentially, if AB is 0 and current is>0, then definitely path is through T1 and T2 but again if
it is still >0, path is still T1 and T2. Once actually VAB is<0 and iA is<0, then you will find
that path is to basically through will be this and ultimately in this corresponding figuration
path will be through you know T2 and T1. So this is the way it will work. So we require but
mind it we have studied inverter and generally we have required an inverter leg.

Mostly, this has been constituted by IGBT. It has you know the source generally what happen
in IGBT in normal configuration, source and drain are connected together. This is the source
of the upper thyristors and this is the drain of the lower thyristors. This is the configurations
of the inverter legs but here you will have a difference. You will find that actually both the
sources are being shorted together.

So to make it bidirectional switch, we have many ways to constitutive a bidirectional switch,

it is not the single way, we can take an example of this example and this switch can be IGBT
or MOSFET. So one of the advantages of this device is that so you have only one controlling
device but disadvantage is that you know you require actually while current flowing actually
it counts that drop across the four devices.

So that is something, this device, this device, this device, 3 devices and also while coming it
will have a three devices but here it will account two devices but both required to be a control
device. So you have a choice, if current rating is small then we sometime go for this kind of
configurations and let us draw in a little manner.

532
(Refer Slide Time: 24:57)

So if you wish to actually bidirectional switch with one controlling device so that can be this
is IGBT or MOSFET then and this is the path let us say A and B. So this is the path and if
you wish current to flow or the voltage to flow, so let us name it D1, let us say T because
there is only one controlling devices and this one is D2 let us say D3 and D4. So if VAB is
positive then through D1, T, D2 and if VAB is negative it is D3, T, D4.

This is the way basically current will flow and we can realize bidirectional switch. We
require a bidirectional switch to work with the matrix converter. Now this is the
configuration. Now accordingly you will generate. So ultimately you require 9 such switches
and look there is a distinct advantage of this matrix converter over the cycloconverter, full
bridge cycloconverter require 36 switches.

And here to constitute these switches, you can have one switch which we have shown but you
will have a two diode and one switching switched off. So conduction losses will be more.
Otherwise, you can realize with the two switches, so one switch and one drop will be there,
one diode will be there, then number of switches required to be 18. So you have a choice. So
for this reason, by considering the component count, matrix converter has been ((edged))
(27:23) on the cycloconverter.

So now see that if you wish to generate, if you wish that actually it should be connected so
that you get high voltage, so that you want that A phase to be connected, you will short it,
similarly you can have a short but there is an issue like total time if it is T so Ta+Tb+Tc

533
should be same will be equal to basically the switching time. So we shall see that what is how
we can control the switching logic of the matrix converter in our next class.

And matrix converter is quite important in the sense that because we can eliminate the DC
link and you no longer require a bulky thyristors with the commutation circuit to achieve the
direct AC to AC conversion. So this is actually quite a modern concept and it is evolving and
with the SIC devices like modern devices like silicon carbide devices, we can definitely have
a higher rating matrix converter. Thank you for your attention. We shall continue with the
matrix converter in our next classes.

534
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 34
Matrix Converter II

Welcome to our lectures on advance power electronics and control. We are going to discuss
matrix converter. We have started our discussion in your previous class, will continue to
discuss of the matrix converter. This was matrix converter topology we discussed in the
previous class and we have discussed about how does it work. Let us see what are the
features of the matrix converter.

It generally consists of 9 bidirectional switches which allow any output of the phase can be
connected to the any input and thus you can constitute different frequencies of the three-
phase waveform.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:13)

Nine bidirectional switching combination of states you know can have high rate of
redundancies. So you can have as high as 2 to the power 9 combinations that leads to actually
512 combinations. So we require to understand that but all the switching combinations states
cannot effectively implemented because there are two basic constraints we should be taken
into the consideration.

535
One of the input voltage should never be short circuited and the output content never be
interrupted. So these are the two conditions are primary condition we required to ((follow))
(01:58). Considering the rule, it concludes that only one bidirectional switch power output
must be switch at an instant and thereby only from 512 it will reduce to only 27 switching
states can be implemented in three-phase to three-phase direct matrix converter.

Due to the absence of the energy storing component, the in between output and the input
voltage of the waveform can directly synthesize from the input voltage by sequence of the
piecewise sampling method. So you have to for piece or will see that how that waveform is
generated in coming slides.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:02)

See that the switching functions so this is the input to output. If 1 it is open and 2 it is closed.
I is your input that is capital and lower small letters are for the output. This is the transfer
matrix. If you wish to get this UA at this output voltage, then you will short Aa and if you
wish you UB to get in the U small a on in output, then will short Ba and so on and thus you
can generate a different kind of voltages. If you have same frequency conversion, then this
switch, this switch and this switch will be short.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:02)

536
And so this is the actually the output voltage matrix and it is not that actually you can have
asymmetrical configurations, mostly it can be used for the multiphase more than three-phase
electrical machines, five-phase, six-phase. So you can have a more number of output legs
also, that is also possible. So you have UaN, bN, cN and this is basically the output voltage
matrix and you have input voltage matrix that is UAN, BN, CN and this is the current and
this is the voltage.

All the capitals belongs to the state of the input site, all the small letters are belongs to the
output sites. So this is our convention we are following.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:58)

So this is the overall transition matrix, UaN=this transitions matrix of 9 element considering
that it is three-phase to three-phase conversion. Of course, you have a three-phase to five-

537
phase conversion, you can have that kind of conversion also exists and thus you can apply
this. Now this is for the voltage and this is for the current and of course if you wish to have a
current then you have to take a transpose of this T matrix to get the input and output relations.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:36)

What are the features of the direct matrix converter? It provides definitely what has been
mentioned direct AC to AC conversion without the DC link. We have not put any DC link. It
also possesses all silicon solutions or silicon carbide solution or GAN solutions so it is quite
compact. It is less bulky and very compact for the drives applications. It is safer than other
AC to AC conversion, hostile environment like aircraft, submarines where actually aircraft
where it is a very big issue, ((weight affect cost)) (06:16).

It allows the bidirectional power flow also. If you have a regenerative operation or
somewhere, you can always do that because all the switches are bidirectional, all the four
quadrant operation is possible. It has no restrictions on input and output frequencies. So if
you choose the silicon carbide based devices, you can run induction machines may be as high
as 1000 hertz.

So instead of the 50 hertz and see that what will be your power level, straight away same
machines can be increased though two times power where it is quite amazing features you
know so 1 kilowatt machines instead of the 50 hertz if you manage to run of course you have
to sustain the insulation level so you can run at 20 kilowatt so that is a quite remarkable
phenomena.

538
As far as the drive side it is okay so machines design requires to be changed taking care of
the high voltage level of penetration. So it provides a sinusoidal input and output current
waveforms and you will find that actually since it can be switched at high frequency and so it
can be perfectly suited for the wind energy applications what you have a variable supply of
the wind and does you generate maybe 10 hertz, 12 hertz, 15 hertz depending on the wind
speed, so it is connected to the grid, output is always 50 hertz.

So that kind of conversions actually works very well with the matrix converter. It provides
sinusoidal input and the output current waveforms and the size of the filter is quite low, will
show different voltage and simulation results of the few matrix converter and it has 9
bidirectional switches. So it has 18 control switch that is IGBT, IGCT or whatever maybe
GTO and 18 diodes.

Its output voltage that we shall discuss about it, it can only buck the voltage but you can of
course we have studied the Z-source inverter that concept can be also included here and thus
you can increase the voltage level but without materializing the concept we have eventually
may thought so that restricts the modulation index here in case of the matrix converter that is
restricted to 0.866.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:23)

Now what are the applications? There is a wind applications, water force machine blowers,
boilers, pumps and general industrial machines. Specific applications like compact and
integrated motor drives. Motor drives for the hostile environments and also where mass or the

539
weight of the component is quite plays a significant role of choosing a component. AC to AC
power conversion is wind energy and other variable speed drives.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:02)

Now we can show this already been put into the industrial applications of the matrix
converter. I am showing pictures of Yaskawa medium voltage FS drive MX. So it is launched
you know around 14 years ago in 2004 world's first matrix converter drive. So it has been
observed that super energy saving medium of the voltage of the matrix converter with power
generations that is to the level of 3 kV to 200 volt.

And kVA rating is basically from 200 to 3000 kVA and also 600 for this 6 kVA you may
have actually this matrix converter rating is 400 to 6000 kV. Applications are the wind,
water, blowers and all the industrial applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:11)

540
Now see that how we will generate different voltages. UAN, UBN and UCN are the input
voltages and output voltages are U small a N. So you will be triggering in between quite high
frequency because it was thyristors you are not allowed to trigger, you were allowed to
conduct for an alpha of 15 degree, 20 degree, 30 degree but you can switch very accurately
and generate the shape of the voltage as required.

And since it has a very high frequency harmonics, it will be naturally eliminated with the
help of the low pass filter and low pass filter also will have a little high cutoff frequency and
thus it would not be bulky. So you know this is UA, this is UB, this is UC and this has been
shown into the different color and ultimately you get the envelope of UAN.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:22)

541
So this is the case of Uan output voltage by switching. So Uan=2/3 of U capital AN-1/3 of
UBN-1/3 of UCN so you can add up to that neutral voltage and thus the neutral voltage will
be basically 1/3 of this UAN, BN and CN and ultimately this is the way you generate a direct
matrix converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:58)

So this is the applications of it so here you switch in a such a way that this has been switched
for this part this coming from there and accordingly you will switch and you will find that
actually voltage and current and it have a different frequency of input and current. So this one
actually your all the small letters are essentially are the output sites. So green one is your
output voltage but frequency was increased and this is the input site and you can see the
lower frequency.

So essentially it is the stepping up the voltage of the converter, stepping up the frequency of
the current, so here it is quite applicable that is a typical application of the wind form
application where your inputs this is the input and you know you may have a 15 hertz and
you are converting into some other frequencies. So higher frequency may be most of the
cases and thus you will change it with the help of the matrix converter.

And see that it is quite smooth since because of the high switching frequency of the matrix
converter. So this is the applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:28)

542
So this is actually a three-phase waveform for input site and ultimately you generate blue one
as your output and you are basically now reducing the frequency of the output voltage and
you can actually get this is your input and this is your output voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:54)

So now let us talk about another topology, quite interesting one that is indirect matrix
converter. There are few disadvantages of the direct matrix converter and that will be
discussed and then will take out the indirect matrix converter. Indirect matrix converter, so
what are the limitations of it. There is a problem of circulating current and for this reason the
direct matrix converter in both the end you require to actually put the capacitor in parallel.

So that once you are switching actually one switch is to the another switch you require to
give a path, otherwise that current should sink to the capacitor so that makes you know the

543
basic purpose get defeated and make some time this capacitor required to be sometime
required to be bulky depending on the rating and also actually detect itself with the time and
thus it actually further allow us to investigate indirect matrix converter.

So indirect matrix converter you know is a matrix converter consisting of the voltage fed
rectifier stage and current output inverter stage. So first part is same, it is basically VSI and
thereafter you will have a CSI. The concept of the indirect power conversion was first
reported by Limori et al in 1997 and which was precisely known as two stage direct matrix
converter.

If you have IEEE access, so kindly go through these papers, quite interesting you can find it
out that will be quiet great to understand the concept. They in 2000 the experiment results of
two stage indirect matrix converter it will be abbreviated here IMC, there it will be
abbreviated there as DMC, so it will be IMC was presented for the first time by Wimpier and
Stemmer which is combination of the concept of the both voltage source back to back
converter and conventional matrix converter.

It is observed that it was retained both bidirectional power flow and non-energy storing
component carrying property of the conventional matrix converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:57)

Now see that so this is basically the IMC topology, it is nothing new, only this DC bars here
is missing but how you generate the DC bus voltage without the help of the capacitor, that is
the challenge and that is done by the control techniques, so thus it has got superiority of the

544
conventional DC to DC converter. Now there are the few more advantages like you can scale
up to the multilevel inverter.

Because you require you know we are actually conventionally use the drain of the IGBT with
the source of IGBT, that is actually the form of the leg which is available in the market and
same combinations can be used but advantage is that you can scale it up if you require higher
level that is basically the three-level in this site and you may have if you find that okay this
rating will be sufficient, so you can actually have a lower rating here.

So this is the power circuit of the IMC. So these are the few flexibility is there in case of the
indirect matrix converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:28)

So few interesting features of this matrix converter indirect matrix converter, by end of the
1980s all the researchers paid attention to reduce the number of the switches of the indirect
matrix converter. So that more switching losses and the complexity of the modulation can be
avoided. First the number of switches of IMC was reduced in 2001 by famous scientist that is
Wei and Lipo.

In 2001, Kolar and Ertl these are the German scientists developed the new topology of IMC
having less number switches and better switching strategy to reduce the complexity in
modulation and it is known as sparse matrix, quite important development in case of the
matrix converter and Kolar et al also introduced the two other topologies of the IMC and
reduced the number of the switches known as the very sparse matrix converter.

545
These are some derivatives of the sparse matrix and ultra sparse matrix in 2002. All the
topologies of the IMC with reduced number of switches have the same advantage and the
features of the actually this CMC and except USMC only to unidirectional power flow but in
matrix converter we have a bidirectional power flow.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:05)

So that is the one of the challenge. You see that this is basically direct matrix converter, it is
basically VMC, sparse matrix, it is SMC it is UMC. So see that a different configuration in a
diode has been done. Since you want to make current so all the attention was paid to reduce
the number of switches. So here is a normal IMC so this part is a three-level normal rectifier
but without the DC link and two level inverter.

But see that the changes here in this SMC so these some switches some portion of the
switches is required to be common. So you see that actually there is this diode configuration
is same here, here diode configuration has been changed and also you know there is a path to
flow in this way but reverse path is not allowed and it should be allowed through this switch.
So in that way it makes the power flow bidirectional and this is basically the SMC.

