Course Title: Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory

Credit: 1.5

SI. No. Name of Experiment Remarks

1 Oscilloscope Fundamentals.
2 Study of diode Half-wave rectifier circuit.
3 Study of diode Full-wave rectifier circuits.
4 Study of Zener Diode.
5 Study of BJT fixed and self biasing circuits.
6 Study of BJT voltage divider biasing circuit.
7 Study of Common Emitter amplifier circuit.
8 Study of Common Collector amplifier circuit.
9 Study of Darlington amplifier circuit using BJT.
10 Study of Class A power amplifier circuit using BJT.
11 Study of Class B Complementary Symmetry Power Amplifier using
BJT.
12 Study of single stage common source FET amplifier.

Expt. No.: 01
Name of the Experiment: Oscilloscope Fundamentals.

Introduction: The word “Oscilloscope” can be separated into two parts “oscillo” and “scope”; the first is short
for “oscillations” and the second means “to view or see”. The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device
- it draws a graph of an electrical signal. In most applications the graph shows how signals change over time: the
vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the horizontal (X) axis represents time. The intensity or brightness of the
display is sometimes called the Z axis.

An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits because it allows us to
see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of investigating an electronic system is to monitor
signals at the input and output of each system block, checking that each block is operating as expected and is
correctly linked to the next.

Oscilloscopes are used by everyone from television repair technicians to physicists. They are
indispensable for anyone designing or repairing electronic equipment. The usefulness of an oscilloscope is not
limited to the world of electronics. With the proper transducer, an oscilloscope can measure all kinds of
phenomena. A transducer is a device that creates an electrical signal in response to physical stimuli, such as sound,
mechanical stress, pressure, light, or heat. For example, a microphone is a transducer. An automotive engineer
uses an oscilloscope to measure engine vibrations. A medical researcher uses an oscilloscope to measure brain
waves. The possibilities are endless.

Scientific Data Gathered by an Oscilloscope (in Diagram)

Oscilloscope Front Panel:

The diagram shows an oscilloscope, it may look different but will have similar controls. Faced
with an instrument like this, we typically respond either by twiddling every knob and pressing every
button in sight, or by adopting a glazed expression. Neither approach is especially helpful. Following the
systematic description below will give us a clear idea of what an oscilloscope is and what it can do.
 The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple: it draws a V/t graph, a graph of voltage
against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal or X-axis.

Take a look at the oscilloscope display. Notice the grid markings on the screen - these markings create the
graticule. Each vertical and horizontal line constitutes a major division. The graticule is usually laid out in an 8-
by-10 division pattern. Labeling on the oscilloscope controls (such as volts/div and sec/div) always refers to major
divisions. The tick marks on the center horizontal and vertical graticule lines are called minor divisions.

Many oscilloscopes display on the screen how many volts each vertical division represents and
how many seconds each horizontal division represents. Many oscilloscopes also have 0%, 10%, 90%,
and 100% markings on the graticule to help make rise time measurements

An Oscilloscope Graticule

Setting the Controls:

After plugging in the oscilloscope, take a look at the front panel. It is divided into three main sections
labeled Vertical, Horizontal, and Trigger. Oscilloscope may have other sections, depending on the model and type
(analog or digital).

Notice the input connectors on oscilloscope. This is where probes are attached. Oscilloscopes
have at least two input channels and each channel can display a waveform on the screen. Multiple
channels are handy for comparing waveforms.
 Some oscilloscopes have an AUTOSET or PRESET button that sets up the controls in one step
to accommodate a signal. If oscilloscope does not have this feature, it is helpful to set the controls to
standard positions before taking measurements.
Standard positions include the following:

• Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1

• Set the volts/division scale to a mid-range position
• Turn off the variable volts/division
• Turn off all magnification settings
• Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC
• Set the trigger mode to auto
• Set the trigger source to channel 1
• Turn trigger holdoff to minimum or off
• Set the intensity control to a nominal viewing level
• Adjust the focus control for a sharp display

These are general instructions for setting up the oscilloscope.

Y-POS and X-POS Setting:

Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be displayed.
Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is possible using the X-
POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal trace is a straight line across
the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the
whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective display of signals like pulse waveforms which
do not alternate between positive and negative values.

This is useful when we want to use the grid in front of the screen to make measurements, for
example, to measure the period of a waveform.

INTENSITY and FOCUS Setting:

When these are correctly set, the spot will be reasonably bright but not glaring, and as sharply
focused as possible. (The TR control is screwdriver adjusted. It is only needed if the spot moves at an
angle rather than horizontally across the screen with no signal connected.)

The TIME/DIV Setting:

The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be adjusted, using
the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen into squares
allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV,
ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or
µs/cm.
The VOLTS/DIV Setting:
The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of the V/t
graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV control, so that the
resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can be seen clearly. The vertical
scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.

