GEOGRAPHY NOTES IGCSE

2021-22
THEME 1→ POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT
1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Migration
1.3 Population structure
1.4 Population density and distribution
1.5 Settlements (rural and urban) and service provision
1.6 Urban settlements

THEME 2→ THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Earthquakes and Volcanoes
2.2 Rivers
2.3 Coasts
2.4 Weather
2.5 Climate and Natural Vegetation

THEME 3→ ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Development
3.2 Food Production
3.3 Industry
3.4 Tourism
3.5 Energy
3.6 Water
3.7 Environmental Risks of Economic Development

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THEME 1→ POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT
1.1 POPULATION DYNAMICS

Global population:
- 7 billion people in whole world
- World’s population has grown exponentially- rate of growth increases rapidly-
referred as population explosion

Demographers= people who study human population

Reasons for rapid increase in world's population:

- Fall in death rates
- Increase in life expectancy
- Advances in medicine (vaccines, medicines..)

OVER-POPULATION & UNDER-POPULATION

Optimum population: when population and resources are perfectly matched

Over-population: when number of people living in an area greater than resources and
technology available to make sure that all people have decent standard living
Under-population: When number of people living in an area is less than needed to make full
use of available resources. Resources go to waste as there are too many.
Carrying capacity: amount of ppl that resources of country can support→ can change with
improvement in tech

Causes of overpopulation: Causes of underpopulation:

- Flat land- good for farming + building - Landlocked
- Access to coast- trade, fishing, travel - Low BR/ High DR/ Low LE
routes - Strict inmmigration policies
- Fertile soil/good quality- good for crops - Harsh climate - unpleasant + unsuitable
- Mild climate- perfect for farming, pleasant for farming
to live in - Mountainous terrain + poor soil - hard to
- High birth rate (lack of access to live one and to build on
contraception, no family planning..) - Far from essential resources.e.g water
- High immigration rate - Poor soil - unsuitable for farming
- Low death rate/ high life expectancy

Consequences of overpopulation: Consequences of underpopulation:

- Lots of pollution: air pollution and GHG - Brain drain- skilled workers move
emissions- impacts global warming- elsewhere leaving older pop. behind
impacts local ppl e.g respiratory issues - Not enough workers to exploit resources
- Congestion- traffic - Lack of tourism- no income
- Deforestation+desertification- due to - Small market for goods and services
overfarming and overgrazing - Low value of exports a they don’t export
- Less housing available- prices tend to rise as much
due to demand→shantytowns - Because of remoteness - lack of services

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 - Food shortages+lack of water supplies→
famine and less crops producing
- Lack of employment
- Health care- public services overwhelmed
due to number of people

POPULATION CHANGE
Population change is governed by fertility, mortality and migration

Birth rate: The annual numbers of births per 1000 people

Death rate: The annual number of deaths per 100 people

Natural change: The difference between the birth rate and death rate - always expressed as
a percentage.
→If the difference between BR and DR is positive it means that the population is increasing,
if the difference between the BR and the DR negative it means that the population is
decreasing.

FORMULA: (birth rate- death rate)/10

Natural increase:when birth rate exceeds death rate

Natural decrease: when death rate exceeds birth rate

What is HIV and AIDS?

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
Virus that attacks the immune system- body's natural defence against illness and disease.
AIDS→ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
Condition where you are so weak and your natural defences are so affected that you can’t
fight common illnesses such as simple cold. (The step after HIV)

How is HIV transmitted?

- From mother to baby
- No protection, when having sexual intercorse
- By blood
- Using an infected syringe/needle
- Breastmilk
- Vaginal fluids

HIV Globally:
- 36.9 million people are living with HIV globally, 25% don’t know it yet
- East and Southern Africa is a region, where 19.6 million people of its population have
HIV
- Decrease in number of new infections across global population each year since
2010, has decreased 26%

Increasing mortality due to HIV/AIDS

Mortality rate rises due to HIV. However, globally, deaths of HIV/AIDS are falling.

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Eastern and Southern Africa remained the regions most affected.
Factors linked to such a high incidence include:
- High levels of other sexually transmitted infections
- The low status of women
- Sexual violence
- High mobility, which is mainly linked to migratory labour systems
- Ineffective leadership during a critical period

The Demographic Transition Model

Helps explain causes of a change in population size

All developed countries: Stage 4 or 5
Most developing countries: Stage 3
Poorest countries: Stage 2
NIC: some entered Stage 4 (South Korea or Taiwan)

Stage I: The Highest Stationary Stage

- Birth rate high and stable (lack of contraceptives+family planning, families need
children to maintain. Religious values strong-promote large families)
- Death rate is high and fluctuating (famine, diseases and war. No medical
advancements-healthcare is very poor)
- Population growth is very slow and there may be periods of decline
E.g Tropical rainforest tribes - LDCs

