STA 434: SURVEY RESEARCH

METHODS

By

Eliud Kayo
 LESSON 2

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Cont’d

Step 2: Reviewing the Literature

Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution
to every operational step. This is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself
with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest.

Disadvantages of Literature Review

i. It can be time-consuming at times
ii. It is a daunting task when there is so much done about your area of in interest
iii. It is frustrating when there is little or no study done about your area of interest.

Key Functions of Literature Review

i) Brings clarity and focus to your research problem
ii) Improves your methodology;
iii) Broadens your knowledge;
iv) Contextualizes the author’s findings.

a) Brings clarity and focus to the research problem

The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better
and thus helps you to conceptualize your research problem clearly and precisely. It also
helps you to understand the relationship between your research problem and the body
of knowledge in the area.
 b) Improves your methodology
Literature review tells you if previous studies used procedures and methods similar to
the ones that you are proposing to use. It also enables you to know which procedures
and methods have worked well for them, and what problems were faced when those
procedures were used. One is therefore better positioned to select a methodology that
is capable of providing valid answer to your research questions.

c) Broadens the author’s knowledge base in their research area

Literature review ensures one reads widely around the subject area in which they intend
to conduct their research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of
study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how the findings
of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

d) Enable you Contextualize your findings

Thorough literature review puts you in a better position to respond to pertinent such as:
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found?
What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge?
How are your findings different from those of others? It is therefore important to place
your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.

Procedure for reviewing the literature

Literature review is a process that entails four key steps as highlighted below.
i) Carry out exhaustive search for existing literature in your area of study;
ii) Critically review the literature selected;
iii) Develop a theoretical framework;
iv) Develop a conceptual framework.
i) Searching for existing literature
To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have n
mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in
order to set parameters for your search. The next step is to compile a bibliography for this
broad area. Key sources for your bibliography include:
➢ Books
➢ Journals

Books - Comprises a central part of any bibliography. Search for books in your area
of interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other
sources. Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your topic,
delete it from your reading list.

Advantage: Material published generally is of good quality and the findings are
integrated with other research to form a coherent body of knowledge.

Disadvantage: Material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between
the completion of a work and publication in the form of a book.

Journals – Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though
there may be a gap of a few months or a year between the completion of a research
project and the publication in a journal. As with books, you need to prepare a list of
journals for identifying literature relevant to your study. This can be done through the
following ways:

• Locating hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;
• Using the internet to access the identified journals
 • Looking up the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and
read the articles.
Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more
detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to
see if there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular
article is of relevance to you, read its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it,
photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.

ii) Reviewing the literature selected

After identifying books and journal articles that are useful, the next step is to start reading
them critically to pool together themes and issues that are associated.
If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate
sheets of paper for each article or book.
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed
into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework.
As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme
so far developed. You may need to add more themes as you go.
Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:
• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed
beyond doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain
the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.
iii) Developing a theoretical framework

As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in
relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic.
As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that
have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for
developing your theoretical framework.
Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you
have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
o Universal/general information;
o Specific information i.e. local trends or program

In reviewing such studies, you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing
down to the specific, i.e. Review literature about global studies, then Africa, East
Africa/regional, Kenya, then narrow down to a specific delimitation.

iv) Writing up the reviewed literature

In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. providing theoretical
background to your study:
• List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.
• Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of
the theme in question, and follow a logical progression.
• Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in
question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and
identify gaps and issues.

In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualizing the
findings of your study:
 • Systematically compare your findings with those made by others.
• Cite from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them.
It places your findings in the context of what others have found out. This function is
undertaken when writing a report about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data.
• Then prepare a bibliography with clear and complete description of the sources that
were used while preparing the report.

Step 3: Formulating the Objectives:

Objectives are goals one sets out to attain/achieve in a given study. They normally inform
the reader what the author wants to attain through the study. It is extremely important that
objectives are clearly and specifically worded to avoid any ambiguities and confusion.

Objectives should be listed under two headings:

a) Main objective (aim of the study);

b) Specific/sub objectives.
• The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a
statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or
establish.
• The specific objectives are the particular aspects of the topic that you want to
investigate within the main framework of your study. They should be:
▪ Numerically listed
▪ Clear and complete wording to communicate to the readers on the specific
intention of the author.
▪ Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
 ▪ Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing objectives. The objectives
should start with words such as ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to
measure’, ‘to explore’ etc.

The wording of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive, correlational and
experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them. e.g.

Characteristics of Objectives

As earlier indicated, the objectives of a research study should have the following
characteristics:
i) Clear
ii) Complete
iii) Specific
iv) Be able to identify the main variables to be correlated
v) Be able to establish the direction of the relationship

However, it is important to note that different types of research study may portray different
characteristics. i.e.

• Descriptive Research = Clear +Complete +Specific

• Correlational Research (Experimental & Non-experimental) = Clear + Complete +
Specific + Identify main variable + Establish direction of the relationship
• Hypothesis testing Research/Study = Clear + Complete + Specific + Identify main
variable + Establish direction of the relationship

Identifying Variables
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalized in
measurable terms so that the extent of variations in respondents’ understanding is reduced if
not eliminated.
Techniques about how to operationalize concepts, and knowledge about variables, play an
important role in reducing this variability. Their knowledge, therefore is important in ‘fine
tuning’ your research problem.
For example:
• ‘Kenya Airways’ is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
• Food in this restaurant is excellent.
• The middle class in India is getting more prosperous.

When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria
in their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and
express that opinion.

These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This warrants the use
of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge about
variables plays an important role.

Definition of a variable:
A variable is an image, perception or concept that can be measured. It has the capability to
take on different values, hence the term variable.

Concepts, indicators and variables

If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its operationalization- that is,
how it will be measured. For this, you need to identify indicators- a set of criteria reflective
of the concept-which can then be converted into variables.
The choice of indicators for a concept might vary with researchers, but those selected must
have a logical link with the concept.

Concepts ------>Indicators--------->Variables
Differences between a concept and a variable

Concept Variable
Subjective impression Measurable though the degree of
precision varies from scale to scale and
variable to variable
No uniformity as to its understanding Example:
among different people Gender, weight, height, religion,
income, etc.
Cannot be measured
Example:
Excellent, rich, satisfaction, domestic
violence, etc.

Constructing hypotheses
As a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do have a hunch to
form the basis of certain assumption or guesses. You test these by collecting
information that will enable you to conclude if your hunch was right.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your hunch may prove
to be: right; partially right; or wrong.
Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude anything about the validity
of your assumption.
Hence, a hypothesis is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a
phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know.
A researcher calls these assumptions/hunches hypotheses and they become the basis of
an enquiry.
In most studies the hypotheses will be based upon your own or someone else’s
observation.
 Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem, but are not
essential for a study. You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing formal
hypotheses.

Functions of hypotheses
• The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
• A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby
providing focus to the study.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a
study.

A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It enables you to
specifically conclude what is true or what is false.
Reference:

1. Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBS

Publishers’Distributors

2. Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques, New Delhi,

Wiley Eastern Limited.

3.Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners,

(2ndEd.), Singapore: Pearson Education.