The oscilloscope has a built in source of signals which allow us to check that the oscilloscope is working
properly.

Invert:
When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is turned upside down, or
inverted, on the oscilloscope screen.

This feature is sometimes useful when comparing signals.

DC/AC/GND slide switches:

In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly to the Y-amplifier of the
corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a capacitor is connected into the signal
pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only changing AC signals are displayed.

In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This allows us to check
the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen. The DC position of these switches is correct for most
signals.

Trace selection switches:

The settings of these switches control which traces appear on the oscilloscope screen.
 Settings highlighted in yellow are used frequently. Experience with the oscilloscope will help us
to decide which setting is best for a particular application.

XY Mode:
Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel signal along the X-axis (instead of
time). This is called XY mode

Alternate and Chop Display:

On analog scopes, multiple channels are displayed using either an alternate or chop mode. (Digital
oscilloscopes do not normally use chop or alternate mode.)

Alternate mode draws each channel alternately - the oscilloscope completes one sweep on channel
1, then one sweep on channel 2, a second sweep on channel 1, and so on. Use this mode with medium-
to high-speed signals, when the sec/div scale is set to 0.5 ms or faster.
Chop mode causes the oscilloscope to draw small parts of each signal by switching back and forth
between them.

Multi-Channel Display Modes

Add Operation:
Oscilloscope may also have operations to add waveforms together, creating a new waveform display.
Analog oscilloscopes combine the signals while digital oscilloscopes mathematically create new waveforms.
Subtracting waveforms is another math operation. Subtraction with analog oscilloscopes is possible by using the
channel invert function on one signal and then use the add operation. Digital oscilloscopes typically have a
subtraction operation available. Following Figure illustrates a third waveform created by adding two different
signals together.

Adding Channels

Compensating the Probe:

Before using a probe, it should be compensated - to balance its electrical properties to a particular
oscilloscope. Most oscilloscopes have a square wave reference signal available at a terminal on the front
panel used to compensate the probe. The probe can be compensated by:
 • Attaching the probe to an input connector
• Connecting the probe tip to the probe compensation signal
• Attaching the ground clip of the probe to ground
• Viewing the square wave reference signal
• Making the proper adjustments on the probe so that the corners of the square wave are square

Basic Block Diagram of Oscilloscope:

When we connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the voltage signal travels through the probe to the
vertical system of the oscilloscope. Following Figure is a simple block diagram that shows how an oscilloscope
displays a measured signal.

Depending on the vertical scale setting (volts/div control), an attenuator reduces the signal voltage
or an amplifier increases the signal voltage.
Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
Voltage applied to these deflection plates causes a glowing dot to move. (An electron beam hitting
phosphor inside the CRT creates the glowing dot.) A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a
negative voltage causes the dot to move down.
 The signal also travels to the trigger system to start or trigger a "horizontal sweep." Horizontal
sweep is a term referring to the action of the horizontal system causing the glowing dot to move across
the screen. Triggering the horizontal system causes the horizontal time base to move the glowing dot
across the screen from left to right within a specific time interval. Many sweeps in rapid sequence cause
the movement of the glowing dot to blend into a solid line. At higher speeds, the dot may sweep across
the screen up to 500,000 times each second.
Together, the horizontal sweeping action and the vertical deflection action trace a graph of the
signal on the screen. The trigger is necessary to stabilize a repeating signal.
In conclusion, to use an oscilloscope, we need to adjust three basic settings to accommodate an
incoming signal:

• The attenuation or amplification of the signal. Use the volts/div control to adjust the amplitude of the
signal before it is applied to the vertical deflection plates.
• The time base. Use the sec/div control to set the amount of time per division represented horizontally
across the screen.
• The triggering of the oscilloscope. Use the trigger level to stabilize a repeating signal, as well as triggering
on a single event.

Also, adjusting the focus and intensity controls enables you to create a sharp, visible display.

Measurements with Oscilloscope:

Voltage Measurements
Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two points in a circuit. Usually one
of these points is ground (zero volts) but not always. Voltages can also be measured from peak-to-peak - from the
maximum point of a signal to its minimum point.

The oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device. Once the voltage is measured, other
quantities are just a calculation away. For example, Ohm's law states that voltage between two points in
a circuit equals the current times the resistance. From any two of these quantities we can calculate the
third. Another handy formula is the power law: the power of a DC signal equals the voltage times the
current. Calculations are more complicated for AC signals, but the point here is that measuring the
voltage is the first step towards calculating other quantities.

Following figure shows the voltage of one peak - V[p] - and the peak-to-peak voltage - V[p-p] -,
which is usually twice V[p]. Use the RMS (root-mean-square) voltage - V[RMS] - to calculate the power
of an AC signal.