Stage II: The Early Expanding Stage

- Birth rate high and stable
- Death rates fall rapidly (improvement in medical care, sanitation and food quality)
- Rate of natural change increases to a peak at end of this stage
E.g Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia - LDCS and LEDCs

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Stage III: The Late Expanding Stage
- Birth rates start to decrease (more knowledge about use of contraceptives)
- Lower level of mortality (less infant mortality→ improvement in medical care)
- More women join the workforce, no longer have much time to have children.
E,g India,Brazil - NICs

Stage IV: The Low Stationary Stage

- BR and DR both low- natural increase stable/ slowly increase
- Materialism (money over children preferred)
- Later + fewer marriages→ later childbirth when less fertile

Stage V: The Natural Decrease Stage

- Birth rate has fallen below death rate
- Population is ageing as less children are being born and less people are dying. This
is because of good health care, reliable food supply, medical advancements, later
marriages…..
E.g Germany,Japan,Russia - MEDCs

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1.2 MIGRATION

Migration→ the movement of people

Immigration: the act of coming to live permanently in another country. The movement of
people into a country
Emigration: to leave one country or region to settle in another. The movement of people out
of a country
Voluntary migration: a movement undertaken through choice, likely for economic reasons
Involuntary/forced migration: people are made to move against their will
Asylum seeker: refugee but asked permission to stay in another country
Refugee: a person who leaves their country of origin in fear of their lives, often with no
permission to stay in another country

Reasons for population migration/causes

Pull factors Push factors

- Good job prospects - Poor employment opportunities

- High wages - Low income
- Improved housing - Housing shortages
- Tolerance - Intolerance
- High standards of living - Social upheaval
- Attractive environment - Natural disasters
- A wide range of amenities - Adverse climatic conditions
- Stable government - War/conflicts
- Better treatment of disease - High taxes
- Security- low crime - Government policy- persecution- corruption
- Lower tax - Rural primary economy
- Urbanised

Impacts of international migration

Impact on countries of Impact on countries of Impact on immigrants

origin destination

Positive: Positive: Positive:

- Remittances are a major -Increase availability of labour, -Wages are higher than in country
source of income in some reduce the cost of labour to of origin
countries business and help reduce inflation
-Wider choice of job opportunities
-Emigration can ease the levels -Increase cultural diversity can
of under/unemployment enrich receiving communities -Greater opportunity to develop
new skills
-Reduces pressure on health -Young immigrants reduce the
and education services and on rate of ageing population -Ability to support family members
housing in their country of origin→
-Migrants may bring important remittances
-Return migrants can bring new skills to destination
skills, ideas and money into a -Learn new language

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community

Negative: Negative: Negative:

-Loss of young adult workers -Larger population might have -Financial cost of migration tends to
who may have vital skills (“brain larger impact on environment be high
drain”)
-Migrants may be perceived as -Migration means separation from
-Ageing population in taking jobs from people in family and friends in origin country
communities with large outflow long-established populations
of (young) migrants -May be problems settling into a
-Increased pressure in housing new culture (assimilation)
-Agriculture output may suffer if stock and on services such as
the labour force falls below a health and education -Migrants may be exploited by
certain levels unscrupulous employers
-A change in ethnic balance of a
country may cause tension

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1.3 POPULATION STRUCTURE
Population pyramids: a diagram showing population structure
Population structure: a description of the sex and age composition of country’s population

SPINNING TOP/BULGE
- High br→ Franco no contraception: when he dies BR
lowers
- High DR
- Baby boom
- Ageing pop meaning high life expectancy
- Narrow base- low BR
- Wide economically active population
- Wide middle
Future for Spain: very wide top→ high inverted pyramid, high dependency ratio, less ppl
working

CYLINDRICAL SHAPE
- Very developed
- Wide top= low DR
- Balanced fairly well
- Baby boom after WW1/2
- More proportional
- Similar width throughout

TRADITIONAL PYRAMID
- Low level of development
- Narrow top: high DR→ low life expectancy
- Youthful population
- High DR/BR
- Big strain for government→ high dependency→ hard and
difficult to maintain
- Grandparents are rare

NARROW PYRAMID SHAPE

- Slightly wider top=higher life expectancy
- Narrower base= lowering BR
- More developed than Uganda
- Less BR than in Uganda narrow base shows this

Dependants: people who are too young or too old to work those who rely on
the working population for support

The Dependency Ratio

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Which countries have a high dependency ratio?
Japan had the highest dependency ratio with the population either aged 0-14 years or 65
years and older being 67.4 % of the population of those aged 15 to 64.

Why is a dependent population a problem? What does it lead to?

A higher dependency ratio is likely to reduce productivity growth. A growth in the
non-productive population will diminish productive capacity. The dependent population tend
to be bigger recipients of government funding , for education, healthcare and public
pensions.
Could lead to:
- Not enough education→ shortage of services, materials, teachers in schools
- Big amount of children unable to attend school as they have to work to support their
families
- Poor sanitation due to the lack of money→ overcrowding and such poor sanitation
can Lead to the spreading of diseases
- Lack of income means deforestation- some decide to cut trees to make furniture,
housing etc and then sell to earn money

1.4 POPULATION DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION

Population distribution: pattern/the way in which the population is spread out
Population density: the average people per km sq

Dense: high no. of people per km sq (densely populated)

Sparse: few people per km sq (sparsely populated)

Why are some places more densely populated than others?