And this is further development of SMC over it because it consist of see that all the
development in this part and it consisting of actually one leg consisting of 4 switches so you
have 4 switches and the 4 diode so this have total 12 switches and 12 diode. Here you know
you will have 9 switches so you basically reduce the 1 switch into the system but number of
diode it essentially remain same that is 4.

546
Here in this configuration number of switches is 6 but number of diode is little more and this
is called VMC and this combinations you know it is called USMC all these upper legs are
controllable or lower legs are controllable which it is something like your half controlled
converter. So you can control by this and you can generate a fictitious DC link voltages and
thus it can be operated based on these operations.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:52)

So from discussions we can say that as number of switches of IMC is reduced accordingly
number of control signal used of the switches also get reduced. That is quite trivial statement.
All these topologies of IMC the control signal for the inverter sections remain same. That
means 3 as well as all the topologies number of switches of the inverters are same. The
reduction of number of switches only occurs at rectifier sections so control signal for all the
topologies differs in only the rectifier stage.

So there is no change in the control stage. The IMC 4 control signals are required for each leg
rectifications but SMC 2 control signals are required for each leg rectifier stage and middle
switch is driver by the other two switchers of the same leg.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:04)

547
Now control of those all the topologies it is not possible to discuss with the shortage of time
but some actually comparison on these features has been actually discussed here. In case of
the VSMC as middle switch is absent only 2 control signal is required in each leg of the
rectifier it is something like half-bridge converter. It is something like two-level inverter or
converter. While in case of the USMC, the number of switches are reduced to one so number
of control signal for the each leg of the converter remains only the one.

So if it is CMC type converter, so you require 18 transistors and 18 diodes and so thus you
require 9 isolated drivers. Here in IMC, you require first case you require the same it is 18
and 18 but number of isolated driver is required to be a 8, that is quite reductions from this
normal direct matrix converter. So SMC you require 15 and number of diode is actually
number of diode is basically 18 but isolated supply you require 7.

And here it is drastically reduced, you can see that number of switches of VMC is 12 but
number of diodes will be quiet high, you require as high as actually 30 diodes but isolated
supply require only 10. So USMC is a further reduction in everything, you require only 9 and
you require 7 isolated supply and you require only 18 diodes.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:14)

548
Now this is quite interesting phenomena, how you generate the voltages quite actually we
were saying that there is a DC link voltage and how this DC link voltage will appear and
since it is not energy storing element it has to be an instantaneous phenomena. So for this
reason you know you can see that this is basically the control signal for phase 1 ua cos omega
t, this is actually 120 degree phase shift, ua, ub, uc are the three-phase voltages and the
amplitude of the input voltage.

Now see one thing here this is it has been actually reported here, see that this is you see uac
and this one is uab. So once it is switched on, you know so here ubr will be positive and this
will be actually again these signals will be applied here and thus you know it is just as the
same as triggering on the thyristors so here in this configuration, the difference of this
voltages of u ab, r and u ac, r will appear since u ab, r will appear across the DC link.

Similarly, here in this point, this is basically AC is the most positive phase and similarly at
this point what will happen, u bc, r will be the most positive point that will be appeared
across this DC link voltage and gradually will get a ripple of the 6 pulse and you require this
will be the fictitious DC bus voltage and accordingly it will be actually changing to value per
unit value of 1 to 2.

We shall continue our discussions with the control of the matrix converter in our coming
class. Thank you for your attentions. Thank you very much.

549
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 35
Matrix Converter III and Power Quality Mitigation Devices

Welcome to our advance power electronics and control courses in NPTEL. We shall continue
with your matrix converter and therefore we shall see that different kind of power quality
issues briefly. So let us discuss what we have left, we are discussing with the indirect matrix
converter. We have discussed different topologies. These are the recapitulations of the
previous class.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:50)

You know there are different kind of topology has been discussed and the switching count is
also been discussed.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:55)

550
And now come to this point actually how actually it has been controlled. So generally you
know inverter part is essentially a generally two-level inverter or the three-level inverter
depending on the actual rating of the switches but you can consider a sparse matrix here with
the reduced switches. So we will consider actually ua is actually instead of sin cos, so
actually that is the most positive phase at the zero instant.

And accordingly ub will be 120 degree phase shifted and uc will be 240 degree phase shifted.
So at the beginning at the instant you now you can see that this is basically this dotted line
you know actually this dotted line is essentially is the ua and you will be switching in such a
manner that maximum DC will be coming to this fictitious Dc bus voltage. So what will
happen you know and you can see that and at that time C is the most negative phase.

And thus what will happen you know you will get a ripple that so you will and you will
actually conduct the phase A, upper leg of the phase A of these switches and lower leg of the
phase C so that you get the voltage u ac, r. Similarly, you can see that this is basically after
this interval after 30 degree interval after 60 degree interval at this point; B will be the most
positive phase.

C continued to be the most negative phase, then you will be switching B and C, positive part
of the B switches and negative part of the C switches. So you will get bc, r accordingly all the
switching sequence will become ac, bc like that you are continued to get. So ua, ub, uc are the
three-phase input voltages at the amplitude of having these are the amplitude and angular
frequency omega and omega t=0.

551
You can see that actually it is a balanced ((three phase)) (03:26) system so actually
summation of this three instantaneous voltage will give you zero and actually ua=1 and ub=-
0.5 and uc=+0.5 and so you are here, basically this is 0.5- for b and 0.5- for c and a here will
be 1. So essentially if you subtract -0.5 and 1 so you are going to get essentially the
maximum voltage 1.5 time of the line voltages.

Then, C continued to be actually down and thus your voltage will increase and it will change
at the point of actually 60 degree from actually zero crossing but here zero crossing start at a
instant of pi/2.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:27)

So these are the sequence you know how you will switch it on, you can see that so this is the
upper leg and this is the lower leg. So at 0 to 60 degree you know upper leg ua will be
switched on and there will be a changeover at 30 degree to b to c and thus actually PN
voltage that is this the pole to neutral voltage will be ab and ac. Similarly, pi/6 to actually pi/3
you will have this sequence ua, ub and uN=uc and this will be the voltage.

So these are the sequential curve with the 30 degree interval of time. So it will be changeover
every 60 degree. So ua will be there for the period of 60 degree. Similarly, uc will be there
for the period of 60 degree. So automatically this switching pattern will take place. So and
thus you get a maximum DC link voltage, fictitious DC link voltage in that manner.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:43)

552
Now how you will generate? Let us consider that you have, we have discussed already that
you are changing the frequency 25 hertz to 50 hertz or your actually 50 hertz to 100 hertz. So
this is your input space vectors and where 110 what we discuss about POO or similarly to be
POO. So this is basically PPO, similarly you have a two-level space vector and this will be
mapped to the actually space vector which is rotating maybe the 2 omega or 3 omega.

If it is rotating at a speed omega, so what we required to do, we have to actually split these
vectors in between and we are sure that basically if you want to generate some voltage here in
this sector, same voltage will be actually generating here at the input at the output of this
indirect matrix converter. So it will be the combination of the 1, 2, 7 where 1 is actually 100,
2 is 110 or in terms of the ((bin wu book)) (07:21) actually book actually it is POO, it is PPO.

So this and you will have this V1 and V2 and thus you got a V ref here. So let us see how you
will generate this.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:58)

553
Now this is the switching logic and you have to calculate the same way you have calculated
actually the time for the action of voltage vector V1, so that is for a1 that is -1/root 3 U2 this
is basically the unit vector*Tp is the processing sign cos omega t*uc and this time essentially
will be equal to T1. Basically why, you know this voltage applied here is AC and it is for the
duration for 60 degree, for actually alpha+pi/6.

So for this reason, this is T1. Similarly, for T2 we will have to have a sin component and this
should be -1/under root 3 this term Tp sin of alpha uc=T2. So you subtract T1 and T2 and
you get the T0. First, of course you start with the voltage vector T110 thereafter actually it
will be 100, thereafter you will have of course you have to apply the null vector at T0 that
will be basically 111 that again you will apply 111, that again will apply 110, then 100, then
110, then again 111.

Again this sequence will be repeated, so here if you see that this is basically that uac so this
will be the sequence to be followed for these three switches and thus you can generate these
voltages in this configuration.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:49)

554
Now this is the DC link voltage you will get, the ripple DC you will get since there is no
output voltage, no capacitor to filter it out or smooth out, you will get a ripple voltage every
60 degree interval. Ultimately, you can see that this interval so it will be around 60 degree
and similarly this will be the phase output voltages which will be converted for actually for,
this is basically the output simulation results, practical results can be shown later that is for
the 30 ohm with the 50 hertz applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:33)

Now here this is the output line voltages and this is the output phase current and which you
will find to be sinusoidal and ultimately it gives better results than the sine triangle PWM and
THD is quite low for this actually filters.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:57)

555
Now this is the hardware setup. We are making the practical hardwares on it and we shall
show these results later. Now let us come to the one main challenge of this actually inverter
topologies or AC to AC direct conversion. Problem is that your voltage, output voltage is
reduced than your input voltage. So this is one of the biggest disadvantages to direct AC to
AC conversion and to mitigate this problem you know for this reason we required to have
some kind of boosting stage to boost up the voltage.

And this can be done and this can be incorporated into the directly AC to AC conversion. We
have already discussed about that Z-source inverter and here in the Z-source inverter we have
discussed in our class few classes ago.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:11)

556
So it is introduced by the F. Z. Peng and this is once actually shorted, these two capacitors
comes into the series, ultimately voltage becomes basically VC1+VC2 and you get a higher
boosting effect. Can we have a same kind of concept incorporated in direct AC to AC
conversion? So that is the challenge we can see.

So we know that actually it consists of the two inductor and the two capacitor and it generally
performs two mode of operation, one is the shoot through mode that means when you
actually shot the switches. Please refer to my lectures of the Z-source inverter and in case of
the shoot through mode diode remains off and inductor gets charged by the capacitor and the
input voltage and the one leg up of the inverter get shorted and thus boosting operation is
achieved.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:15)

Now in case of the non-shoot through stage, the diode remains on and inductor discharges
and the output voltage get boosted up and in this condition inverter part acts as a current
source. Here boosting factor is calculated by considering the average voltage across the
inductor over a cycle zero and boosting factor of actually this Z-source inverter is 1/1-2 Ds.
So you can maximum actually give the 50% duty cycle, so otherwise there will be a
instability.

So two types of Quasi Z-source inverters has been given below. This is one of the case of the
Quasi Z-source inverter we had. Please refer to our discussions of the Z-source inverter. It is
just the recapitulations, so there is a continuous mode of actually the Z-source inverter and

557
Quasi Z-source inverter and this is a discontinuous mode of Quasi Z-source inverter where
inductor current is quite low.

And we prefer to actually have a discontinuous mode of Quasi Z-source inverter. Now this is
the extension of the Quasi Z-source inverter that is called extended boost Z-source inverter.
After Quasi Z-source inverter such as where actually focused on increasing the boosting
factor further. So how can we actually boost this actually ratio.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:54)

That is actually 1/1-2D, so it is limited to actually the some value. So this value is basically
0.5 and can we actually get it actually at a reduced value. For this some passive impedance
network were added and you can see that instead of actually two inductors you have a three
inductors and finally we can have another boosting effect and finally in 2010 a new DC to
DC converters was proposed knows as extended Z-source inverter.

This extended Z-source inverter consist of the 3 inductors and the 3 capacitor and the 3
diodes and during shot through condition diode D1, D2 remains off but the diode D3 is
forward biased and it is on and thus it pumps the continuous energy.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:48)

558
In shoot through state all the three inductors gets charged by the capacitors and during on no
shoot through state, the diode D1, D2 remains on and D1 remains off and the inductor gets
discharged to the boost out the output voltage and so overall boosting stage is been achieved
is 1/1-D*1-2D. So huge boosting can be achieved with the help of this actually enhance
boosting capacity.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:23)

So let us incorporate that Z-source concept into the sparse matrix. So in spite of many
advantages that is what I was saying this matrix converter also has some disadvantages.
Voltage gain of the matrix converter is limited to 0.866, output voltage may be affected by
the grid voltage changes when there is a decrease in the grid voltage and it affects the output
voltage and the matrix converter does not perform the boosting action.

559
Though by changing the modulation index, output voltage can we controlled but it is up to
some range and voltage gain of the matrix converter direct matrix converter is limited to
0.866. So that is the limitations of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:23)

By adopting over modulation technique but it can increase the voltage gain likes you know
third harmonic injection and all those technique can be applied here but it degrades the
quality of the output voltage and the input current. So THD will be the causality there and
also you do not get much of the boosting. By integration of the AC boost chopper with the
matrix converter, variable output voltage can only possible but not variable frequency
operation.

So it not allows the variable frequency operation, it can allow only actual fixed voltage
operation. The gain is increased by adding some passive elements block in cascade with the
conventional basic impedance network. In this lecture, one of the Z-source SMC topology
has been discussed for the lack of time.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:35)

560
So this is actually a topology, it is actually this part is already we have discussed, this is the
DC part, this is the converter part and this is the inverter part. In between, you have added
this actually the boosting network and here you can see that with this not only you can
actually control the frequency but also can control, of course you can actually buck it by
changing the modulation index.

And this part of the circuit can help you also boost it thus it is a basically an idealized solid
state transformer. So it is fine it will be highly used in future with a penetration of the silicon
carbide based device, we shall use this device, this topology and the variant topology as
actually solid phase transformer, it will be compact, it will be a very useful thing and it will
be less bulky and you have a lot of other advantages.

Let us see how does it work. It is a Quasi Z-source network is incorporated between the
rectifier and the inverter as shown in the figure. The Quasi Z-source network consists of the
two inductors L1, L2 and the two capacitors C1, C2, in between there will be a shoot through
state. Mainly, the inductor plays a vital role in boosting the voltage. It also consists of a
bidirectional switch and the bidirectional power flow.