Voltage Peak and Peak-to-peak Voltage

The voltage is measured by counting the number of divisions a waveform spans on the
oscilloscope's vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to cover most of the screen vertically, then taking the
measurement along the center vertical graticule line having the smaller divisions makes for the best
voltage measurements. The more screen area is used, the more accurately data can be read from the
screen.
 Measure Voltage on the Center Vertical Graticule Line
Many oscilloscopes have on-screen cursors that can be used take waveform measurements automatically
on-screen, without having to count graticule marks. Basically, cursors are two horizontal lines for voltage
measurements and two vertical lines for time measurements that we can move around the screen. A readout shows
the voltage or time at their positions.

Time and Frequency Measurements

We can take time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope. Time measurements include
measuring the period, pulse width, and timing of pulses. Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so once we
know the period, the frequency is one divided by the period. Like voltage measurements, time measurements are
more accurate when we adjust the portion of the signal to be measured to cover a large area of the screen. Taking
time measurement along the center horizontal graticule line, having smaller divisions, makes for the best time
measurements.

Pulse and Rise Time Measurements

In many applications, the details of a pulse's shape are important. Pulses can become distorted and cause
a digital circuit to malfunction, and the timing of pulses in a pulse train is often significant.

Standard pulse measurements are pulse width and pulse rise time. Rise time is the amount of time
a pulse takes to go from the low to high voltage. By convention, the rise time is measured from 10% to
90% of the full voltage of the pulse. This eliminates any irregularities at the pulse's transition corners.
This also explains why most oscilloscopes have 10% and 90% markings on their screen. Pulse width is
the amount of time the pulse takes to go from low to high and back to low again. By convention, the
pulse width is measured at 50% of full voltage. See Figure below for these measurement points.

Rise Time and Pulse Width Measurement Points

Pulse measurements often require fine-tuning the triggering. To become an expert at capturing
pulses, we should learn how to use trigger holdoff and how to set the digital oscilloscope to capture
pretrigger data, as described earlier in the Controls section. Horizontal magnification is another useful
feature for measuring pulses.

Measure Time on the Center Horizontal Graticule Line

Phase Shift Measurements
The horizontal control section may have an XY mode that display an input signal rather than the time base
on the horizontal axis. (On some digital oscilloscopes this is a display mode setting.) This mode of operation opens
up a whole new area of phase shift measurement techniques.

The phase of a wave is the amount of time that passes from the beginning of a cycle to the
beginning of the next cycle, measured in degrees. Phase shift describes the difference in timing between
two otherwise identical periodic signals.
One method for measuring phase shift is to use XY mode. This involves inputting one signal into
the vertical system as usual and then another signal into the horizontal system. (This method only works
if both signals are sine waves.) This set up is called an XY measurement because both the X and Y axis
are tracing voltages. The waveform resulting from this arrangement is called a Lissajous pattern (named
for French physicist Jules Antoine Lissajous and pronounced LEE-sa-zhoo). From the shape of the
Lissajous pattern, we can tell the phase difference between the two signals. We can also tell their
frequency ratio. Figure shows below Lissajous patterns for various frequency ratios and phase shifts.

Lissajous Patterns

Expt. No.: 02
Name of the experiment: Study of diode Half-Wave rectifier circuit.

Introduction: A rectifier converts an AC signal into a DC signal. From the characteristic curve of a diode we
observe that it allows the current to flow when it is in the forward bias only. In the reverse bias it remains open.
So, when an alternating voltage is applied across a diode it allows only the half cycle (positive half depending on
orientation of diode in the circuit) during its forward bias condition, other half cycle will be clipped off. In the
output the load will get DC signal.

Diode rectifier can be categorized in two major types. They are-

a) Half-wave rectifier.
b) Full-wave rectifier.

Half-wave rectifier: Half-wave rectifier circuit can be built by using a single diode. The circuit diagram and
the wave shape of the input and output voltage of half wave rectifier are shown below:
D
VS

t
+
VS
RL VO VO

Figure 1: Half wave rectifier

In this circuit the load receives approximately half of the input power, Average dc voltage is low, Due
to the presence of ripple output voltage is not smooth one.
Equipment:
1. Diode (1 piece)
2. Signal generator (1 piece)
3. Resistor (10K) (1 piece)
4. Capacitor (0.22 F, 10 F) (1 piece each)
5. Oscilloscope chord (2 pieces)
6. Oscilloscope (1 piece)

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit in breadboard as shown in Fig: 1 without capacitor.

2. Observe the output and input voltages in oscilloscope and draw them.
3. Connect the 0.22 F capacitor and repeat step 2.
4. Connect the 10 F capacitor and repeat step 2. How does the output wave-shape differ from that in step 3?
5. Vary the frequency from 10 kHz to 100 Hz. What effect do you observe when frequency is changed?