Sparse:
- Low accessibility- remote, challenging terrain (mountains, rainforests, deserts)
- Extreme climate- high/low temps, weather hazards eg snow storms (desert, cold
desert)
- Difficult to build on- mountains (steep slopes)/ deserts (not firm grounds)
- Low soil fertility- low farming potential
- Dense vegetation- rainforests
- Natural hazards-volcanoes

Dense:
- Mild climate: few weather hazards, farming, pleasant to live in
- Easy to access: close to other countries, mid country
- Flat land-easy to build on+farm
- Coastal location-trade+transport, raw materials
- Access to natural resources eg rivers, fresh water

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1.5 SETTLEMENT AND SERVICE PRODUCTION

PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENT
Dispersed: when farms or houses are set among their fields or spread
along roads, taher than on one point- doesn’t follow an obvious pattern
Linear: when buildings form a straight line along road/river/transport
route
Nucleated: houses and buildings tightly clustered around central
features e.g. church, village green or cross roads

SITE AND SITUATION

Site: the original “starting point” of a settlement- before its developed and built on
Settlement: the generic term given to a cluster of residencies where groups of ppl live

Facts to consider when choosing site:

- River/water source→ necessary for drinking, cooking, food supply and transport
- Flat land→ easy to build on
- Highland→ advantage point - easy to defend - nice views- high enough not to flood
- Fuel nearby (wood)
- Climate + fertile land: mild,wet→ pleasant to live in, great for farming
- Good accessibility→ trade and commerce- near ports, main roads…
- Shelter from the elements (wind,rain..)
Best aspect is Northern Hemisphere, best location to live in, generally good

FUNCTION OF SETTLEMENT
Function of settlement: to describe all the main activities that occur in it.

Grouped under a number of headings:

Residential- where people live in
Recreational- leisure
Retail- shops and commerce
Entertainment- clubs,cinemas
Industrial- business factories
One single location can have several of these!

DEFINITIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SETTLEMENT FUNCTIONS:

Market towns- Settlements where agricultural products were originally sold
Mining towns- Settlements which grew up to house workers for mining operations
Industrial towns- Settlements in which raw materials are made into manufactured products
Ports- Settlements which are located in coastlines and rivers,where gods and people are
transported from and to
Commercial centres- Settlements that deal in commerce- provide according to needs of
business and industry
Residential- Settlements in which the majority of residents live but do not work
Tourist resort- Settlements which people visit to exploit leisure and tourist facilities

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SETTLEMENT HIERARCHY
Key terms:
A settlement hierarchy: The arrangement of settlements in an
order of importance.
Conurbation: A predominantly urban region including adjacent
towns and suburbs;a metropolitan area.
Hamlet: A small village, often only including a handful of houses

The order of settlements within the settlement hierarchy is

usually based on one of the following:
• Size of the settlement in terms of its area and population.
• Range and number of services/functions within each settlement.
• On the relative sphere of influence of each settlement.

Sphere of influence→ area served by a particular settlement

Hamlets and villages, low sphere of influence
Large towns and cities, large sphere of influence

The size of the sphere of influence depends on:

•Type/ number of service
•Size of town
•Ease of access related to the available transport networks serving the area. E.g airports,
train stations, ports..

The larger the settlement the greater the sphere of influence as a wider range of services
and functions that attract ppl to go there.

High order goods: usually expensive products that people buy only occasionally, usually
located in larger towns. People will travel far to buy this. They often compare prices to get
the best offer e.g. television, luxury brand products, furniture, computers
Medium order goods: goods people buy less frequently, perhaps on a fortnight to monthly
basis e.g. shoes and clothes. Middle order services are services people use less
frequently e.g. banks or building society.
Low order goods: goods people buy on regular basis such as milk, bread and newspapers.
Low order services are services people use on a regular basis e.g. supermarket

Villages- fewer services→ low order

Cities- lots of services→ all type of goods

Range of good: distance that ppl are prepared to travel to use service or obtain a good
LOW ORDER=LOW RANGE
HIGH ORDER= HIGH RANGE
E.g. hypermarkets and electronics have greater range than milk

Threshold population→ The number of potential customers a shop/service needs in order

to be profitable
Low order goods need lower threshold population- goods+services are used daily. High
order goods need higher threshold population- are not bought as often

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1.6 URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Urban land use→ the activities such as industry, housing and commerce that may be found
in towns and cities

LAND USE MODELS OF URBAN SETTLEMENT IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

(MEDCS)
Land use models are theories which attempt to explain the layout of urban areas. There are
two main land use models that apply to urban areas in MEDCs (More Economically
Developed Countries).