So sometime we may not actually but you can use for regenerative braking also, it is not that
power flow is this, it can be also in this way. So here we require sometime for bidirectional
flow. So this is the configuration, so you have a input state intact as working to generate the
DC link voltage and you will apply the shoot through into your actually inversion stage.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:48)

561
And thus what will happen, you will be boosting a voltage VC1 and VC2 above your Vdc
and thus what will happen, VC1 and VC2 will come and it will add up this DC link voltage
and you will get the extra DC link voltage to be converted into the extra AC side line
voltages. This is basically the shoot through state and this is a non-shoot through state. We
will consider that once CSI is connected.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:23)

So it performs the two mode of operation, shoot through mode and the non-shoot through
mode to maintain the symmetrical condition VC1=VC2 and VL1 will be VL2. In shoot-
through mode, the bidirectional switch remains of and any one leg of the inverter is shorted.
Here inductor gets charged by the rectifier output voltage and corresponding the capacitor
voltage and if we apply KVL-Vdc-VC1+VL2=0 or –Vdc-VC2+VL1=0.

562
In non-shoot through mode, this bidirectional switch remains on and the inductor discharges
to the capacitor to boost up the voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:12)

And by applying KVL what essentially will get, VL1=VC1 and VL2=VC2 and thus what
happen you know so you can equate this two equations. Vdc+VC1*Ts-VC1 T-Ts=0 and thus
VC1=Vdc Ts/T-Ts where Ts is the shoot through state and T is the total time and Ds the
shoot through ratio. In that way, you can boost up the VC1.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:49)

So again applying KVL so you can find it out that basically the overall gain is just in case of
a simple boost simple Z-source network that is 1/1-Ds where Ds stands for the shoot through
ratio that is shoot through by the total time period. Now let us switch over the topic, so it
require little conclusion. Actually, we have discussed the direct AC to AC conversion, we

563
have started with the bulky cycloconverters that are gradually move to a sleek devices like
matrix converter and we have seen the problem of the matrix converter.

Then, from this matrix converter we have come down to the actually direct matrix converter
to indirect matrix converter and from the indirect matrix converter we have actually derived
different topologies and also actually made the challenge of the actually boosting of the
voltage. Gradually actually these days are not far behind when we will see that instead of this
actually all these copper transformer these are replaced by the silicon carbide based
transformer.

And will see that very sleek and bulky instead of this bulky, heavy transformer, will see that a
very compact sleek transformer and it is quite useful where weight is a major concern like
aircraft, etc. Now let us switch over to another important topic that is basically the power
quality. Power quality is actually issue popped up due to the advancement of this power
electronics.

Because as long as voltage and current was sinusoidal with the linear load there was no
problem and there is a problem with the power factor and that can be minimized with the
reverse kind of load by a wall compensator. Now due to the advent of the power electronics
and its rampant uses like adjustable speed drive and other applications power what we get it
is being virtually is polluted.

Now I as a consumer I want actually a clean power from the utility but unfortunately due to
penetration of the power electronics, power quality get degraded. So our now discussions will
be focused on the power quality. So let us define power quality, what is it.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:05)

564
The term electric power quality is generally used to assess and to maintain the good quality
power at the level of generation, transmission, distributions and utilizations of AC electrical
power. Modern distribution system, the power quality is vulgarized due to the large amount
of the power electronics devices but unfortunately we wanted to have a actually the solution
through the power electronics only.

The programmable logic drives, adjustable speed drive, lightning, flashover, equipment
failure, faults, voltage, distortion and notches, these are basically spoils or decreases the
power quality. Power quality problem is an occurrence manifested in nonstandard voltage
and current and frequency. If there is sudden swell and sag or voltage, current and the
frequency deviation, that results in failure of the missed operation of the main equipments.

So this is a major challenge nowadays, you can see the different kind of waveforms. All of a
sudden, notches has come. This is basically a transient phenomena.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:40)

565
If notches continue in cycles then we have to consider the spikes. Now all of a sudden,
voltages has sagged half of the voltage almost. So this is only basically the voltage sag. So
power quality problem may be classified on the basis of the events such as transient,
occurrence is all of a sudden thereafter it is okay or in a steady state. This transient type
power quality problem includes the phenomena occurring in the transient nature are
impulsive and oscillatory nature such as voltage dip, voltage swell.

Voltage swell means actually voltage will go off, short duration voltage variations, power
frequency variations and the voltage fluctuations.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:28)

So this is the voltage flicker. Now steady state, the types of the power quality problems
include the long duration voltage variation, waveform distortion, unbalanced voltages,

566
notches, DC offset, flickers, poor power factor, unbalanced load current, load harmonics
currents and excess neutral current. So you will get all and this is basically the voltage
flickers, all of a sudden it will flicker and we can see that with these 50 years, there has been
a low frequency is being superimposed.

And due to that it may actually cause lot of damage into the power system. It is very difficult
to mitigate this current harmonics and this is actually a typical case of three-phase direct
bridge rectifier fitting in RL load and you can see that voltage is far from sinusoid and you
get a distorted current. This is a current harmonics.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:48)

Now this is the voltage swell all of a sudden time and this is the unbalanced where one of the
phases is basically having more current than two of the other phases. The classification
maybe on the basis of the current voltage and the frequency or the load and supply system.
Voltage quality problem that is voltage distortion, flickers we have shown it, notches, noise,
sag, swell, unbalance, under voltage, overvoltage.

These are the categories of the power quality and current quality problem, the reactive power
components of current harmonics, unbalanced current and excessive neutral current. These
are power quality problems related to current.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:39)

567
Now frequency related problem that is the power quality problem, frequency variation above
or below the desired base value. We have a shifting and the power quality problem due to the
nature of the load that is from if it is the nonlinear load, this problem arises. Load current
consisting of the harmonics and the reactive component of the current, unbalanced current,
neutral current and DC offset and so on.

And power quality problems due to the supply of the system, voltage and frequency related
issues such as notches, voltage distortion, unbalance, sag, swell, flickers, noise all those
things we have discussed. Now thank you for your attention. We shall continue to power
quality in our next class. Thank you.

568
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 36
Power Quality Mitigation Devices - II

Welcome to our lectures on advance power electronics and control. We shall continue to
discuss with the power quality mitigations devices which we have started in our previous
lecture. Now effect of the actually power quality problem on the users, so power quality
problem affects all the concerned utilities as I was discussing at the starting of the previous
class.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

That customer, manufacturer directly or indirectly in terms of the major financial losses due
to the interruption of the process, equipment damage, production loss, wastage of the raw
material, loss of important data and so on. Some power quality problem affects the protection
system and the results in the mal-operation of the protective devices mainly delay sometime
malfunction due to this actually the power quality problem.

This may also affects many types of measures and instrument of metering and various
quantities such as voltage, current and energy. These are the great problem on the power
system due to the power quality. This problem affects the monitoring systems is much critical
important and vital and we require costly equipment to manage it.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:55)

569
Now we require to mitigate these power quality problems, so from this discussion we have
understood the type of the power quality problems and how it will affect us and how it can be
mitigated. The custom power devices for mitigations of the power quality problems are
power filters. We have studied the filters with an op-amp, so it can actually resist active filter
but it can handle a power in range of the watt but you may have to actually tackle the power
in the range of the megawatt.

For the various types of the active, passive and the hybrid in shunt, series or a combinations
of the filter and UPQC that is unified power quality conditioner in single-phase two-wire,
three-phase there are different permutation combinations, single-phase two-wire, three-phase
three-wire, three-phase four-wire are possible. Power quality improvement technique is used
in newly designed and developed components such as IPQC.

Students are requested to refer my facts lectures for IPQC has been discussed in detail. Multi-
pulse AC to DC converters, matrix converter for AC to DC and AC to AC conversion and
also which inherently mitigate some of the problem of the power quality.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:33)

570
So first we shall start with the oldest solution that is the passive filters. The nonlinear loads,
the solid-state converters draw harmonics and the reactive power components, currents from
the AC mains. The injected harmonic current and reactive power burden cause low system
efficiency and poor power factor. Traditionally, passive power filters that is PPFs are used to
reduce harmonics and capacitors are generally employed to improve the power factor of the
AC loads.

The medium and low power factor ratings especially in distribution system. The passive
filters are used again because of their low cost and the simplicity but there are many
drawbacks of this actually the passive filters. This passive filters are classified into many
categories such as shunt, series hybrid, single tuned, double tuned, damped, band-pass, high
pass, we will see the figure in next few slides.

Drawbacks, basically these devices will derate with the time and thus when you have tuned a
particular frequency, it is no longer working that and it will actually work at other frequency.
Thus, response will be nullified gradually due to ((the ageing)) (05:11).
(Refer Slide Time: 05:15)

571
Because of the low value of the power capacitors in the passive filters, this filters become
very sensitive to the parallel resonance between filter capacitors and the source impedance
and mainly it is a inductive in nature. If parallel resonance frequency occurs at or near
harmonic produced by the load, a severe voltage distortion and the harmonic current
amplification may be produced.

So this is quite dangerous. However, passive filters are used along with the small active filter
that blocks or avoid the parallel resonance. So this is something we have to keep in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:01)

Passive filter topology can be classified based on the different kind of connections and
number of phases. The topology can be shunt, series and hybrid and further sub classified
tuned or damped acts as a low-pass filters or high-pass filter or shunt filter or acts as a low-

572
block or the high-blocks for the series filters. We shall see the details, all the discussions.
Other major classifications are based on the number of the phases like single phase two-wire
system, three-phase three-wire or four-wire or PPFs.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:47)

So this is the different kinds of passive filter solutions. So a is a single tuned let us say that
when you are actually feeding a highly inductive diode based rectifier and you have a three-
phase three-wire system so harmonics will be 5, 7, 11, 13. So you can actually tune this filter
with the third harmonics or fifth harmonic or the seventh harmonic. If it is a three-phase four-
wire system, then it will be third harmonics.

Otherwise, it will be 5, 7, 11, 13 harmonics and you can actually get rid of a particular
harmonics and you can see that fifth and seven are very close. So you can tune some extent at
6 and you can mitigate the fifth and seventh both. Now what about 11, 13 and that made
require a double tuned. So these portion of the circuit will essentially give you a one tuning,
another portion of the circuit will give you another tuning.

So you can mitigate at least two actually dominating harmonics. So 5, 7 and 11, 13 you can
tune some portion this portion of the circuit at 6 and this portion of the circuit may be 12 so
thus there you rated 5, 7 and 11, 13 and push it after 19. Similarly, you can have a triplet tune
so complexity and the component count will increase so we can see that and this is a triple
tune with the series capacitor.

573
So first you will have a series capacitor and thereafter this will be tuned to a particular
harmonic, this will be tuned to a particular harmonic and this way you can submerge and
same way you can have a inductor. So this has a challenge here you know because you know
capacitor charging discharging will be an issue. So you know turning on required to be
controlled by the thyristor sometime.

So triple tune capacitor will have advantage of the cost but it require controlled mechanism,
otherwise capacitors may actually charge or discharge and they give a phenomena of
resonance but whereas actually when you have these combinations, inductor tuned so it is
quite same but system solution will be bulky. The series passive tuned or the band-block
filters, so this is formally the current harmonics separation and shunt voltage separation for
the series.

And you know it can be a single tuned that is a and this has a double tuned you can get rid of
fifth and seventh harmonic in the current in the voltage maybe and generally these series
filters are put into to mitigate the voltage harmonics.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:56)

So from this above figure shows that the passive tune filters for the shunt and series
configurations that are most widely used for the eliminations of the current harmonics and for
reactive power compensation. So we can enhance the actually the power factor. Most of the
cases, we feed this load to feed the drive and thus we have a negative wire and for this reason
this filter is required to be capacitive in nature.

574
This can also provide the reactive power in the power system network for improving the
voltage profile. Other than this topology many other passive filters are used based on the
desired application such as shunt passive damped we require to damped out a particular
frequency or the high-pass filter first order, second order or different order; types of the
passive damped or high-block filters and hybrid passive filters damped double tuned or
damped triple tuned like that can be used.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:16)

Now all those filters have three or four disadvantages. First of all, you can see that solution is
quite bulky and since the solution is bulky, we cannot and it is associated with the costs and it
directs with the time and it affected by the notches and the filters and it is not affected by
wire compensation if there is a voltage sag.

So for this reason, we look for a variable situation let us say if your strength of fifth and
seventh harmonics has been changed, then your power quality will be sacrificed because you
may have tuned to assuming that actually fifth harmonic will dominate the case. So thus we
required to investigate for the active solutions. Akagi et al in 1984 proposed basically shunt
active power filter.

As nonlinear load this solid-state converter draw harmonic current and the reactive power
components of the current from the AC mains. Traditionally, the passive L-C filters have
been used to reduce the harmonic and to improve the power factor of the AC loads. However,
passive filters have the demerits of fixed compensation, large size and it can actually have a
resonance with the power supply and so on.

575
To avoid the drawbacks of these passive filters, a topology is developed by using the power
electronic switches and it is a dynamic and adjustable solutions of the power quality problem.
It can inject the harmonic as per the requirement. Such equipment generally known as the
active filters and this is called the active filters line conditioners or APLC, instantaneous
reactive power compensator or IRPC, active power quality conditioners or APQC. So there
are few nomenclatures will be around it with the APF active power filter.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:53)

So this is an example of the shunt active power filter, it is feeding let us say highly inductive
RL load where you have a diode based rectifier and thus you also have a source impedance
and this point is said to be the point of common coupling and you will find without injection
current at this point is something like this. This is far from sinusoid. We have seen this
waveform in our previous class.