PSPICE simulation:

* HALF WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

V_app 1 0 sin(0 12 1) ; APPLIED SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE

D_1 1 2 D1n4003 ; THE DIODE MODEL
R_1 2 0 2K
.lib nom.lib ;THE LIBRARY FILES USED TO OBTAIN
THE REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR DIODE
MODEL
.tran 1ns 2s ; THE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
.probe ;THE PROBE ANALYSIS USED IN VIEWING
GRAPHICAL RESULT
.end

Input

Output

Fig: Input, output wave-shapes of a Half wave Rectifier

Report:

1. Write the answers that were asked during the working procedure.
2. Draw the input wave, output wave (without and with capacitor) for both the circuits.
3. What is the frequency of the output of the circuit shown in Fig: 2.
4. What is the function of capacitor in the both circuits? Why a capacitor of higher value is preferable?
Expt. No.: 03
Name of the experiment: Study of diode Full-Wave rectifier circuits.
Introduction: A rectifier converts an AC signal into a DC signal. From the characteristic curve of a diode we
observe that it allows the current to flow when it is in the forward bias only. In the reverse bias it remains open.
So, when an alternating voltage is applied across a diode it allows only the half cycle (positive half depending on
orientation of diode in the circuit) during its forward bias condition, other half cycle will be clipped off. In the
output the load will get DC signal.

Diode rectifier can be categorized in two major types. They are-

a) Half-wave rectifier.
b) Full-wave rectifier.
Full-wave rectifier: In the full-wave rectifier both the half cycle is present in the output. Two circuits are used
as full-wave rectifiers are shown below:

a) Full-wave rectifier using center-tapped transformer and

b) Full-wave bridge rectifier.
Using a center-tapped transformer: Two diodes will be connected to the ends of the transformer and
the load will be between the diode and the center tap. The circuit diagram and the wave shapes are shown
in figure 2:
D
1
VS

t
VS 12 v RL
220 v
VO
12 v VO +
D2 t

Figure 2: Full wave rectifier using center tapped transformer

This circuit has some advantages over the first one:
Wastage of power is less,
Average DC output increase significantly,
Wave shape becomes smoother.
Disadvantages are:
Require more space and becomes bulky because of the transformer.

Bridge rectifier: a bridge rectifier overcomes all disadvantages described above.

VS

t
VS RL

VO
VO +

Figure 3: Bridge rectifier

A rectifier however cannot produce a smooth dc voltage. It produces some ripple in the output. This
ripple can be reduced using filter capacitor across the load.

Equipment:

1. Diodes (4 pieces)
2. Signal generator (1 piece)
3. Resistor (10K) (1 piece)
4. Capacitor (0.22 F, 10 F) (1 piece each)
5. Oscilloscope chord (2 pieces)
6. Oscilloscope (1 piece)
 Circuit diagram:
RED

10K
10V(p-p)
1kHz

BLACK
Procedure: Fig: 2

1. Connect the circuit in breadboard as shown in Fig: 2 without capacitor.

2. Observe the output and input voltages in oscilloscope and draw them.
3. Connect the 0.22 F capacitor and repeat step 2. How does the output wave-shape differ from
that in step 3?
4. Connect the 10 F capacitor and repeat step 2. Observe the wave-shapes.
5. Vary the frequency from 10 kHz to 100 Hz. Observe the wave-shapes. What effect do you
observe when frequency is changed?

PSPICE simulation:

* FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

V_app 1 0 sin(0 12 1)

D_1 1 2 D1n4003
D_2 3 1 D1n4003
D_3 3 0 D1n4003

D_4 0 2 D1n4003

R_1 2 3 2K

.lib nom.lib
.tran 1ns 2s
.probe
.end

Input

Output

Fig: Input, Output wave-shape of full wave rectifier

Report:

5. Write the answers that were asked during the working procedure.
6. Draw the input wave, output wave (without and with capacitor) for both the circuits.
7. What is the frequency of the output of the circuit shown in Fig: 2.
8. What is the function of capacitor in the both circuits? Why a capacitor of higher value is preferable?
Questions:

1. What is meant by rectifier?

2. Which type of transformer is used for the rectifier input?
3. Define ripple factor.
4. Write the efficiency of this rectifier.

Expt. No.: 04
Name of the experiment: Study of Zener Diode.
Introduction: The diodes we have studied before do not operate in the breakdown region because this
may damage them. A Zener diode is different; it is a silicon diode that the manufacturer has optimized
for operation in the breakdown region. It is used to build voltage regulator circuits that hold the load
voltage almost constant despite large change in line voltage and load resistance. Figure shows the symbol
of the Zener diode.

Fig: symbol of Zener diode

I-V characteristic curve:

The Zener diode may have a breakdown voltage from about 2 to 200 V. These diodes can operate in any
of the three regions: forward, leakage and breakdown. Figure shows the I-V graph of Zener diode.
• In the forward region it works as an ordinary diode.
• In the leakage region (between zero and breakdown) it has only a small reverse
saturation current.
• In the breakdown it has a sharp knee, followed by an almost vertical increase in current
without changing the voltage.
• The voltage is almost constant, approximately equal to Vz over most of the breakdown
region.