Burgess Model (the concentric model)

The land in urban areas is used for many different purposes:

• Leisure and recreation - may include open land, e.g. parks or built facilities such as sports
centres.
• Residential - the building of houses and flats
• Transport - road and rail networks, stations and airports
• Business and commerce - the building of offices, shops and banks
• Industry - factories, warehouses and small production centres

AREAS:
The Central Business District (CBD) is where most of the commercial activity is found.
Most accessible (to public transport), located in centre and has the highest land values. It
tends to have high-rise buildings owing to the high demand for land, but shortage of space.
E.g. La Puerta del Sol.
Some features:
- High/multi-storey buildings, as land very expensive
- Multi-storey car parks
- Lots of stations
- Pedestrian precincts
- Lots of shops and businesses

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Inner cities are characterised by poor-quality terraced housing with old manufacturing
industries nearby. (Factory workers). Might contain cinemas, bowling alleys,shopping
centres, sports centres.

Next to the CBD, mainly terraced houses in grid-like pattern. Run down terraced housing is
often bought by investors and improved to appeal to young professionals who need access
to the CBD-gentrification

Suburbs: Outer part of an urban area. The residential area of the city→ contain parks,
libraries, sports centres. Larger than inner city terraces, usually have a garden detached or
semi-detached and the roads around them are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues.
People that live in suburbs commute to the CBD. E.g. La Moraleja

​ ural-urban fringe: The boundary between the urban and rural area may contain parks,
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hotels, shopping centres, golf courses, stadiums. Sometimes conflict as different groups
have different needs and interests

BENEFITS (Examples):

- Many people want to move there + companies also; as it is cheaper to build a

business park there than in the CBD.
- Larger houses are built and more cheap.
- New housing developments
- Solar energy farms located there. space and close to destinations,where that energy
will be.
- Less congestion and pollution as there are less people living.
- Good accessibility

Rural: A countryside location with only a limited number of buildings such as a village or a
hamlet.
Urban: A built up area such as a city or a town, population over 10.000 people

Features of each zone in a map:

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THE
HOYT MODEL/ SECTOR MODEL:
The Hoyt model has land use concentrated in wedges or sectors coming out from the city
centre.

There are three explanations for these land use patterns in the “Hoyt Model”:

Historical
The urban area expanded outwards from the original site which is where the city centre is found today.

Economic
Rents and rates in the CBD became too expensive for people. In the suburbs there was more land and it
was cheaper. Only businesses could afford to stay in the CBD, but even they needed to make the most
of expensive land by building upwards.

Concentrations of similar land uses

One part of the urban area may have all the advantages for industrial location so that a lot of factories
want to locate there; but few people want to live next door to a factory, so the residential areas are
located elsewhere. Planners also prefer this segregation of land uses into definite zones.

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1.7 URBANISATION
RAPID URBAN GROWTH
Urbanisation→ The process by which the proportion of a population living in or around
towns and cities increased through migration and natural increase
- Better transport links e.g. road, rails, river
- Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel
- Better job prospects
- Better schools and hospitals

RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION

Movement of people from countryside towards cities.
Rural-urban migration→ main cause of urbanisation

PUSH FACTORS FROM RURAL AREA PULL FACTORS FROM URBAN AREAS

- No/poorly paid jobs - Good schools+ healthcare

- Mechanisation - Reliable supply of resources
- Poor schools+healthcare - More jobs+ better paid
- Poor housing quality - Better quality of life
- Poor transport - Better quality of houses
- Shortage of resources→ drought/famine
- Agricultural products have low prices

Causes of Urban Sprawl

Decentralisation of offices: Some offices relocate to outskirts of city and close to main
roads for access. Cheaper land on rural/urban fringe+unpolluted-attractive.
Transport Changes: Many main roads, motorways and trains link from outer to inner city.
These are fast, allow people to live in Outer London, cheaper houses, more space and then
to commute to the inner city.
Housing developments: Council estates and new housing developments built on edge of
London to combat overcrowding.
New industry and business districts: Industrial estates and business parks on cheaper
land- rural/urban fringe. More business to expand than in central london (example)

Effects of Urban Sprawl:

➔ Loss of agricultural land due to construction of homes.
➔ Increase in traffic: more pollution (noise,visual)
➔ More services as they are needed due to higher demand-more traffic congestion and
pollution.
➔ Wildlife habitats destroyed due to Urbanisation-new construction
➔ Conflict between farmers and residents for the pieces of land. As houses encroached
onto farmland.
➔ Greater provision of public transport for people to commute- expensive for gov
➔ City workers earn more money than those in commuter villages- house prices
increase to sell to rich ppl- original residents/commuters can’t afford

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THEME 2→ THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES

Earth structure:

Layer State Made of..