So task of this actually this converter essentially it is a voltage source inverter works in a
current control mode and it does not contain any energy storage and it does not contain any
bulky capacitor. So task of this capacitor actually to instantaneously balance the voltage,
otherwise it does not require anything. So it generates the harmonics and fixes it to the source
and so that source will see that as if a balance resistive load is connected at the point of
common coupling.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:08)

576
So the shunt active power filter technology is known as a mature technology for providing
the reactive power demand by the load mitigate the current harmonics, mitigate the current
unbalanced and maintains the DC link voltage at its desired value. Shunt active power filter
inverter is operated as PWM current control or the controller forces the converter to behave
as a controlled current source.

It is a voltage source inverter followed it is basically works in a current controlled mode.

Shunt active power filters are also used for regulate the terminal voltage and suppress voltage
flickers in three-phase system.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:53)

Shunt active power filters are classified on the basis of the converter such as current source
converter. We can use a current source converter also, voltage source converter VSC,

577
topology such as half-bridge converter, full-bridge converter and so on. On the basis of the
supply system, the shunt active power filters are classified into the major categories, single-
phase two-wire, single-phase three-wire and three-phase four-wire system.

Many control strategies are reported for SAPF such as instantaneous reactive power theory
IRPT, synchronous frame d-q theory, synchronous detection method, notch filter method, etc.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:44)

So this is the one of the example of operation of the shunt active power filter. These are the
simulation results. So this is basically the current due to and it is unbalanced and two phases
of phase A and B are being shown and by injection of the shunt active power filter, voltage as
current becomes sinusoidal and also balanced and this is actually the injections of this shunt
compensations and this is the DC link voltage of the shunt filter.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:33)

578
So series APF active power technology is known as a mature technology for providing
compensation for harmonics present in the voltage and current in the AC networks. The
series active filters are mainly used to eliminate voltage harmonics. In addition, they can be
used to regulate terminal voltage to suppress voltage flickers and to improve the voltage
balance. This series active filters inverter working based on the PWM voltage control or
control current control inverter behaves like a control voltage source.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)

Now let us see the example of the series active power filter, sometimes it is called DVR also.
DVR is essentially can mitigate the sag that is a voltage regulator. So if there is a voltage sag
essentially, generally what it will do you know it will inject the voltage in phase and thus
voltage sag can be mitigated and also this is then we have to supply power from somewhere.

579
Otherwise if you wish to only to compensate the harmonic part of it, then it can manipulate
this harmonic voltage by angle between voltage and current and this can be injected and thus
it will actually cancel out the harmonics produced by any harmonic voltage source and
ultimately after this point source voltage is being cleaned out from the harmonics. So this
solution is basically the series active solutions.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:27)

So the series active filters are basically categorized into the three types. The single-phase
two-wire, three-phase three-wire, three-phase four-wire to meet the requirement of different
kind of power supply available to us. The control strategies of instantaneous reactive power
theory and synchronous frame d-q theory, synchronous detection methods and both notch
filter methods are used in the development of this active power filter. Now this is an example
of the simulation.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:14)

580
So voltage has been distorted by the notches and this is the injection of the series active filters
and after these injections you know voltage line voltage become balanced and sinusoidal.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:25)

So this is the example of the voltage where we got notches and ultimately this is the line
voltage after action of the series filter and this is the voltage injected and you can see that in
between there is a voltage solar that also been absorbed by this this active filter.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:55)

581
So hybrid active filter, active filters both shunt and series also have a drawback and mainly
due to the rating of the switches because switch required to be a very high rating have
drawback and their rating and very close to the load up to 80% in some typical applications.
Thus, they become costly options and the power quality and the solutions also become costly
and customer does not want to take that costly solutions.

Because of the highest rating, active power filters and the costs considerations, the
acceptability of the active power filter by the users has faced inertness in the practical
situations. The rating of these filters is reduced by adding the passive filter to form hybrid
filters and which reduces the overall cost and in many instances they provide better
compensation either passive or the active filters.

So you know some part of this will be passive and some part of this will be active. So various
topologies are reported as a hybrid filter in shunt, series and the combinations of the both for
single-phase two-wire, three-phase four-wire and there-phase three-wire systems using the
current.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:19)

582
So this is the portion where hybrid filter is a combination of the series. You know this is the
passive filter and thereafter you have an active filter. Similarly, we have passive filters and
we have actual shunt active filter and so this combinations are there in case of the hybrid
filter. Now let us consider the important aspect of it. We have seen the entities of the voltage
connections for the series and the current connection by shunts separately. Now we shall take
out both and that is said to be the unified power quality conditioners.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:00)

The unified power quality conditioners or UBQC is a hybrid connections of the shunt and
series power filter and designed for separation of the multiple power quality problems. UPQC
is developed by the two voltage source converter connected back to back through a common
DC link capacitor and connected to distribution network as a shunt and series format.

583
And the shunt part of the UPQC it only mitigate the current harmonics, injects the reactive
power demanded by the load, mitigates the current harmonic produced by the load, mitigate
the unbalanced and maintain the DC link voltage as desired value and whereas a series does
the same thing for its voltage counterpart. So it regulates the voltage quality from the power
supply such as voltage harmonic, voltage sag, voltage swell, voltage unbalanced.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:58)

So this is the overall figure of the UPQC. Here this part is series that will be actually
responsible to compensate the shunt portion actually voltage part of it and it will mitigate all
the issues related to the voltage sag, voltage swell, voltage harmonics and this part is the
shunt part and this is for this is the high-pass filter to mitigate the switching of these filters
and you may have actually disturbed voltage source.

And this will be rectified by this actually series part of the filter, then thus at this point
voltage clean term but due to this actually nonlinear load current get actually distorted and
that required to be corrected or fix it up by this actually the shunt active power filter. So these
two combinations you know gives us total power quality solutions for three-phase three-wire
system and there are different kind of shunt topology.

Students are requested to refer my facts classes that are available in YouTube. There different
kind of topologies has been discussed for UPQC, for shortage of time; we have to actually
curtail our discussions here. So these are the few aspects of it. Now these are few things we
have to keep in mind, for these are just we have just touched upon this power quality issues

584
briefly and main challenge are this active power filters are to rightly estimate the reference
current that is required to be injected by this voltage source inverter either series or shunt.

So this is one challenge and for there is a different kind of reference generation technique,
these techniques are may be time domain and may be the frequency domain. In a time
domain, we have a decubitus technique; we have a unified IPRF power quality rectifier
solutions by Akagi. You may have a synchronous mode solution and also you have a
different solutions in the frequency domain.

That is FFT, DFT, FFT and otherwise you can actually apply soft computing technique. Next,
part comes basically tracking, this actually current reference that is a control problem and we
choose a different topologies here so researcher can work in a different topology part of this
UPQC and while it will inject the current and how we will see that with the reduced switches.

So you have instead of that actually here for the two-level inverter, we have here essentially
12 switches and can we actually reduce the switches this topology. This is also a challenge
because as you have seen that cost is a major factor to accept among the customer. So this
area research is still going on and apart from that we required to see that how essentially this
rating maybe actually 6.6 KVA and this rating can be maximum suitable for the range of
anyhow in thousands of volt.

So we require a transformer and this transformer essentially bulky, so where actually can we
replace a different kind of transformer that the solid-state transformer we have discussed. So
in that way, we can give a total power electronic solution to the power system problem of
power quality. Thank you for your attentions. We shall continue to our next class with control
aspect of the power electronics. Thank you.

585
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 37
Linear and Non Linear Control in Power Electronics

Welcome to our NPTEL courses advance power electronics and control. We discussed more
about the control and will take out first linear and nonlinear control applied in the power
electronics or how actually power electronics has to be actually utilized with the effective
control. You know generally what happened why you require power electronics; I have
several times talked about it that you may have a raw power.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:54)

That is something that input voltage and frequency that is coming from the any sources and
the load will take a different kind of voltage or the frequency. So for this reason, we require a
converter. It can be actually AC to AC converter which can change the frequency which can
change the amplitude, it can be DC to DC and it can be bidirectional and not only the power
flows through this point to this point, it can flow this point to this point also.

So all the possibilities will be there and ultimately you know actually there will be a feed
forward path, there will be a reference and thereafter there will be a feedback and from there
will have control strategy and that will fit to the converter or inverter to give a desired output
at the power level.

586
So we can brief in this statement in that way that switching power converter must be suitably
designed and controlled in order to supply voltage, current, frequency and the ranges needed
for the load and guarantees a required dynamics. So what happened actually, dynamics means
the load is not a static entity, it may change and it is totally the control on the consumers but
irrespective of the load change and you should give a desired output voltage.

Similarly, you can have a source change that is practically possible in case of the renewable
energy applications there is a uncertainty of the wind, there is uncertainty of the solar
radiation and thus this input power also changes but you require a desired actually level of
voltage and current to fit. Otherwise, you have to take different measures. Control designers
for switching power electronics converter should know static and the dynamic behaviour of
the electronic power converter.

That is very important to understand actually proper designing of the any converter. You
know switches, switches are dumb unless it is fitted with the control and we say that it is
control and the power electronics is just like a life and the body. A power electronics
converter gets its life to the control.

So far this reason, it is quite important aspect to learn how to control these converters. So and
how to design its elements for the intended operation modes.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:43)

And thus power electronics expert required to know a formidable amount of the control
systems. So designer must be an expert on the control techniques especially in the nonlinear

587
ones because once you are switching your system is non-linear. The world is non-linear but
we actually for the sake of simplification and modelling, we make it linear. We first see that
how we can linearize and we see that problem of the linearization.

Then, we shall go back to the actual nonlinear system; we shall try to solve the problem that
arises not considering the non-linearity because switching converters are nonlinears, time-
variant and discrete systems. Generally, nonlinear works is actually time invariant,
continuous analogous systems. Designer must be capable of analog or the digit
implementations of derived modulation regulator and compensators.

Now issue is that you know actually world is going towards the digital converters, digital
control because previously there was a problem of the switching and problem of the sampling
rates and thus actually we try to solve in the analog domain but gradually due to the invent of
the high processes and dedicated professors like APJ, so these problems actually now actually
analog is basically phasing out gradually because of the uncertainty in nature.

But we require to understand the analog working principle and the control of the analog
circuits very well to mimic the same characteristics in the digital domain. Suitable control
request for not only with the satisfactory static dynamic performance but also with a low
sensitivity against load or the line disturbances or preferably the robustness of the system.
Now this is a typical control term the robustness, it means that actually system will remain
stable with the perturbations.

So it will not actually come out from the zone of stability. Example of the stable system is the
pendulum. If you give a perturbation, it will come to the stable equilibrium point. Now this is
the dynamic we have basically a dynamics of the system that is converter and we may have a
two kind of solutions, one is basically the state space representations, mostly this has been
propagated by USA.

Another is a fundamental concept of the transfer functions that was propagated mostly from
the UK and ultimately we will have a set of differential equation. World is governed by the
differential equations and thus actually trend of solving is towards the state space
representations and gradually this transfer function methods because it works well in a linear

588
system, there is many actually ((technical textbooks)) (07:14) you will be aware of Bode plot,
we will touch up on the little bit about it.

But mostly our discussions will be concentrated to the states space representations that is the
modern control technique.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:28)

Now let us take a buck converter that we are stating several times. You know the two mode
of operation, one switch is on, another switch is off. So one switch is on so this is the power
of the circuit and that is the x1 the state and so input is u1 and generally so we can write this
equations u1=Lx1+x2 where x dot=basically this is nothing but V=L+I and where x1=C x2
dot+x2/R.

So similarly when it is off state, we can rewrite the equation, there is no voltage source
ultimately power in the inductor will actually flow into the circuits and as you make the diode
is ideal so then actually this is the equations that will be ((governed)) (08:37) so 0=L dx
dt+x2 that is voltage across the capacitor and similarly you can rewrite this equation. So you
can see that how actually this kind of matrix are available.

This A matrix are same so we can combine for 0 to t on this matrix and for t on to t off this
matrix and they require to be combined for the total time period.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:15)

589
And that is said to be the averaging model because one phenomena is existing for the time t-
on, another phenomena existing for the time t-on to t and in between they have to be coupled.
So we can say that supposing the power semiconductors are control ideal switch, this is our
assumptions, zero on state voltage drop, zero off state current and instantaneous
commutations between the on state and off state.

The time behaviour of the circuit over period T can be represented by the general form of the
state-space model that is basically x dot=Ax that is called state ((space matrix)) (10:05)
matrix and this is basically the input variable matrix that is B and y=actually Cx+Du where
generally in case most of the cases you will find that current to the inductor and the voltage
across the capacitor are taken as a state because it is essentially you can equate V=Li di/dt
and C dv/dt=I.

So thus they are the state of the system where x is the state vector and x dot=dx dt and u is the
input vector and y is the output vector, A, B, C, D are respectively dynamics of the state,
input, output and direct transmission or the feedforward matrix. So we can have a block
diagram representation that has been covered in your controls typical control system book.
Because of lack of time, we are actually not discussing those things.

Students are advised to actually little bit actually read about the state space from any control
system book or the NPTEL lectures on the control system. Now let us go into and tell about
the state space modeling.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:33)

590
Since it is a power semiconductors will be either conducting or blocking, a time dependent
switching variable del t can be used to the desirable the allowed the switch state of the each
structures. So del t=1 for the on-state and del t=0 for the off state of the circuit. Then, two
subinterval must be considered for the interval 1 that is actually t>0 and <del t1*T versus
basically 0 to t on in other words.

And delta t=1 and where delta 1 is the duty ratio between on state to off state and again sub
interval 2 from the delta 1 T <t<T where del t=0 so this in this case here delta t will be 0 and
in this case delta t will be 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:33)

591
And accordingly we shall rewrite the state space equations. Here when actually switch is on
power was flowing from the source to load we got these equations and another set of
equations where delta t=0.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:47)

So you required to combine these two equations. The foregoing equations can be combined to
obtain the nonlinear; previously these were the linear equations. Unfortunately, there is a
state change between these two thus the system become nonlinear. Obtain the nonlinear time
variant switching state space model of the switching converter. So you just have this average
model, rewrite it actually you got a vector A1*del t and A2 1-delt t*x+B del t+B2 1-del t*u.