Approximation
First approximation: As the voltage remains constant across the Zener though the current changes
through it, it is considered as a constant voltage source according to the first approximation.

= Vz
Second approximation:

A Zener resistance is in series with an ideal voltage sources is approximated.

R z

V z

Equipments:

1. Zener diode (5 volt)

2. Resistance (220 Ω, 470 Ω, 1 kΩ)
3. POT 10 kΩ
4. DC Power supply
5. Trainer board
6. Multimeter.

Experimantal Setup:

470 470

VR
Vr

V Vz V VL
10k

220
Ftg1: Circuit diagram 1 Ftg1: Circuit diagram 2

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 1.

2. Vary the supply voltage from zero volts, complete Table1.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 2.
4. Keep the POT at maximum position and power up the ckt. Apply 10 volts as V.
5. Gradually decrease the POT resistance and complete the Table 2.
6. Replace load with 1 kΩ resistance, vary the supply voltage and take reading for Table3.

Table 1: Data for I-V characteristics

V (Volt) VR (Volt) Vz (Volt) Iz=VR/R1 (mA)

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
 Table 2: Data for regulation Table 3: Data for regulation due
to supply voltage
due to load variation

V220 (mv) VL (Volt) IL(Amp) V (volts) VL (Volt)

5.0
6.0
…
12.0

Report:

1. Plot the I-V characteristics of the Zener diode. Determine the Zener breakdown voltage from the plot.
2. Plot IL vs VL for the data of table-2, find the voltage regulation.
3. Plot VLvs V for the data of table 3. Find the voltage regulation.

Expt. No.: 05
Name of the experiment: Study of BJT fixed and self biasing circuits.
Objective: The objective of this experiment is to establish the proper operating point and to study the stability of
the operating point with respect to changing β in different biasing circuits

Apparatus:
1) Transistors (Q).
2) Trainer Board.
3) Resistors.
4) Power supply.
5) Multimeter.
6) Potentiometer.
Circuit Diagrams:

Fixed bias circuits Voltage divider bias

List of Components:

Transistors: BD 135 (NPN), C828 (NPN)

Vcc = +15V (DC)
RB = 500K (Variable)
R =22K (Fixed)
RC =470 Ω (Fixed)
RB1= 10K (Fixed)
RE = 560 Ω (Fixed)

BD135: It is a silicon NPN transistor in Jedec SOT-32 plastic package, designed for audio amplifiers and drivers
utilizing complementary or quasi complementary circuits.

C828: It is also a silicon epitaxial planar NPN transistor, designed for small signal amplifiers.

Procedure:

1. Measure the value of RC by using multimeter and record.

2. Measure the value of β for each transistor by using multimeter.
3. Construct the fixed bias circuit with transistors as shown in fig. 1(a).
4. Adjust 500K potentiometer until VCE is approximately equal to VCC/2.
5. Measure VCE, VBE and VRC then calculate IC from VRC and RC. Also calculate IB from IC.
6. Now replace the first transistor by second one (Different β) and repeat the step 5.
7. Construct the fixed bias circuit shown in fig. 1 (b) and repeat step 4, 5, 6.
8. Construct the self bias circuit shown in fig. 2 (a) and repeat step 4, 5, 6.
9. Construct the self bias circuit shown in fig. 2 (b) and repeat step 4, 5, 6.
Put all of the measured and calculated data into the following table.
Experimental Data:

β VCE VBE VRC IC IB

Fig. 1 (a)
% of Change.
Fig. 2 (a)
% of Change.
Fig. 1 (b)
% of Change.
Fig. 2 (b)
% of Change.

Questions:
1. Why biasing is necessary?
2. Compare the circuits of Fig. 1(a) and 1(b) with respect to stability against variation in β.
3. Compare the circuits of Fig. 2(a) and 2(b) with respect to stability against variation in β.
4. Compare the stability of fixed bias circuits with that of self bias circuits.
5. What is DC load line and Q-point?
6. What do you mean by stability?

Expt. No.: 06
Name of the experiment: Study of BJT amplifier using voltage divider bias.

Introduction: This type of biasing is otherwise called Emitter Biasing. The necessary biasing is provided using
3 resistors: R1, R2 and Re. The resistors R1 and R2 act as a potential divider and give a fixed voltage to the base.
If the collector current increases due to change in temperature or change in β, the emitter current Ie also increases
and the voltage drop across Re increases, reducing the voltage difference between the base and the emitter. Due to
reduction in Vbe, base current Ib and hence collector current Ic also reduces. This reduction in Vbe, base current Ib
and hence collector current Ic also reduces. This reduction in the collector current compensates for the original
change in Ic.
The stability factor S= (1+β) * ((1/ (1+β)). To have better stability, we must keep Rb/Re as small as possible. Hence
the value of R1 R2 must be small. If the ratio Rb/Re is kept fixed, S increases with β.
The stability factor S= (1+β) * ((1/ (1+β)). To have better stability, we must keep Rb/Re as small as possible. Hence
the value of R1 R2 must be small. If the ratio Rb/Re is kept fixed, S increases with β.
Rin = β * Re
Gain = β * Re/Rin

Objective: To construct a voltage divider bias amplifier circuit and measure input resistance and gain and
also to plot the dc collector current as a function of collector resistance.