CRUST Solid Solid rocks + minerals

MANTLE Semi-molten Rocks, minerals + areas

semi-molten magma

OUTER Liquid Iron + nickel

CORE

INNER Solid (high Iron + nickel

CORE pressure)

There are two types of crust:

OCEANIC CONTINENTAL

- Mainly basalt - Mainly granite

- Younger - Older
- Thinner - Thicker
- Denser/heavier - Less dense/ lighter

Earth’s crust split into tectonic plates which move slowly (1-10cm annually)
When they meet: earthquakes and volcanoes.
Continental drift: movement of plates, as a result the continent shift across the earth's
surface

Convection currents
→ Circular movements in the mantle generated by heat from core due
to the cooling and heating of magma, plates move away from each
other

1.Core heats the lower mantle,

2.Mantle less so rises towards crust.
3.Current approaches the crust & is forced to move sideways and
drags the plate above it.
4. Current cools, becomes denser, and sinks back down
This repeated movement pushes and pulls plates in different
directions, causes tectonic hazards.

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 PLATE BOUNDARIES (4)
Destructive plate boundary
- Oceanic + continental moving towards each other
- Ocean plate (denser) subducts under continental
- Friction caused → generates heat/energy → oceanic crust melts
becoming magma → creates pressure →volcano eruption/
earthquake

Constructive plate boundary

- Two plates move away from each other
- Magma rises to fill the gap, creating volcanoes
- Small earthquakes can also occur

Conservative plate boundary

- Two plates slide → friction + tension
- Shockwaves created → earthquake

Collision plate boundary

- Two continental plates (same density) → no subduction → push
each other up into fold mountains → friction+tension → earthquake

Tectonic hazards:
Distribution: brush the Pacific. Ring of fire. Form in clusters (lines)

→ EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the Earth's crust due to movement of the
Earth's plates (plate tectonics). Happen along any type of plate boundary.

Causes of earthquakes
Caused by the release of pressure as two plates move in different directions or at different
speeds. Collision of 2 plates, friction between both plates causes pressure. Pressure then
builds up, energy released as seismic waves→ ground shakes.

- Focus: point underground where shock waves originate from

- Epicentre: point on ground where vibration is greatest
- Magnitude: amount of energy an earthquake gives out
- Seismic waves: energy from an earthquake travels through as
seismic waves

Earthquakes measured in 2 ways:

Mercalli Scale Richter Scale

Measures Effects caused by earthquake Energy released by earthquake

Measuring Observation Seismograph

tool

Calculation By observation of effect in humans, Amplitude of waves

objects, structures, impacts..
Direction and intensity

Scale I-XII 2.0-10.0+

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Factor that affect impact of earthquake:

Magnitude- higher, more severe→ the stronger the seismic waves+higher the energy, more
ground moved
Location epicentre- closer, severe impacts→ epicentre point is where all waves come from
Depth of focus point- shallower, more severe→ max strength of earthquake is closest to
surface, ground shakes more
Population density - higher population, more severe→ more people affected
Development level- lower development, more severe→ buildings + services + ppl, less
prepared
Time of day- middle of night, more severe → citizens take longer to react
Duration and frequency of aftershocks- longer earthquake, higher frequency of
aftershocks

Reducing hazard risk

Prediction + monitoring:
→ no reliable warning signs
● Monitored with different apparatuses e.g. magnetometer, seismograph
● Radon gas emitted before eruption
● Animals act strangely prior
Preparation:
● Educate people (duck, cover, hold)
● Prepare hospitals and evacuation centres
● Carry out regular disaster drills
● Better forecasting and warning
● Earthquake proof buildings + disaster kits at home
Response:
→ very limited because of hard prediction
● Warned if lucky, 30 secs before
● Due to the lack of warning best method for prevention is
building shake-proof buildings

PRIMARY HAZARD SECONDARY HAZARDS IMPACTS

- Ground - Ground failure and - Loss of life

shaking soil liquefaction - Total or partial destruction of
- Surface - Landslides and building structure
faulting rockfalls - Interruption of water supplies
- Debris flows and - Breakage of sewage disposal
mudflows systems
- Tsunamis - Loss of public utilities such as
electricity or gas
- Floods from collapsed dams
- Fires
- Spread of chronic illnesses

VOLCANOES
→ an opening or vent in earth’s surface through which lava and gases escape

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Features of a volcano
Main vent: pipe up middle of volcano
Magma chamber: source of molten rock
Crater: depression at top of vent
Parasitic cone: secondary cone forming on the side of the volcano
Volcanic bombs, ash and gases: airborne material from volcano
Lava: magma when It reaches the surface.
High viscosity lava: flows slowly, clogs and forms semi-solid sticky
Low viscosity lava: flows easily, forms puddles, channels and rivers of molten rock.
Releases bubbling gases

Causes of a volcano:
At constructive margin: plates move away from each other; magma rises to fill the gap

At destructive margin: Oceanic plate moves towards a continental plate. Oceanic plate
moves under the continental plate-denser. The oceanic plate melts because of the friction
and heat. More magma is made. Pressure builds up. Because of the pressure magma forces
it way up through cracks in the continental plate.It erupts on the surface as a volcano