Similarly, for the output state for observable matrix basically C1 similarly we can write and
thus it becomes a combined matrix where AS is given by A1*del t+A2 1-del t and generally
A1 and A2 are same most of the cases and BS actually B1*del t B2 1-del t and so on and thus
you have other also the matrices.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:57)

592
Now we wanted to have something called average state space model, some phenomena we
require to observe and that is possible because it is switching so once I say that it is averag3e
so we are not capturing any phenomena and the rate of the switching frequency, we will be
capturing basically one tenth of this switching frequency and we will analyze the stability of
the system.

So then will say that it is the average model essentially you are adding so suppose that the
average value of x and denoted by the x bar are the new state variable and considering that
you know these are basically del 2 has a relations that is 1-del 1 and moreover if A1*A2 as I
associate a matrix basically equal to A2*A1 the approximations can be actually made here.

So we can see that so if you rewrite these equations basically in terms of delta 1 and delta 2
ultimately you will get basically A=A1 delta 1+A2 delta 2, similarly, this associations can
happen.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:29)

593
And if it is possible, then let us take an example practical example how this actually matrices
can be used to analyze a particular circuit. Since we have talked about the buck converter let
us take a buck converter and consider that following design aspects. Consider the simplified
circuitry of the buck converter and we will assume that all the switches are ideal and since
shortage of the time we cannot go beyond.

Otherwise, then we gradually evaluate and once we take the losses and what does happen to
it, anyway for time being we shall take out a buck-boost converter. That is quite universal
converter because it can buck, it can boost both and here switching is basically at 20 kilohertz
that is fixed and this is basically 50 microsecond with VDC max this value, it may be a solar
panel, voltage changes according to the ((irradiation)) (16:39).

That is 28 volt and VDC min this voltage can drop up to 22 volt and we want that actually 24
output at the output voltage and you have chosen from the design aspects that we have seen
for a continuous conduction mode that value of the Li is 400 microhenry and C=2700
microfarad and R0=2 ohms and we assume that this is in a continuous conduction mode,
otherwise analysis will be tough.

And we shall write the state space model and should analyze its stability of this converter.
Please see that, it is a design problem. So let us rewrite the equations.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:38)

594
For the differential equations governing the dynamics of the state space that is current to the
inductor and the voltage across the capacitor that is essentially the output voltage. So L
di/dt=VDC and C0 d/dt=-v0/R. It changes its polarity because for 0 to actually del T1
delta=1, Q1 is on and diode 1 is off and thus you get these matrices so you get actually
matrices A1 as 0 0 and similarly in second case for the del 2 you will get another set of
matrices which come little later.

So similarly you get actually L1 d1L/dt=-v0 and for this other interval for actually del 2 when
actually Q1 is off and D1 is on so you get these two matrices. So combine these two matrices
so for this you get basically this matrix and from this you get this matrix. Similarly, B1 is
basically will be this matrix and B2 will be your this matrix and where u=VDC and C1 and
C2 are the, there is no D so there is no link between input and output.

If there is a link between the input and output then only the D matrix comes otherwise D
matrix does not come, it generally is 0, so C matrix will have this kind of form.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:13)

595
Now let us actually see you combine the switching of the state space and you add up with the
1-del t and of this two values and then since actually we consider that the average value that
is x bar and the new state variable considered to be the del t=1-del 1 and also here you can
see that A1 dot A2 is A2 dot A1 and this equation can be changed as discussed into the
previous slide.

So you can add it up, ultimately overall equations become this. Students are requested to
physically do that calculations. So v0/L=this delta 1+delta 2 that is A1, this is A2. Thereafter,
this is B1, this is B2.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:12)

So similarly C1 and C2 so this is the actually the x dot=Ax+Bu total form. Once you get
these equations, then we can find the roots of this polynomial. This is a very simple say

596
circuit thus it is a 2 x 2 matrix only. So basically you have to write lambda-1 and this will be
lambda+1 and ultimately you have to find the roots of the sI-A and these roots of the
polynomial will give you the characteristics of this circuit.

Let us see that what happen, so of course roots can be imaginary, roots can be actually
complex conjugate and roots can be real. So see that what happen in 3 conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:15)

Since the delta max is the maximum absolute value of all the eigenvalues of A, the model
proposed is valid switching frequency and that verify actually lambda max T< <should be 1
as T<<1/lambda max, the value of T approximately verify the restrictions are that 1/max this
value gives this actually buck-boost converter that this is actually you can calculate so
ultimately these values actually will be less than the 2 millisecond.

Therefore, the converter switching frequency must obey that fs should be >the maximum
value of actually mod of sb implying that switching frequency should be above 5 kilohertz.
So we are well above the 5 kilohertz no problem, if it is within these values of the capacitor
and the inductor, we require to have the switching frequency more than 5 kilohertz.
Consequently, if it is less than 5 kilohertz what will happen, of course there are many
possibilities.

First thing is you will find that it will be discontinuous and thus when it becomes
discontinuous conduction mode, current does not flow and you cannot control the output
voltage, control becomes a difficult task. Consequently, the buck-boost switching frequency

597
and the inductor value and the capacitor values are chosen accordingly. So if we choose this
actually 5 kilohertz then we have to change the values of this capacitor and the inductor.

And we have to see that same eigenvalue may actually bring it. It is advisable basically this
value you know should be around 2 to 5 times, at least 2 to 5 times less than the switching
frequency.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:36)

So let us see so what now questions comes one observation we got on the state space that
what should be the resolvable frequency and whether you are well aware it or not. Now
another way to actually analyze the state-space once you already got a state-space because it
is a set of differential equation written in the matrix form, it is a very simple thing to do for
many of us.

So what happen if you give some disturbance across the average value so you got average
value and since we have actually assumed that these values to be constant over a period of
time because your switching frequency is quite high and your observation time maybe
actually at least one tenth of that and in that time you assume that actually things are constant
and there you basically give a change and see that what happens.

Hence, the circuit often named averaged equivalent circuit. So averaged equivalent circuit, it
is something like that you know if you got this kind of waveform, you may say that I got this
much of average value, over it there is an imposition of a sine wave. We may say in a control
system; this is average value over it there is a perturbation or disturbances. So the averaged

598
equivalent circuit of the buck-boost converters allows the determinations under small ripple
and the slow variations.

So this phenomena that is what I was saying, though this phenomena can capture the
phenomena’s like under small ripples and the slow variations can be captured and provided
that those entities are happening at least 10 times slower than the switching frequency. The
average equivalent circuit of the converter switching cells actually it has been shown here. So
this is a modelling because it is a current source.

Thereafter, you got an inductor, you know you just go back to the actual circuit then only you
can recall what changes what, so this has been a current source and this diode has been made
a voltage source. So it will block the voltage and ultimately it will work like basically PDC
plus output voltage and this will be output voltage of reverse polarity.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:38)

Now let us analyze it that is state-space modelling and linear state-space average model. We
know that system is nonlinear fine but once we design a controller, design the linear
controller is easier to do and for this reason you know we considered that you know so
actually within the small interval of time, we considered that system is in around its average
value, so we will linearize this circuit or operate this circuit in and out its average value.

Then, will say that it is a linearized state-space average model okay. So since the converter
output y must be regulated actuating on the duty cycle del t the converter inputs u usually
presents perturbation due to the load and the power supply variations. So we shall consider

599
that you know this has some constant value with this perturbation. Thus, state variable are
decomposed in a small AC perturbations denoted by delta and DC steady-state quantity
represented by the uppercase letters and therefore it can be splitted like that.

So average value will have a DC value above it there is a perturbation. Similarly, y will have
a perturbation that is you got 24 volt DC that is that signify this and with that you got a ripple
that signify this as simple as that. Similarly, instead of time your input voltage maybe
something and with that you will assume that there is a perturbation and similarly there will
be variations of delta 1 as well as the delta 2. These are the duty cycles of this converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:59)

Now let us combine. We have already combined A1 and A2 on state and off state and we
have combined and now we will write basically the perturb term that is basically the distort
term. Average terms are fine; we require to take the perturb term only so that will be actually
x delta dot so that will be A1 delta 1+A2 delta 2*x+B1 delta 1+B2 delta 2*u.

And thereafter you will have basically A1 delta 1+A2 delta 2*this similarly will have this
into delta so you will have so many terms because basically you are subtracting both these
things. Similarly, this will basically in a state and similarly in y tilde you will have similar
representations. We shall discuss about the state-space model in our next class. Thank you for
your attention.

600
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 38
Linear and Non Linear Control in Power Electronics - II

Welcome to our lectures on the advance power electronics and control. We were discussing
about state space averaging modelling in our non-linear and the linear control. Let us go to the
slide actually which I was discussing. So this is, basically we have to go back little bit. So we
were here.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

Basically we were discussing about the state space average modeling. So state space average
modeling are decomposed in small AC perturbations denoted by ~ and the steady state quantity.
It is represented by the uppercase letter.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:06)

601
So let us come to this point. So similarly we have discussed about actually x~. This will have the
derivations. Similarly, we will have a y~.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:20)

And thus there are the terms, actually the A1delta1 A2delta2, and the average value X are the
steady state values. So it does not feature out as a perturbed quantities. Similarly, we want delta1,
B2delta 2 and the u are also the DC values and C1delta1, C2delta2*X, this is also ((DC)) (01:51)
values and this, it is not there, that is a different issue in our condition. In most of the cases that
the D matrix was 0, D1delta1 and D2delta2*U are the other DC quantities.

Thus eliminate those DC quantity from it and you will have these overall equations. And thus

602
actually from this equation 3 and 4, you have to short it out the DC portion. So you can rewrite
since that X dot should be equal to 0. So it is a steady state condition. So ultimately
0=A1delta1+A2delta2X+B1delta1+B2delta2*U and Y=, similarly, C1delta1+C2delta2*X,
definitely, +D1delta1+D2delta2*U.

So we can actually, neglecting this higher order terms in the equation 3 and 4, see there will be a
multiplications of actually delta 1 delta, so this kind of term has been actually no point of
multiplying those terms since this gives you a very small values. And thus what we can rewrite is
that again that A1-delta1*delta x B1-B2*delta U*del U should be equal to 0. So these are the 3
actually conditions. This can be rewrite as equation number 7 also.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:34)

Thus we can linearize with that help and ultimately x~ can be actually substituted, those terms
which can be equated to 0, ultimately A1delta 1+A2delta 2+x A1-A2X B1-B2*U to delta and
B1*delta 1+B2*delta 2*u. So there should not be any term without ~. So all the DC value has
been eliminated from the overall equation.

Similarly, y~ will have this conditions, you can actually derive these equations. After deriving
these equations since actually A average we can write, that is A1delta1+A2delta2. B average is
B1delta1+B2delta2. Similarly, C1 and C2. So thus we can write x~ dot=A average*x~+B
average*U~ A1-A2*X+B1-B2*U*delta. Similarly, the output matrix that is given by the y. Most

603
of the cases, this is equal to 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:56)

So ultimately you go back to your buck-boost converter. This is actually the switching
configurations. So you got a switch and thereafter diode and you got an inductor here. So this
should be on and off depending on the duty cycle and that actually the duty cycle is delta 1 and is
the current control source, so that will be equal to I*del 1. Similarly, it will be a delta1*Vs but
potential difference at this point is Vs, it is blocking the voltage Vs.

And thus we can actually model it as a transformer having actually trans-ratio, delta2 and delta1
because it is a reflected trans-ratio. So you are talking in terms of the current. So it will have that
is the inverse. So current I1 is flowing and current I2 is flowing and we can have actually a
transformer model where I1 will have a trans-ratio delta1 and I2 have a trans-ratio delta2. So
average equivalence circuits, this is for the switching cell.

So we can 0ed down to the equivalent average model is this and we can visualize an ideal
transformer as like this. So we are telling several times that we cannot use transformer in DC but
with the DC to DC converter, we can have all characteristics may be like an AC transformer. So
that is the beauty of AC to DC transformer.

Ultimately polarity is reversed because you are getting that polarity reverse there. If the polarity

604
is same, that dot would have been the same point. So see that how we can derive the transformer,
similar transformer in AC in case of the DC. So it is a DC to DC converter. Now let us go
beyond it. So hope that you are getting the juice of the subject right now.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:37)

So using this equation 5 and 6, please refer to this equation 5 and 6 because I will be recalling.
So this is the 5 and 6 because this is the steady state DC values. The slide number 6, the input U
to the output Y steady state relations needed for the open loop and feed forward control, can be
obtained. That is the transfer function, that is the output/input. So same thing we can get if we
have, if you know this basically the A matrix C matrix and the B matrix.

And fortunately, we cannot have a transfer functions because this one is time variant as well as
non-linear. But once you have made an average, of course, it is linear. Thus this is the transfer
function. So you can come down to the transfer function and once you get a transfer function, all
those actually, all those things you have learnt in your transfer function technique like the Bode
plot, polar plot, root locus, all those analysis can be done here.

So see that how we can march from the actually state space to the transfer function. So applying
if the transfer function to the equation 7 with 0 initial condition, these are the condition, using the
superposition theorem, small signal duty cycle of the output transfer function can be obtained
considering 0 line perturbations that is u=0, that is you have considered no input variations that is

605
the load variation.

Of course, you can also take a consideration that because but that is also quite natural like in
buck-boost converter that source itself is varying that is let us say solar panel. But in all present
analysis, we have negated it. So ys/delta s, you can write C average Is-A average A1-A2*X B1-
B2*U. Similarly, you can have C1-C2*X+D1-D2*U. Thus what happens? The line to output
transfer function or the audio, we sometime say it comes out in the frequency domain in the
audible susceptible limit because we can hear the range of 20 KHz and for this, we sometimes
say that it is audio susceptible limits.