List of Components:
S.No. Name Range Quantity
1. Transistor BC 107 1
2. Resistor 56kΩ,12kΩ,2.2kΩ,470Ω 1,1,1,1
3. Capacitor 0.1µF, 47µF 2, 1
4. Function Generator (0-3)MHz 1
5. CRO 30MHz 1
6. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
7. Bread Board 1
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1: Voltage divider bias circuit.

MODEL GRAPH

f1 f2 f (Hz)
Fig. 2
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the input resistance as Rin=Vin/Iin (with output open) and gain by plotting the frequency
response.
3. Compare the theoretical values with the practical values.
4. Plot the dc collector current as a function of the collector resistance (ie) plot of Vcc and Ic for various
values of Re.

Experimental Data: Keep the input voltage constant.

Vin =

Frequency Output Voltage Gain= 20 log(Vo/Vin)

(Hz) (volts) (dB)

Result: Thus the voltage divider bias amplifier circuit was constructed and input resistance and gain were
determined.

Questions:

1. Why the stability of voltage divider bias circuit is more than other bias circuits?
Expt. No.: 07
Name of the experiment: Study of Common Emitter amplifier Circuit.

Introduction: When the output is taken from the collector terminal and input signal is applied to the base of the
transistor then the network is referred to common emitter. The CE amplifier can be designed to provide substantial
voltage and current gains, it has an input resistance of moderate value, and it has a high output resistance.

Objective: The objective of this experiment is to study of a common emitter amplifier and determine the frequency
response.

List of Components:

1) Transistors: C828 (NPN)

2) Trainer Board.
3) Resistors: R1 = 30K (Fixed), R2”= 10K (Variable), R2’ =4.75K (Fixed)
Re = 560 (Fixed), Rc = 470(Fixed)
4) Power supply: Vcc
5) Multimeter.
6) Potentiometer.
7) Capacitors: Ce = 10 F, Co = 47 F, Ci = 10 F

Circuit Diagram:

V cc = 15 v

Rc
R1
Co

Ci Vo

Ri
V in R 2"

Ce
Re
R 2'

Fig.1: Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit.

Fig. 2: Pin Configuration of C828

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit with transistors as shown in fig.1.

2. Adjust R2” potentiometer until VCE is approximately equal to VCC/2.
 3. From the function generator set the Vi at 10 mV (Sine wave).
4. Measure the output voltage by changing the input signal frequency from 10 Hz to higher frequency.
5. Calculate the gain and convert it into dB according to the given formula for each reading.
6. Plot the gain at different frequencies in the semi-log paper (gain in linear scale and frequency in
logarithmic scale).
7. Determine the lower and upper cut off frequency from the frequency vs gain curve.
8. Set the oscilloscope in dual mode and observe the phase relationship of Vo and Vi
9. Connect the 10K potentiometer from Vo to ground, adjust the 10K potentiometer until Vo is half of
the open circuit value then measure the value of output impedance from the potentiometer.

Experimental Data:

Vo Av
A = dB = 20 lo
Frequency Vo v Avmid g
Vi Avmid

Report:

1. Calculate the value of output and input resistances using the relations Rout = Rc, and Rinput = R1 R2 re.
2. Why we use semi-log paper for frequency vs gain plot?
3. Why we used capacitors Ci, Co and Ce in this circuit?
4. Compare the common emitter amplifier circuit with common collector amplifier circuit according to their
response.

Expt. No.: 08
Name of the experiment: Study of Common Collector amplifier Circuit.

Introduction: The d.c biasing in common collector is provided by R1, R2 and RE .The load resistance is
capacitor coupled to the emitter terminal of the transistor.

When a signal is applied to the base of the transistor,VB is increased and decreased as the signal goes
positive and negative, respectively. Considering VBE is constant the variation in the VB appears at the
emitter and emitter voltage VE will vary same as base voltage VB . Since the emitter is output terminal, it
can be noted that the output voltage from a common collector circuit is the same as its input voltage.
Hence the common collector circuit is also known as an emitter follower.

Objective: To construct a common collector amplifier circuit and to plot the frequency response
characteristics.