Strato/composite volcano Shield volcano

E.g. Mt Krakatoa or Mt Vesuvius E.g. Mauna Loa

- Tall and cone shaped - Low, flat, wide base

- Narrow base - Gentle slope
- Thick materials and alternate layers of - Continuous but non-violent explosion
ash and lava → constructive plate boundaries and hotspots
→ destructive plate boundaries (oceanic plate)

(high viscosity-thick) Slow lava flow Low viscosity (runny) Fast lava flow

HVL moves slower, cannot travel far before LVL travels far before solidifying
solidifying → volcano wider
→ builds upwards

Active volcano: liable to erupt

Dormant volcano: hasn’t erupted for many years but could
Extinct volcano: volcano that will not erupt anymore

Hotspot: area of localised heat within mantle, causes volcanoes in the plates instead of in
between plates because of thinness of crust.

How do hotspots form volcanoes?

1) Plumes of lava build up from hotspot breaking through the crust- volcanic islands

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 2) With time as plates move- volcanoes rafted away and new ones form in their place,
creating chain - archipelago
E.G. INDONESIA/ HAWAII

Factors affecting the impacts of volcano:

Volcanic Explosivity Index: Higher the magnitude→ more energy released so larger
quantities of lava/ ash produced, travel further
Population density: Higher PD→ more people will be in danger zone and will take longer to
evacuate them
Level of development: Lower→ less prepared
Warning time before eruption: less time to evacuate
Wind direction: If WD blows towards populated areas,more severe→wind blows gas and
ash

Secondary Hazards:
E.g. Lahars makes impacts more severe as they may damage things that weren’t damaged
in the eruption

What makes volcanoes hazardous?

Lava flow- molten rock which can be thick, viscous and slow or fast and runny
Lahars – Mudslide caused by ash mixing with rain water or melted ice/snow
Pyroclastic flows- Superhot (700 degrees) flows of ash and pumice (volcanic rock)
Volcanic bombs– large chunks of solidified lava

Benefits of living near a volcano:

1. Fertile soil -ash adds nutrients to the soil, beneficial for farmers
2. Heat of crust is a heat supply for:
- Hot water
- Geothermal electricity
3. Igneous rocks, good for material buildings, employment for local ppl e.g. Maine
4. Tourist attraction, produces income and employment for locals e.g. Canary Islands
5. Land cheaper to live in because of danger

DIRECT HAZARD INDIRECT HAZARD SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS

Pyroclastic flows - Atmospheric ash - Destruction of settlements

- Volcanic bombs fallout - Loss of life
- Lava flows - Landslides - Loss of farmland and forest
- Ash fallout - Tsunamis - Destruction of infrastructure-
- Volcanic gases - Acid rainfall roads, airports, facilities
- Lahars - Reduced tourist arrivals
(mudflows) - Lack of investment
- Earthquakes - Fewer jobs
- Decreased productivity (crops
killed)
- Out-migration

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2.2 RIVERS
1.THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Processes which occur within a drainage basin:

A drainage basin is an open system as receives inputs and outputs.

Throughout cycle, water flows by different ways and is stored in different ways

● Precipitation: any form of water, that falls into the earth's surface (rain, hail, sleet,
snow).

● Evaporation: process in which liquid changed into a gas/vapour with the help of heat

○ Affected by temp + increases in warm, dry, windy conditions

○ The lower the albedo the more water absorbed, so more evaporation

● Interception: precipitation that does not reach the ground so stored by vegetation
(leaves etc).
3 main concepts:
1. Interception loss: water retained by plant surface and later evaporated
way or absorbed by plant
2. Throughfall: water falls through vegetation gaps/ between plants
3. Stemflow: flow of water down stems and trunks

● Surface runoff: water flowing over the surface of

the land (streams, rivers etc).

● Transpiration: the process by which water vapour

is transferred from vegetation to the atmosphere

● Evapotranspiration: combined effects of

evaporation and transpiration

● Infiltration: water soaking into the ground (soil)

→ infiltration capacity is the max rate in which rain

can be absorbed by soil, decreases with time so runs off surface= overlandflow:

● Overlandflow: when water runs over the surface and isn’t absorbs, can lead to
flooding

→ occurs when precipitation>infiltration rate or when soil saturated

● Throughflow/ peroclation: infiltrated water that moves through the soil layer
towards the river/sea.

● Groundwater flow: water slowly making its way towards the sea through the rock
layers (to move back to the sea)

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 ● Groundwater: water stored in the rocks below the soil layers, aquifers exists here.