But nothing to do and much so we can take this is, for this overall the result when we take or try
to take our switching frequency above to 20 KHz that, we will get rid of the noises, sound noises.
But of course, you will increase the EMI EMC problem. So susceptibility of transfer function is
delivered using the same method and considering that delta~=0, that is variation of the duty cycle
is 0, that is in a steady state only.

So you know that actually V0/Vm is something D/1-D, we have studied it for the, actually this
kind of converter and this holds that when delta~=0. Thus we are coming to the same thing on
the state space analysis. Similarly, ys/us that is essentially the perturbed quantities, so you can
write it actually C average sI-A average/this one, generally this value is 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:58)

606
Now let us see Buck-boost converter transfer function. So you have written this matrices
previously. So you can combine by this equations, also using this equation 7 derived previously
making X is basically the current through the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor as V0
and essentially y is you can take it V0 as well as IL and U=of course, it is the input VDC.

And linearize the small signal state space model of the buck-boost converter. You can rewrite is
the substitution and this is basically the A average and this is the basically the C average and D
matrix is telling it should be equal to 0 and thus you get these equations. You can substitute here.
From there, we can get the transfer function.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:03)

607
So what else? So see that what are the beauties of this transfer function which you might have
done. The derivation has been done in other way from the differential equations. Same thing can
be derived from the transfer function directly. So that is the beauty of the transfer function
analysis. So using the equation 11 in 8, input U to the output Y that is IL/VDC, that is delta1/R0
delta1-1 square.

Similarly, V0/VDC that is output by the input transfer function that is you know that is, I was
writing D/1-D or delta1 1-delta. So see that how we have derived the same thing from the state
space equations. In the meantime, we have commented over the switching frequency. In the
meantime actually if you are actually familiar with the state space equations, we can derive also
the transfer functions.

All the transfer functions are been actually been put her. Similarly, the line to output transfer
functions were actually with the ~ will have basically this/this and with v0/vDC, will be this and
we may actually go for actually Bode plot. We may go for the polar plot and see that this is
stable or not. And accordingly, we design the controller and we have a different kind of
controllers.

We can start with the PI controller. They are the PID controller. There are many other form of
controller. Equation 9, the small signal duty cycle of delta 0 to the output y transfer functions are
that is basically you can rewrite it that in terms of the delta and we shall try to find it out whether
the system is stable with this delta and this is basically the same way for the output voltage
versus delta. So this basically help us to choose a feedback, what you want to feed it back.

There is a different actually transfer function. And so designer can choose either one of or two of
it. This transfer functions enable the choice of the feedback loop design of the compensation
network. We shall see just now.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:52)

608
Now what we want basically the system to be stable first of course? And that is what we do. In
the applications of the classical linear feedback which you have studied in your control system to
switching the power converters, so we have while he was telling us the Bode plot, root locus,
polar plot, Nyquist are usually suitable method to assess the transfer function. Now you got a
transfer function and you have a Matlab, so it is very easy to analyze now a days.

The general rules to design the compensation if you are familiar with this basically on the Bode
plot domain, then only it is applied. Otherwise, if you are familiar with the transfer functions of
course, you have better method but we just like to link actually transfer functions and the state
space. Open loop transfer function as follows. The low frequency gain should be high enough to
minimize the output steady state errors, that is the ideal op amp characteristics.

Please recall the ideal op amp characteristics. We have the statement there. The frequency of 0
dB gain or unity gain or actually omega 0dB should be placed close to the maximum allowed by
the modeling approximation that is we have said lambda max should be less than 1 and to allow
the first transient response. So we have same transient condition, overshoots, all those criteria of
the system but all our knowledge was restricted to the second order system.

But here it does not put any limitations of the dimension of the matrix, though we have a second
order system anyway. So this will ensure that the fast response. And if you talk about Bode plot,

609
then gain margin and phase margin will be there. To ensure stability, the phase margin must be
positive.

Otherwise, we have to put a lead lag compensator. And in general, it is greater than 30 degree, 45
to 70 is desirable. Otherwise, what will happen, if it is actually 90, then system is very sluggish.
So we want also the fast response, right. So it has to be greater than 30 and we try to tune it in a
range of the 45 to 70. So that is the task of the compensator.

So once you design and play controller, so you should have the gain margin and phase margin
within these conditions to operate this converter successfully. So the root locus or no poles
should enter into right half of the x plane or if you are taking of the root locus as a tool to
analyze.

To increase stability, the gain should be less than -30 dB at the frequency where the phase
reaches -180 degree or we can say in other words that his gain margin is greater than 30 dB. So
that is something the criteria we should obtain to have a satisfactory operations of this converter,
of any converters. But we have taken an example of a very common topology. So now you see
that how you can do that. Now linear feedback design ensuring the stability.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:10)

So this is basically now when you are in a transfer function domain, you talk about specifically

610
the Bode plot, Nyquist plot, polar plot. These are essentially you have studied into the linear
control system. And essentially this is an average model. And it also works but it has a
limitation. For this reason, we require to switch over to the non-linear control. But let us take all
the juice available with the linear control.

Then only we shall see that, actually we see the limitations of the linear control and go to the
non-linear control. So to guarantee the gain and the phase margin which was the said before, that
should be actually, phase margin should be around 45 to 70 and the gain margin should be 30
dB. The following series compensators, actually compensation transfer function usually
implemented with the op amp or you can now a days, you can do it with the digital domain and
is often used as a lead lag compensator.

What happen actually if you chose an op amp and you set up the circuits and its value is fixed.
But sometimes what happens, if you set by programming and you can dynamically set this gain
margin and phase margin then that has a big advantage. And for this reason, we are gradually
switching to the digital domain. The lag compensation must be used or should be used in the
converter with good stability margin but poor steady state accuracy.

So your steady state error will be there. So please recall your this kind of thing. So it will reach
the stable limit after sometime. Lead compensator can be used in converter with a good steady
state accuracy. So to reach and it will be contained with the, will not be much repel in the DC
output voltage. So what does it physically signify these terms? The lag compensation should be
used in the converter with a good stability margin but poor steady state accuracy.

If load has changed, it will recover it faster. Let us say load has been changed to 1 amp to 2 amp
within a limit ((definitely)) (22:51), then voltage has sacked. But will recover very fast. But this
lead compensation will have, what we will do? Lead compensation will actually recover it
slowly but it will ensure that it is ripple in the DC voltage is within a limit, it is less than the lag
compensator.

So we have to play around it. And see that actually you will have a design specifications, this

611
much of the DC ripple, this much is actually the rise time and this much is actually load change
settling time, all those quantities will be there, accordingly you are required to design it, right. So
ultimately you got basically CLL, that is the output matrix that is KLL1+sTz/1=sTp where Tz
are the poles of this transfer functions and the Tps are the, actually where Tzs are the 0's of the
transfer function and Tps are the poles of the transfer functions and we are getting this.

So we can rewrite KLL Tz/Tps/1/Tz by so, you get, basically you can design the lag lead
compensator like this. Tp and Tz values are chosen to increase the phase margin, faster transient
response and increasing the bandwidth of the system. So this is the way you can actually do the
compensator. Now of course the typical compensator terms in our mind are the PI controller.
Proportional plus integral compensation.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:49)

Proportional-integral compensator are used to guarantee steady state error with acceptable rise
time. The PI compensator are a particular case of lag-lead compensator. Therefore, suitable
converter with good stability margin but poor steady state accuracy can be achieved. So this is
actually PI controller. So 1+sTz/sTp. So you can split it like that and you can rewrite as Kp+Ki/
Ks. Or you can write it this term.

So this is the simple PI controller and which you can easily design by an op amp. So you can
have a proportional controller. So that is basically R1 and that is Rf and thereafter, you will have

612
a capacitor, that will, in a feedback path. So there bandwidth and you have to have a realistic
circuit and this will give you basically the Ti. So accordingly basically you can, this ratio can be
rewrite as 1/Tz, so this ratio can be Tz. And Kp is the gain of Rf+Ri. So this is a very simple way
to design and this compensator can be used.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:30)

Now we have discussed the limitations and if you are working practically, ultimately we think
that PI controller is the panacea that will offers you the solutions. But frankly speaking, no and
tuning of the PI controller is quite tough job. And for this reason, we have different controller
also. Proportional integral plus high frequency pole compensation. So what does it do? The
integral plus 0 pole compensator combines the advantage of the PI controller with the lag lead
compensation.

It can be used in converter with good stability margin but poor steady state accuracy. But steady
state accuracy is given by the PI controller. So this basically are the complementary of each
other. The frequency of 1/TM and 1/Tzs and these are carefully required to be chosen and the
compensations, these will be given into the assignment, please remember that compensation
lowers the loop gain at a high frequency while only slightly lowering the phase to the
achievement is the phase margin.

So this is the linear feedback design using basically PI controller plus pole placement method we

613
say. So it is CILD, so basically what you have, it is the same plus you have placed the pole. So
ultimately, so Tz/pTM, so there will be a little modification. Ultimately it will be a second order
system and this pole will ensure that actually with a good stability and there is low steady state
error. Now there is another linear technique and which is used very frequently.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:54)

These are the proportional integral plus derivative with the plus high frequency pole. One of the
advantage of the derivative controller that it can predict the error because it will actually work on
the derivative of the error. And thus it can take the corrective actions while seeing that actually
rate of change of error. So thus it can act on the slope and correct that actually the, correct it very
faster but there will be a steady state error.

And that required to be eliminated by the PI controller. So most of the switching power
converters, 2 complex 0's are selected to have a damping factor greater than the converter
complex poles and slightly smaller than the oscillating frequency. So you have a combinations of
the LNC and thus you get a natural frequency of oscillations. So what we require to choose? That
this actually the converter complex poles slightly smaller than the oscillating frequencies.

The high frequency pole is placed to achieve the needed phase margin. So it will ensure that the
phase margin you require around 45 degree or something like that. The design is correct if the
complex pole locus, if you have multiple poles then it is loci, is heading to the complex 0 in the

614
system of the root locus. And never enters into the right hand of the x plane. That is actually the
optimality and the very fast design and it approaches the steady state, then it smoothens out.

So it is just like a lift, actually going at a very high speed, then stops jerkless. So you can write,
we have written actually say PID with the pole factor. So ultimately we will have a quite big
term, s square+2zeta omega n, then omega 0 is the natural frequency of oscillation and say
pS*omega 0, so you can calculate and ultimately you will have this term as well as this term.
This term is the PID and this term is essentially is coming from the high frequency pole
placement.

To obtain the overall performance, PID is often inferior than the notch filters. So ultimately you
can actually combine them and ultimately you get this kind of thing and then something it can
have a response of a notch. We shall continue our discussion in our next class and we shall start
from this slide also because this slide require more explanations. Due to lack of time, I have to
stop here. Thank you.

615
 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Lecture – 39
Non Linear Control in Power Electronics

Welcome to our NPTEL courses on advanced power electronics and control, previous class we
have discussed about the linear control, today we have discuss few aspect of the non-linear
control; non-linear control itself is a very vast subject, so actually one of the method of the non-
linear control that is sliding mode control, so you know actually what is non-linear and thus
actually linear; go for the linear control, it is rest merely an approximations.

So, thus of course actually, we required to leave lot of juice behind if you consider only the
linear control.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:10)

And for this reason, as a consequence of the discontinuous control action, indispensable for the
efficiency and the reasons, state trajectory move back and forth in certain average surface of the
state space, so we have discussed about the state space, but there is a some limitations of the state
space, we have not considers, there is actually due to the discontinuous control action because
you know actually with the digital control action, you know or the switching; your switching on
and off, so thus there is a discontinuity in a control action which we have seen.

616
And indispensable for the efficiency reasons because you know we want basically, this term
required to be understood very well because when the switch is on, then actually it is in a short
circuit condition, the loses across the switch is 0 and which the switches is off, then it is open
circuited, no current flows, power losses across the switch is again 0, for this reason, we are
saying that indispensable for the efficiency reasons.

So, it required to increase the efficiency of the overall system, so state trajectory moved back and
forth around the certain average surface because you want to maintain the capacitor voltage at a
certain this level or the inductor current, it is damping on and actually down and it can have an
average value, so that is basically a certain average surface in the state space and the state
variable represent with the ripples.

So, the average value above it, there will be a some ripple that is a way of actually representing a
state space and what we do to here; to avoid the effect of this ripple in the modelling and to apply
linear control methods which we have discussed in our previous class that is time variant linear
control methodologies in time variant system, we propose the average modelling, so average
values of the state space variables and the state space average models are been represented.

But of course you can understood that it is an approximations, it is not at all a proper modelling,
however, a non-linear approach a modelling and the control problem, it takes the advantage of
the inherent ripple and the variable structure behaviour of a switching of the power electronics
converter and for this we have chosen to one of the non-linear control that is sliding mode
control and it has got a huge application in the powers electronics.

Instead of just trying to actually leave out them, so we just omit them as a ripple or we take the
average modelling, instead of that, we can take this uncertainty and thus your model becomes
more close to the real world and would be desirable specially if the enhanced performance could
be attained.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:17)

617
So, in this approach, the switching power converter topologies as discrete non-linear time variant
system are controlled to the switch from one dynamics to the another dynamics whenever
needed, so switch over to the one dynamics state to the another dynamic state, we will say that, if
switching occurs at very fast frequency, theoretically, it is at infinite frequency but we have
practical limitations of the switching.

Switching can takes place in a finite frequencies that is the switching frequency of this actually
the switches, 10 kilo watts, 1 kilo watt whatever may be, the state dynamics can be enforced to
slide along the certain prescribed state space trajectory, we have to force them to go into the
specific way and the converter said to be in a sliding mode, when it is actually fall in this
trajectory and they allowed to deviation from the trajectory as a ripple.