List of Components:
S.No. Name Range Quantity
1. Transistor BC 107 1
2. Resistor 15kΩ,10kΩ,680Ω,6kΩ 1,1,1,1
3. Capacitor 0.1µF, 47µF 2, 1
4. Function Generator (0-3)MHz 1
5. CRO 30MHz 1
6. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
7. Bread Board 1
Circuit Diagram:

Model Graph

f1 FIG..2 f2 f (Hz)

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set Vi =50 mv, using the signal generator.
3. Keeping the input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 0 Hz to 1MHz in regular steps and note
down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Plot the graph; Gain (dB) vs Frequency (Hz).

Experimental Data: Keep the input voltage constant.

Vin =

Frequency Output Voltage Gain= 20 log(Vo/Vin)

(Hz) (volts) (dB)

Result: Thus, the Common collector amplifier was constructed and the frequency response curve is
plotted.

Questions:

1. Why the common collector amplifier is also called as an emitter follower?

2. What is the need for coupling capacitors?
 3. What will be the input &output impedance of common collector amplifier?
4. Write some applications of common collector amplifier?
5. What is the current amplification factor of common collector amplifier?

Expt. No.: 09
Name of the experiment: Study of Darlington amplifier circuit using BJT.

Introduction: In Darlington connection of transistors, emitter of the first transistor is directly connected
to the base of the second transistor. Because of direct coupling dc output current of the first stage is
(1+hfe )Ib1. If Darlington connection for n transitor is considered, then due to direct coupling the dc
output current foe last stage is (1+hfe ) n times Ib1. Due to very large amplification factor even two stage
Darlington connection has large output current and output stage may have to be a power stage. As the
power amplifiers are not used in the amplifier circuits it is not possible to use more than two transistors
in the Darlington connection.

In Darlington transistor connection, the leakage current of the first transistor is amplified by the second
transistor and overall leakage current may be high, which is not desired.

Objective: To construct a Darlington current amplifier circuit and to plot the frequency response
characteristics.

List of Components:

S.No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistor BC 107 1
2. Resistor 15kΩ,10kΩ,680Ω,6kΩ 1,1,1,1
3. Capacitor 0.1µF, 47µF 2, 1
4. Function Generator (0-3)MHz 1
5. CRO 30MHz 1
6. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
7. Bread Board 1

Circuit Diagram:

MODEL GRAPH
 f1 FIG..2 f2 f (Hz)

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set Vi =50 mv, using the signal generator.
3. Keeping the input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 0 Hz to 1M Hz in regular steps and note
down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Plot the graph; Gain (dB) vs Frequency(Hz).
5. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

Experimental Data: Keep the input voltage constant.

Vin =

Frequency Output Voltage Gain= 20 log(Vo/Vin)

(Hz) (volts) (dB)

Result: Thus, the Darlington current amplifier was constructed and the frequency response curve is
plotted.

Questions:

1. What is meant by darlington pair?

2. How many transistors are used to construct a darlington amplifier circuit?
3. What is the advantage of Darlington amplifier circuit?
4. Write some applications of Darlington amplifier.

Expt. No.: 10
Name of the experiment: Study of Class A power amplifier circuit using BJT.

Introduction: The power amplifier is said to be Class A amplifier if the Q point and the input signal are
selected such that the output signal is obtained for a full input signal cycle.

For all values of input signal, the transistor remains in the active region and never enters into cut-off or
saturation region. When an a.c signal is applied, the collector voltage varies sinusoidally hence the collector
current also varies sinusoidally. The collector current flows for 3600 (full cycle) of the input signal. i e the angle
of the collector current flow is 3600 .

Maximum power transfer =Po,max=Vo2/RL

Effeciency, η = Po,max/Pc
Objective: To construct a Class A power amplifier and observe the waveform and to compute maximum
output power and efficiency.

List of Components:

Sl. No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistor CL100, BC558 1,1
2. Resistor 47kΩ,33Ω,220Ω, 2,1
3. Capacitor 47 µF 2
4. Signal Generator (0-3)MHz 1
5. CRO 30MHz 1
6. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
7. Bread Board 1

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Vi =50 mv, using the signal generator.
3. Keeping the input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 1M Hz in regular steps and
note down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Plot the graph; Gain (dB) vs Frequency (Hz).

Experimental Data: Keep the input voltage constant.

Vin =

Frequency Output Voltage Gain= 20 log(Vo/Vin)

(Hz) (volts) (dB)

Result: Thus the Class A power amplifier was constructed. The following parameters were calculated:
 Maximum output power =
Efficiency =

Questions:
1. What is meant by Power Amplifier?
2. What is the maximum efficiency in class –A amplifier?
3. What are the disadvantages of Class –A amplifier?
4. Write some applications of Power amplifier.
5. What is the position of Q-point in Class –A amplifier?

Expt. No.: 11
Name of the experiment: Study of Class B Complementary Symmetry Power
Amplifier using BJT.

Introduction: A power amplifier is said to be Class B amplifier if the Q-point and the input signal are
selected such that the output signal is obtained only for one half cycle for a full input cycle. The Q-point
is selected on the x-axis. Hence, the transistor remains in the active region only for the positive half of
the input signal.