2.DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTERISTICS

Source: place where a river begins

Tributary: a smaller river that joins a larger one
Confluence: the joining of a tributary to the larger
channel
Mouth: the end of the river, where it meets the sea
Watershed: the outer limit of the drainage basin
Estuary: part of the mouth that is tidal
Drainage Basin: the total area drained by a river
system

CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS AND PROCESSES

Erosion→ erode the river channel
Transportation→ transport materials
Deposition→ create new erosional and depositional landforms

BRADSHAW MODEL

3. EROSION, TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION

EROSION PROCESSES
(occurs more in upper course)
Hydraulic Action: pressure/force of the water loosening material & widening cracks in the
river bank.
- Abrasion/Corrasion : the scraping action of material being transported in river bed
- Attrition: the breaking and wearing of stones when they collide with other material.
- Solution/Corrosion : the dissolving of rock (limestone etc) by acid in the water.

TRANSPORTATION PROCESSES
● Traction: the rolling of large boulders/rocks .
● Saltation: small stones bounce along bed
● Suspension: very small particles being carried along in the river current.
● Solution: dissolved material (invisible).
● *Traction & saltation occur more in the upper sections of a river.

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DEPOSITION
● When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins depositing the heaviest
particles
● Happens when there is less water or where the current slows down
● Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small particles are deposited at the
end

4. FACTORS AFFECTING EROSION

Erosion→ when river gradually wears away and removes material from channel (bed and
banks)

➔ The heavier the load, the greater the erosion potential

➔ The greater the velocity and discharge the greater the erosion potential
➔ The higher the gradient, the higher the rate of erosion
➔ The “softer” the rock, the easier eroded
➔ As Ph- acidity increases, rate of solution increases

5. RIVER LANDFORMS

UPPER COURSE/ MIDDLE

WATERFALL- UPPER
1. River flows over layers of soft and hard rock
2. Soft rock is eroded easily (undercutting) and
creates overhang
3. Plunge pool is formed due to erosion
4. Hard rock forms overhang which then collapses
5. Gorge forms as waterfall retreats upwards

V-SHAPED VALLEY- UPPER

Vertical erosion due to steepness and gravity
Sides are eroded by weathering
Loose material falls down slopes to be carried away

RAPIDS-
→ form when water shallow and rive bed rocky/rounded, often steep gradient

As river flows downstream passes through alternating regions hard+soft rock, steps created
as softer eroded first leaving river bed uneven.

Water cascades very quickly forming rapid

POTHOLES:

● formed when a circular current of water carrying small

pebbles and sediment begins to wear away a rock surface.
● Swirling water forms eddies which cause corrosion in the
rock
● Overtime grown deeper and wider, like whirlpools on rock

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6. LANDFORMS IN MIDDLE COURSE

MEANDERS- LOWER
Bend in the river channel. River erodes laterally and causes large bends due to erosion and
deposition.

Fast flowing waters go around the outside of the river bends eroding and widening the bend.
The inside bend has slow moving water which deposits material building up a slope/ beach.
Continued erosion can cause the bend to widen until it cuts and forms an OX-BOW LAKE.
(Continued process)

Erosion- outer bends (fast water)

Deposition- inner (slow low energy
water)

6.2 LANDFORMS CAUSED BY DEPOSITION (LOWER)

DELTA- LOWER
Low lying deposit of sediment in mouth- occurs when a river carrying sediment/mud slows
down when entering a larger body of water. The heaviest material is deposited first and the
lightest last

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SLIP-OFF SLOPE
→ landform that forms on the inside of a meander bend, as a result of deposition in the
slower flowing water.

RIVER CLIFF
→ landform created on the outside of a meander bend by erosion due to the fast flowing
water.

ESTUARY
→ an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the ocean, normally has large
expanses of mud

LEVEES
when a river floods, the coarsest/heaviest material is deposited first, on the edges of the
river, forming a natural embankment called a levee.

Why?
- As water overflows sides speed and energy reduced so no longer ability to carry
heavy material(alluvium)
→ sometimes reinforced to prevent floodings

FLOODPLAINS
→ Area covered by water when river floods
● The occur when river’s discharge greater than its capacity, when happens water rises
over river banks flooding surrounding
→ leftovers if floodplain form river terraces, which are useful for settlement as they re flood
free

BRAIDED CHANNELS
A braided channel is one that is divided into smaller channels by temporary islands, which
have been formed as the river deposits material in the middle of its channel.

River then continues to flow around deposited material, leading to braiding

25
7. RIVER HAZARDS AND OPPORTUNITIES

8. MAIN CAUSES OF FLOODS

● Building in a river’s drainage basin - rain cannot pass through concrete, cannot be
absorbed so the more building there is the greater the risk of flooding
● Cutting down trees - rain no longer intercepted by trees, higher chance of flooding
● Impermeable rock - water cannot be absorbed by this type of rocks so if under the
soil, prevent water from being absorbed→ surface runoff→ flooding
● Steep slopes - rain runs down quicker so less chance of soaking through ground
● Wet soil - water absorption capacity less, water cannot be a absorbed
● Hard dry soil - rain can’t soak