And imposing; imposed by the practical switching frequency, your switching may be a 10 kilo
watts, so there will be a little variation from this trajectory but ultimately, you will go to the that
switching state.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:41)

618
Let us take example of the principle of the sliding mode control, we will consider the same state
space equations, consider the state space switching model of the switching converter subsystem,
input output linearization’s or any other technique to obtain the state space equation. One
equation of the each controllable subsystems were actually consider, y = x, we can write in the
controllable canonical form.

Generally, if you write in the controllable canonical form, if you have; I hope that most of you
have done the control system courses, so this is actually the controllable canonical form and we
will write this matrices by the sub transformation into the controllable canonical form and thus
we can rewrite this equation and we can have a differentiations of it, so x dot or d/dt of actually
xh to xij transpose = basically you can write, xh1 to actually phi h + bhx + ut, where x, this
matrix is a subsystem of the state factor.

Fx and bx are the function of the x and here, we had a state transition matrix A that will be
actually changed here, so you will have this as A, so it represented by the external disturbance
and uht is the control import in the special form of the state space modelling, the states variable
chosen, so that actually in a digital domain, it is actually its next instant, it may be x + i1 and this
variable where it is belong to the; i belong to a set of h to j -1.

619
And the time derivative of xi, we it exist and thus we can rewrite as actually, x = h dot and so on
and where this m is basically j – h.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:01)

Now, we require same way as we have done for the open-loop subsystem, we have a closed loop
sub system, like you know, G a; this is a with unity feedback, so it become Gs/ 1 + Gs something
like that in a linear and here you will see that how we will required to generate a closed loop
dynamics for the subsystems of output vector, y = x and can be chosen from the equation 2 and
by selected the variable ki; the ki is the kth instant.

This is the model reference adaptive control and according to its model, it will adopt, this is the
part of their adaptive control techniques and the control approach to impose a state trajectory that
advantageously reduces a system order that is j – h + 1, so we shall have a proof you know,
actually, we are not going into the detail because of the limitation of the time, so we shall see
that what is the application of the power electronics as soon as possible.

Effectively in a single input, signal output we shall consider that is a SISO system in order to
reduce by this unity, applying the restriction of the this restriction of equation 2 in the multiple
input and the multiple output system which has v- independent restriction could be imposed and
usually have v degree of freedom or n degree of freedom, so we can rewrite this equation like
this for the MIMO system.

620
(Refer Slide Time: 09:51)

Now, in fact as the control action should be enforced the state vector x to follow the reference,
thus the desire vector xr will be actually, xh at dot, triple dot dot dot m of transpose of it, thus the
tracking error will be basically hr - h and x1 – x, where these are the reference and where these
are the actual; so actual minus reference is definitely the error and for the various system, so
automatically you will got an error matrix that is basically xh dot dot xh j – 1 till xj.

Thus, the equations of the subsystems for dx/dt, equation 1 and 2 will actually necessary the
control input u, thus it is control input u can be actually rewritten in the form of this, please refer
to the equation number 1, then only you can correlate, +dx/dt/ bh and thus by substitution you
know of this value you know, you essentially get for this MIMO system, total expression that is
4 and this is your input or the enhanced.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:17)

621
So, in the most switching power converter, this ut basically 1 and 0, basically is discontinuous,
yet if we assume one or more discontinuity, border dividing the state space into the sub space,
the existence of the uniqueness of the solution is guaranteed that it is a mathematical proof is
there, we are not interested to do much mathematics but we just brief it out why this system will
work, uniqueness of the solution guaranteed out of the discontinuity border since in each
subspace, the input is continuous that is the logic of the actually this ut to make the system
stable.

Within the sliding mode, the SMC theory assuming that a certain dynamic error to 0, one
auxiliary equation of the sliding surface and the equivalent control input uht can be obtained by
integrating both side of the equation 3, so thus these should be = 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:31)

622
The equation presents the discontinuity surface or we say that it is a hyperplane and just defines
the necessary sliding surface that is x of it to obtain as prescribing dynamic equation, so we have
to generate a sliding surface and the sliding surface will have the features that S that is function
of xi and t should be summation of ih to j ki xi that summation should be = 0, in fact by taking
the first derivative that is x, xdot should be = 0 and that will ensure the stability, solving it for dx/
dt and substituting the results for equation 4, the dynamic specified by the equation 2 is again
reobtained.

This means that the control problem is reduced to the first order problem, since it is unnecessary
to calculate the one derivative basically, the time derivative of equation 6 to obtain the dynamics
that is S dot and the needed control input ut, so this is the basically you required to calculate the
basically, what should be the ut for this sliding surface and thus it reduces to the first order
system.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:05)

623
The sliding surface as shown in this equation 6, as the dynamics of the converter subsystem must
be Routh-Hurwitz polynomial and verify the sliding manifold variance of condition that is S xi
dot t = 0 and also S dot of function x and t should be = 0, consequently, the closed loop control
systems, this something like the ((lyapunov)) (14:31) characteristics, control system behaves as
the stable system by order j – h, whose dynamics is imposed by the coefficient ki, which can be
chosen by pole placement of the poles of the order that is m that is j - h polynomial.

Alternatively, certain kind of polynomial can be advantageously used such as Butterworth,

Bessel, Chebyshev, ellipticals, binomial and minimal integral of time absolute error product, this
kind of actually expansions of the actually, we have seen the Taylor series, these are the other
method also can be used to describe the function and its first derivative will satisfy this same
condition.

Since you have studied in a Bessel functions, we will consider up here the Bessel function here,
most useful Bessel polynomial is shown in 7, which minimises the system, response time tr
providing no overshoot, the polynomials ITAE shows this equation 8 which minimises this
actually this ITEA criteria for the system with the desired natural frequency of oscillation omega
0 and binomial polynomial Bis shown in equation 9 for system m > 1, IEA polynomial gives
faster response than the binomial polynomials.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:16)

624
So, there are few take as; these are all Bessel polynomials you know if m = 0, we will prefer
basically ITEA and that and will be value will be 1 and if it is m =1, it will be a natural
frequency of oscillation + in ((s-domain)) (16:33), so you are mapping basically the this
polynomial in a typical Laplace format, so same way actually we had a Bessel functions, if m = 0
that leads to , if m = 1, that leads to str + 1, same way actually this is for the ITEA polynomial,
this is a binomial polynomial.

And this is basically with the you can chose a different aspect, if you are comfortable in the
frequency domain analysis, then you can go for the binomial polynomial because it gives you in
terms of the essentially, the natural frequency of oscillations, same way this one is also ITEA is
been prefer and this is basically, the Bessel polynomial, so these are 3, 4 technique to generate
the surface and which one is more suitable for your generally it comes with experience so, either
of it can be chosen.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:31)

625
So, the closed loop control applications, instead of the state valuable xi is worthy to consider a
new state variable, the error exi, component of the error vector, so it will be actually exh t of the
state space variables xi related to the given reference xir, the equation, the new controllability
canonical model is obtained and thus actually, d/dt of this one, it leads to this equation where the
error xi = xir - xi and so on.

So, where fe and pe and be are of the function of error effect e, from this the Routh-Hurwitz
criteria which we have studied in the linear control model that is also applicable finally, the
Routh-Hurwitz polynomial for the new sliding surface will be in this and we should condition
that x = error vector dot t should actually minimise a error 0 for this is in this value is 0, now,
stability, how we will ensure that it will give the stability?

We have stability conditions with a rank of the matrix in the linear form, so what should be the
equivalent here.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:06)

626
Existence condition; existence of the operation in the sliding mode implies that is S the surface,
the error and the time should be = 0, so to stay in this regime, the control system should generate
a start e of t = 0, therefore the semiconductor switching law must ensure the stability condition of
the sliding mode, it is written as S, ex dot should be < 0, this is a stability condition, we have to
show that system is stable.

Fulfilment of this inequality ensures the convergence of the state system trajectory to the sliding
surface, that is S e to the x, error and the t vector = 0, since if S is > 0 and S dot is < 0, then it
will decrease to 0 and if again, S < 0 and S dot is > 0, then also S dot will increase towards 0,
hence equation 12 is verified, then x xdot t converges to 0, this condition 12 is manifold of the
variance conditions or the sliding mode existence condition or sliding mode stability condition.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:02)

627
Now, the equivalent average control you may have a multi input system, multi output system, u
of t that must be applied to the system in order that systems states sliding along the surface that is
u of t is given by this equations and the control input u of t ensures that the converter subsystems
actually operates in a sliding mode and ensures the stability of the system, so this is the one way,
this is the actually the sliding mode.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:42)

Now, what is reaching condition; the fulfilment of this basically, S x dot is < 0 as S x dot =; let
us consider that 1/2 * SS S dot square, so implies that these distance between the subsystems
states and the sliding will tend to 0, since S square x dot t can be considered as a measure for this
distance, so this is the distance, this means that the system will reach to the sliding mode.

628
And in addition from the equation number 10, it can be written as follows that this value that is
differentiation of the error is basically, -fe + pe - be and with that this is the input actually
controllable inputs and it will ensure that from this equation 11, this can be rewritten S as the
surface of the kie xi that is actually kh e xh and so on.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:55)

So, hence a subsystem will reach sliding mode staying there, if U = U equivalent, this same
reason can be made for S function of e and t < 0, it is now being necessary to impose that is –b –
uh of t as +u with U high enough to guarantee that this actually, condition leads to this basically,
dx/dt is > 0 to ensure that the system is always reaches the sliding mode operation, it is necessary
to calculate the minimum value of the eqt and eq max and also impose the reaching condition, U
> eq max.

This means that the power supply voltage values U should be chosen high enough to additionally
to account the maximum effect to the perturbation.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:15)

629
So, what should be the switching law, how will ensure that actually, our converter will be
switching from the foregoing consideration supposing, a system will have a 2 possible structures;
the semiconductor switching strategies ensure that x, x dot should be < 0, therefore if S is > 0,
then S dot should be < 0, which implies as same that is b of error function of Ust should be –U,
these sign we must be known them.

Similarly, this means basically, the switch can be off then, similarly if this is < 0 and then S dot
is > 0, this implies that the switch should be on basically and we should know the basically the
sign of be and assuming that the sign of the be is positive, so you require the U to be positive, if
it is the reverse, then that U sign will change, this imposes that switching between these two
structures and infinite frequency will take over this way.

Since power semiconductor can switch only finite frequency in practice a small error for S will
be allowed were basically the e is basically will be > than the sliding surface and < the positive
sliding surface, hence switching law between this 2 possible system structures might be basically
U/b for xe that is a error > 1, then we have a positive switching and –Ub for St is < that error, so
we have one, let us take an example, when actually decibels voltage is more, then definitely you
will basically switch it off.

630
And one will be require to build up the decibals voltage which should be switching on, so let us
see how does it work practically, so this is also the mathematical part of it and now take a
practical aspect of it.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:52)

Then and now comparing this S, let us have a hysteresis band, this hysteresis band is very narrow
of this actually narrower than 2e, with auxiliary triangle of waveform a, the auxiliary saw tooth
function b and the three level clock is c, or the phase locked loop with the comparator any of it
will walk, this one, this one, this one and hysteresis variable width 2e, however as illustrated in
the 2D, the steady state error will appear.

Because you know you will switch it on and there will be an error so, ultimately this error will
remain and ultimately, this error is going to be accumulated and you will have some amount of
the steady state error.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:41)

631
So, steady state error that is basically nothing but something like proportion control error, steady
state error of the xh variable that is hr – h = E1/kh can be eliminated by increasing the system
order by one, now the new state space controllability of the canonical form considering that error
Exi between the variable and the reference of the state vector is; it will be basically this so, it is
something like equivalent to the pi controller and you integrate it ultimately, you get this results.

Now, new sliding surface will be actually S k0 kx + this submission, this is due to the
integration, so sliding surface will offer 0 state error even if this actually have a some error due
to the hardware error or fixed or limited frequency switching, so this can be eliminated by
integral based sliding surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:51)

632
So, let us take an example first, so this is basically the same circuits and same actually, the
matrices which we will have and now this equation, when we try to control this switching by the
sliding mode control.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:11)

So, ultimately you have a dv/dt and all those things, this model written in two states; v0 and theta
therefore, considering that actually, this is an error vector that is v0 – vr0 and the theta r – theta,
we can rewrite and thus we can have a sliding surface that is = k1 v0r – v0 + this 2 constant and
ultimately you know that this should be = 0, k1 * v0r – v0 k2 * this derivative + switching
should be = 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:48)

633
And from this condition relative, we can say that the sliding surface depends on the variable del t
assuming that ideal up down convertor and a slow variation of the delta t can be a average that is
delta 1 = v0 / this one, ultimately will leads to this equation, this control shows the power supply
of voltage VDC must be measured as well as the output voltage v0 and the current i0 and il, then
only we can generate the sliding surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:27)

And we will ensure that the conditionality of the sliding surface explained and now, we have to
check the conditions of the stability to obtain the switching law, we have to take the derivative of
it and to obtain the switching law from the stability consideration, the time derivative will be

634
basically v0 + VDC/ v0 and it is almost constant, so we can put it that and thus what we can say
is that if the sliding surface is > 0, then S dot must be < 0, must hold.

Analysing this equation 16, we can conclude that if it is > 0, then x dot is negative and only if di/
dt is > 0, then what we can conclude; therefor, for the positive error if v is > 0, the current il must
be increase then, switch should be on < 0 than zero and thus delta t should be = 0 and thus it
should be off and this is the conditions for the switching and we can ensure in case of the sliding
mode surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:47)

So, this is the overall control cycle, this is a VDC, this is basically vdf, this is v0, this is i0 and il,
you will sum it up, there after you will actually put it into the sum of what; you have multiplex,
there after you will generate the function, you have multiplicity of 4, there after you have a
saturation block, then you have actually subtractor, you will check the condition whether which
one is zero, accordingly we will implement.