There are two types of Class B power amplifiers: Push Pull amplifier and complementary symmetry
amplifier. In the complementary symmetry amplifier, one n-p-n and another p-n-p transistor is used.
The matched pair of transistor is used in the common collector configuration. In the positive half cycle
of the input signal, the n-p-n transistor is driven into active region and starts conducting and in negative
half cycle, the p-n-p transistor is driven into conduction. However there is a period between the crossing
of the half cycles of the input signals, for which none of the transistor is active and output, is zero.

Hence the nature of the output signal gets distorted and no longer remains the same as the input. This
distortion is called cross-over distortion. Due to this distortion, each transistor conducts for less than half
cycle rather than the complete half cycle. To overcome this distortion, we add 2 diodes to provide a fixed
bias and eliminate cross-over distortion.

Objective: To construct a Class B complementary symmetry power amplifier and observe the waveforms
with and without cross-over distortion and to compute maximum output power and efficiency.

List of Components:

S.No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistor CL100, BC558 1,1
2. Resistor 4.7kΩ,15kΩ 2,1
3. Capacitor 100µF 2
4. Diode IN4007 2
5. Signal Generator (0-3)MHz 1
6. CRO 30MHz 1
7. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
8. Bread Board 1
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram without diodes.
2. Observe the waveforms and note the amplitude and time period of the input signal and distorted
waveforms.
3. Connections are made with diodes.
4. Observe the waveforms and note the amplitude and time period of the input signal and output signal.
5. Draw the waveforms for the readings.
6. Calculate the maximum output power and efficiency.

Observation:

For output signal,

Amplitude =
Time period =

Calculations:

Power, Pin = 2VCC Im/л

Output power, Pout = VmIm/2
Efficiency, η = ( 𝜋/4)( Vm/ VCC) x100

Result: Thus the Class B complementary symmetry power amplifier was constructed to observe cross-
over distortion and the circuit was modified to avoid the distortion. The following parameters were
calculated:

Maximum output power =

Efficiency =

Expt. No.: 12
Name of the experiment: Study of single stage common source FET amplifier.

Introduction: A JFET can be N-channel type or P-channel type. The structure of a P-channel JFET
is similar to that of an N-channel JFET. Except that in its structure, N-type is replaced by P-type and
P-type by N-type. The structure of an N-channel JFET is a bar of N-type silicon. This bar behaves like
a resistor between its two terminals, called source and drain. We introduce heavily doped P-type
region on either side of bar. These P-regions are called gates. Usually two gates are connected
together. This gate is used to control current flow from source to drain. This flow of electrons makes
 the drain current Id. The electrons in the bar pass through the space between the two P-regions. As
width of this space between the p-regions can be controlled by varying gate voltage that is called a
channel. We apply a small reverse bias to the gate. Because of the reverse bias, the width of depletion
increases. Since the N-type bar is lightly doped compared to the P-regions, the depletions region
extends more into the N-type bar. This reduced the width of the channel. Reduction in the width of
the channel (the conductive portion of the bar) increases its resistance. This reduces the drain current
Id. There is one important point about the channel shape. It is narrower at the drain end. This happens
because the amount of reverse bias is not same throughout the length of the P-N junction. When
current flows through the bar, a potential drop occurs across its length. As a result the reverse bias
between the gate and the drain end of the bar is more than that between the gate and the source end of
the bar. The width of depletion region is more at the drain end than at the source end. As a result, the
channel becomes narrower at the drain end. If the reverse gate bias is increased further, the channel
becomes narrower at the drain end and drain current further reduces. If the reverse bias is made
sufficiently large, the depletion region will extend into channel. This pinches off all current flow. The
gate-source voltage at which pinch-off occurs is called PINCH-OFF voltage Vp.

Objective: To plot of gain in db Vs frequency, measure of bandwidth, input impedance, maximum

signal handling capacity (MSHC) of an amplifier.

List of Components:

1. CRO
2. Signal generator
3. Power Supply
4. Bread-board
5. Resistors( 1MΩ, 4.7kΩ, 1kΩ )
6. Capacitors(10µF,100MF)
7. FET-BFW10
8. Connecting wires
Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1: Single stage RC coupled FET amplifier

 Fig. 2: Frequency response

Procedure:

(1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

(2) Apply Vi = 10 mv and VDD = +20 v.
(3) Now vary the frequency of the input signal and measure the corresponding amplitude
variation in output at different values frequency.
(4) Note down the readings and plot the graph between gain and frequency. This curve is known
as frequency response curve.

Experimental Data:

Sl. No. Input Input Output Gain

voltage
Frequency voltage (db)
(Vi)
(Fi) (Vo)

Result:

Thus plot a graph between gain and frequency to obtain a frequency response curve. The values of fL
and fH from graph are given as
FH =

FL =

BW = FH – FL