It can be easily implemented if you wish to have a actually simulation you can easily implement
with the Simulink blocks.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:28)

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So, these are the results, you know I do not go into much explanation, this slide says that
transient response of the sliding mode control of the Buck Boost converter at t = 0.005 and v0 ref
steps from this, then you can see that actually it is rising very fast and top graph reference and
bottom graph actually traces out il and the current will be actually tracing back from this actually
starting from 0 to 10, so these are the actually the results of the sliding mode control.

Now, we have taken one important aspect of the nonlinear control, there are so many non-linear
control and just I show that actually what I; we try to picture it basically that this kind of the
sliding mode control or nonlinear control gives you the better stability and the better transient
response than the linear control. Thank you for your attention, I take the next class that is
basically will be the concluding class and there we will try to sum up the whole courses, thank
you for your attention.

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 Advance Power Electronics and Control
Prof. Avik Bhattacharya
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Lecture - 40
Application and Conclusion

Okay. Welcome to our final lecture of the Advanced Power Electronics and Control. Today we
are going to discuss basically the applications and we shall conclude this course formally. Now,
we had detailed discussions about different kind of topology and we find that actually power
electronics finds its application for the industrial usage. This is basically the switch mode power
supply; mostly it is in DC to DC converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

And this Power Factor Connection Technique it is used in case of the AC to DC conversion. And
Universal Input is used basically also in a industrial applications for the AC to DC or DC to AC
applications. Thereafter, to increase the efficiency of the converter we go for the Soft-Switching
and that leads to the equation in this area also actually the area where lot of people investigate
and contribute and thus increase the more reliable product, more reliable efficiency.

Uninterruptible Power Supplies that is we all our computers are fitted with the UPS and UPS is
one of the major application of the power electronics. Hot-Sync Paralleling also something it is

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been used for the process control and the Motor Drives application, it is a huge application most
80% of the energy consume in basically the Motor Drive applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:09)

Now, let us take a Motor Drive applications, this is essentially a you have a 3-phase systems.
And generally we will find that actually we have seen the rectifier a different kind of rectifier
converters, dual converters and followed by actually inverter this is a incent kind of thing and
from that we have a so many thing that is metric converter, all those topology has been
discussed. So these are basically the derivative from the; this kind of DC to AC conversion
techniques.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:48)

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Now we essentially have typical PC Power Supply that is in UPS or maybe actually you have
huge Data banks and you may have a actually different kind of AC supply, or rectifier, DC to DC
converter and you may have a DC loads and these are maybe the storage element, data storage
element and huge power supply DC supply is require. So this is one of the applications of the
Power Electronics.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:23)

Another application is definitely is that Classic Inverter Scheme with the PWM and from AC to
DC applications and we require a desirable DC thus we go for the direct to indirect AC to; DC to
AC conversion. Now broadly what we have actually fitted in we can categorize application
specific area.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:57)

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These are the renewable energy. Renewable energy actually benefited very much with the
support of the control system and power electronics. With the increasing number of the
renewable energy sources and the distributed generators the new strategies have to be
implemented for the operation and the management of the electric grid. Thus, we have let us say
nowadays actually except I believe the north is whole India is connected by a single grid.

And thus, you know it has got a huge inertia. But our solar inverters has got 0 inertia almost or
very low inertia compare to this actually alternate. So once you incorporate the very low inertia
system with the high inertia system we require to have a grid validity and all those things. So we
require to have proper operations and the management of the electricity grid.

This is one of the challenge is involving. And ultimately we require to provide solution to the
control and the power electronics. Power-supply reliability and quality have to be improved,
because problem of the power quality basically due to the switching of the power electronics
converter and thus power electronics has to clear out the mess and it should clear it out. And
definitely liberalization of the grids leads to the new management structures, because there is a
many stakeholders of a grid.

Because one maybe actually the agent who is selling the actually the renewable energy, one may
be a selling; one maybe a consume; another maybe the protocol monitors there are many

640
stakeholders. And ultimately a grid has to accommodate all of them. Power-electronics
technology plays an important role in distributed generation.

Nowadays the penetration at the renewable energy in a distributed network power electronics
plays a very important role and its role and those actually solar inverters are essentially a bulk of
the power electronic device. It helps to integration of the renewable energy source with the
electric grid fast evolution due to development of the semiconductor switches and introduction of
the real-time controller.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:32)

It is the application to the current technology and the future trend in the variable-speed or wind
also has to be featured in. Power-conditioning systems are used in grid-connected PV. Research
and the development trends are going on with the energy-storage systems. Because one of the
problem like countries like India that actually pick power problem, because have a pick shortage,
but unfortunately average power in most of the India is more than that.

So for this reason actually we require to have a actually efficient storage element to actually shift
the pick of the system. Wind-turbine technology, the turbine market has been growing over the
30% over a year worldwide as well as India. It plays a important role in electricity generations.
This technology is widely used in Germany and Spain. And the rate of penetration in India is
also coming high.

641
(Refer Slide Time: 07:33)

The Variable-speed technology that is 5% increased in efficiency is quite possible because of the
Soft-Switching and the other power and power devices. Easy control of the active and reactive
powerful because we may have actually the fax devices that can control basically the flow of
reactive power and real power through the transmission line, so this facts ensure that easy control
of the active and the reactive power flow.

And where, Rotors acts a flywheel as a storage energy and it has no flickers problem but it has a
higher cost and most of the power electronics part actually constitutes actually 70% of the below
material.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:30)

642
So this is the typical example of the Wind-turbine. You know, actually it is basically fitted to the
gearbox and you will have a double effect induction machine where you will feed from the Stator
as well as Rotor and thus you have a; you may actually feed is rotate, evap the synchronous
speed then both Stator and Rotor actually fix power to the grid and if it is below the synchronic
speed generally power is taken to the rotor by the rotor and ultimately you get the difference of
the power from the Stator into the grid.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:07)

So this is the overall diagram of it. So this is you can see that there is a gearbox that it fits the
power to the stator as well as the rotor so this is a rotor-side converter as well as the stator side

643
converter. This is basically the stator side converter and this is a rotor side converter. It can inject
power or it can actually take away power.

It can inject the power into the rotor in a subsequent speed and it can actually take out the power
for the ((above base)) (09:38) speed and this is the function of the dual converter. So this is
called double affect induction motor for actually or DFIG in case of the wind challenging
application. So converter feeds to the rotor winding.

Stator winding connected really to the great and what happen basically more and more advantage
of this topology is that since it seems only the rating of the rotor and thus its rating is quite low;
converter rating is quite low, small converter and thus price of this converter also low and we can
effectively control the power through this small converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:22)

Another example maybe actually Simplified semi-variable speed turbine. So we may have
actually Rotor resistance of the squirrel cage generator varied instantly using the fast power
electronics control and there basically the resistances can be controlled by this fire electric circuit
but since you are actually increasing this resistance losses so previous one is more suitable for
the wind energy application.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:57)

644
This is decoupled from the grid. And we may have; this is basically used for t he permanent
magnet synchronies generator and or we may have a Gearbox also. You state the power from the
grid from the stator and there the rectifier state because if may generate the voltage at any
frequency which may not be suitable for practical applications, ultimately you have AC to DC
application followed by DC to AC application.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:32)

And thereafter, anther application is definitely the system as a alternate energy sources and
complimentary energy resources in hybrid system. So this will ensure Power electronic ensure
that it is a highly reliable system and at a reasonable cost because you know we require to get a

645
power from the solar and the rate of this actually the fossil fuels, so for this reason actually cost
has to be the reason and we require to put it in some places where solar is available.

And for this reason there is a challenge of put it to because if you are actually taking lent for
putting the solar plate then actually ((habitat suffers)) (12:16). So for this reason we have a, we
should user-friendly design to incorporate it.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:26)

So this is the example of the Solar Photovoltaic technology. So there will be there it will have a
DC to AC conversion; this is a point of common coupling; this is and this is the filter that will
actually filter out the high frequency ripple and ultimately current can once actually will see that
actually this grid power can be synchronize with the solar power, we close that switch and then
power is transmitted.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:57)

646
Solar-electric-energy has a few features of the solar market and for this reason we require huge
demand for the solar inverters and thus the power electronic engineers. The solar-electric-energy
growth is constantly 20-25% per annum, over past 20 years we have seen.

Especially, now European union has saturated now it is turns to the actually the developing
country like India, Bangladesh and all those countries to actually catch up and we should harvest
as much as power for the solar. There is a increasing efficiency of the solar cell also, this is
actually going on and ultimately we get a solar cell as a high efficiency. Manufacturing
technology is improving nowadays. Economies of scale is also increasing very fast.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

647
It implements actually IGBT technology because it is in a level actually 10 to 100 kilovolt.
Inverter must be able to detect the sliding; islanding that is one of the features that is require
otherwise actually user can get a shock because what happen you know grid is removed that due
to the presence of the inductor capacitance there might be oscillation set into this actually great
and ultimately solar inverter try to pump the energy in the open heat.

And ultimately you know that when it is open circuit then wave will be reflected back and may
damage the inverter as well operator who is thought that actually grid is off. And for this reason
actually we require to detect the islanding and will be stop walking the solar energy for the
purpose of this actually maintenance situation and take the appropriate measures in order to
protect them protect persons and equipment ((that’s what the reasons are)) (14:43). So previous
cells connected to the grid and previous cells isolated power supplies can be given.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

So you know actually little bit of the power electronics where it is actually featured in. Now total
economy worldwide economy and may chunk now actually this is the US data of course Indian
data are not available but can dig it out and find it out actually the practical later. So total
electronics market is about actually 1,000 billion that is a quite few chunk of money, and
hardware electronic is basically you know is about 570 billion.

648
And unfortunately you can see that this has a very low component of it and we expect that huge
catch up on this portion of it. So power electronic is an enabling technology and components is
just you know 30 billion. So there is a huge gap in between this hardware electronics and the
power electronics.

And we believe that soon this gap will be merge and more contribution previous decade actually
decade of the communication so we had a mobile communications has been followed and this is
the power of the communication electronic believe that strongly that power electronics will
actually contribute in a coming decade.

We have efficiency now because of approaching around 100% using the Soft-Switching and uses
a switches statured mode on or off, constant resistance can be known to the tenths of Ohms and
are much smaller than the predecessors. High switching frequency means smaller magnetic
component and with the invention of the actually SIC and the Gallium Arsenide Devices we can
actually manufacture it for the higher frequency as well as high power densities.

It reduces the losses and winds actually smaller package and size and that is very much suitable
for the Avionics industry but they can cut down the operating cost if we can manage to reduce
the weight of the flying object. The net effect is actually better efficiency, greater power density
and now actually we are looking for actually 5 Watt per spark courage is attainable.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:29)

649
So now actually let us talk about the growth of the power electronics. The technology boom of
the semi-conductor markets create power devices with the significant power handling and the
switching split capability. This is for the ICs as well as. Expanding the market demand for a new
power electronics application that require the use of the variable drive regulated power supply
robotics, uninterruptible power supplies etcetera.

The ever increasing demand for the small size and the lighter weight power electronic systems,
so that system become compact and high power density. As a results of this increasing reliance
on power electronic systems made it mandatory that all such systems have radiated or conducted
the magnetic interference that is the problem on EMI/EMC and that may lead to this basically the
communication error and we require to suppress that, so with the limited regulated ranges.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:42)

650
So, what are the objectives of this power electronics converter, overall go to produce converter
that performs well in the areas actually should have a high efficiency. Very transient response,
very fast and load and line regulation, very high power density, very low input and output
distortion that in power factor as well as THD, very high reliability or in terms of you define the
reliability in terms of mean breakdown time, so that is basically you know it is just like half life
create of the devices and we try to increase and enhance that MTBF.

So that actually so many devices can last long. For example, you know if you have transformer
placed in front of you that can be as old as 40 years, so can we have a power electronics of that
kind of reliability, so that is the challenge that, that actually present engineers are facing. And we
can replace then this actually bulky transformer with the solid state transformer.

And of course actually we are facing a cathode competition and thus we require to reduce the
cost and that becomes actually affordable to the many of the masses. So in the final analysis the
job to process and control the flow of electric energy by supplying current and voltage in a form
most suited to both the load and the energy source. This is basically the; we want something
from this power electronics. So this is the; and how you have done it we try to explain over on
our classes. Now what is the feature trend of the power electronics?
(Refer Slide Time: 20:50)

651
And so continue with the technological development of high power and the high frequency
semiconductor device like GAN devices or SIC devices. We shall try to improve the energy
density with the increasing efficiency and performance. Improvement in the design of the driver
circuit for the switching devices that is DSP based driver or APJ based driver may be featured in.
Improvement in the control techniques including adapt non-linear control, adaptive control,
sliding more control or any other modern predictive control can be used to enhance the
performance of the power electronics or the electronic system.

Integration of the power electronics and control circuit in a single IC, so this is the area of the
embedded system, we are trying to do that and this definitely Distributed Power Systems is a
area that is revolving and it has got a really lot challenges. Previously, you know we had only
consumer that nowadays actually the consumer can be a producer.

So this change of this actually the criterion and that leads to the lot of control of the grid in
locally and thus we have a distributed power system. And also power electronics posses lot of
threats because of the DC to AC rectification and all those things. Power factor correction
techniques has been actually required to be incorporated, power factor as well as THD
minimization. And also we require to actually reduce the problem of the Electromagnetic
Interference and Variations.

652
A new factor transmission concepts and also evolved with the fax devices. So these are actually
feature trend of the power electronics that we require to talk about. Thank you for your attention.
I hope that you find this course to be suitable for your practical applications. Students preparing
for actually competitive exam like GATE and other and will find this courses is very useful,
apart from the practice in engineering industry also find this course to be very useful.

We will free to write in the forum and we should be in a touch also in a interactive sessions. We
are looking forward for a excellent course. Again, thanks for your support of team NPTEL.
Thank you.

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