9. MANAGING THE IMPACTS OF FLOOD

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2.3 COASTS
COAST- Area where land meets ocean
COASTLINE- Line/border between coast and ocean
HIGH WATER MARK- mark that shows highest levels that sea reaches
CLIFFS- A steep rock face, specially at the edge of the sea
TIDE- Alternate rising and falling of the sea influenced by the moon's gravitational pull
SHORE- Land along the edge of a large body of water

Processes that occur at the coasts can be either depositional or erosional

MAIN FACTORS THAT AFFECT COASTAL PROCESSES

Weather conditions- freezing/ heavy rain increase weathering & erosion
Local geology - rock type, structure and strength, soil ...
Changes in sea level
Human activity - increased use of coastal engineering

WAVES

● Waves created- by wind blowing over surface of the

sea
● Size of wave determined by fetch and the speed of
wind

Fetch: distance from which wind is blown

Longer fetch- bigger wave

Fast speed- higher height of wave

WHY DO WAVES BREAK?

In shallow water, when the height of the wave exceeds the depth of the water, wave
becomes unstable and collapses. Some of the water is thrown up the beach (as swash) and
then returns by gravity, as backwash. When it breaks it releases a lot of the energy that is
held within it.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAVES

1. CONSTRUCTIVE

Low energy waves: Deposits sediment (creates land)

Low wave height, length
Strong swash- pushes mat. up the beach
Weak backwash- little erosion

2. DESTRUCTIVE

High energy waves (destroy land) more than they deposit sediment
Weak swash- little beach building
Strong backwash- pulls sand away
Big waves

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HOW THEY AFFECT THE BEACH PROFILE

→EROSION

COASTAL EROSION

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE OF EROSION:

Position of plunge point: (location at which wave will break) If breaks before coastline, less
erosive capacity as most energy released when breaks

Wave height: taller wave, greater erosive capacity because of high energy

Amount of beach material: The more beach material present more energy dissipated si rate
of erosion slower

Fetch: longer the fetch, greater erosive capacity. As wave has a longer distance to generate
Energy

Rock type: hard rock erodes slower, viceversa with soft rock

PEPE HA BEBIDO FLORES ROSAS

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→ COASTAL TRANSPORTATION

LONGSHORE DRIFT (EROSION)

= The movement of material along the beach in a zigzag pattern.

Explain longshore drift.

1. Waves called swash come into the beach at an angle and pick up material
2. They come in at an angle because of wind direction
3. The wave called backwash pulls the material back down the beach straight
4. These backwards movements occur straight due to gravity
5. This process repeats itself along the beach in a zig-zag pattern and is called
longshore drift
6. The material is moved along the beach as the process repeats itself

→Swash comes up to the beach and deposit materials by prevailing winds that blow
at an angle
→The back swash returns directly back to the sea by gravity which drags the beach
material back at a right angle into the sea.

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LANDFORMS OF EROSION
HEADLANDS AND BAYS:

1.Alternate rocks

2. Less resistant rock is

eroded fast

3. Due to wave refraction, the

headland receives the highest
energy waves and becomes
prone to erosion. Bays protected by build up of beach material.

WAVE- CUT PLATFORM

1. Waves break at the base of cliff. High erosive potential

2. Continuous breaking cuts notch at base and an overhang
3. Notch makes cliff unstable and collapses
4. Process repeated and cliff retreats

HEADLAND
CAVE, ARCH, STACK AND STUMP
1. Resistant rock cliffs attacked by its weaknesses (joints) gradually widen to give CAVE
2. Erosion of cave and forms ARCH
3. Arch increases, becomes unstable, collapses :STACK
4. Stack attacked and eroded, forms STUMP

→ DEPOSITION

BEACHES
→ formed by deposition produced by wave processes

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SPITS
→ a long stretch of sand with one end attached to the mainland
1.Prevailing wind pushes wave at angle towards shore
2.Waves pick up sediment- swash, up the beach at an angle
3.Waves retreat dragging sediment with them as backwash
4.Process continues in zig zag (longshore drift)
5.Afterwards sediment builds up forming a spit with curved ends,
due to a change in the direction of the coastline

TOMBOLO
When spit connects mainland and island . Material is carried away from the headland by
longshore drift
When the coastline changes direction, material is deposited to form a beach which joins an
offshore island to mainland

BAR
→ Ridges of land that extend across bays blocking them from sea. Caused by longshore
drift depositing materials

*Tombolo connected to land, Spit NO

SAND DUNES:
1.Strong wind blows on land picking up dry sand
2.An obstacle eg. Plant blocks wind making sand drop around it
3,That sand is deposited around it, increasing the size of the obstacle and the rate of sand
dune growth
4.Whilst still within reach of the spray of the waves only salt tolerant plants can grow
5.Over time embryo dunes grow and join together to form a line
6.This is moved inland as wind picks up sand on the seaward
side and deposits it on the leeward side
7.Meanwhile new embryo dunes grow near sea. Process
repeated- line of dunes

CORAL REEFS →
- large underwater structures composed of skeletons of colonial
marine invertebrates
- X1 individual coral= polyp
- Many polyps =reef

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CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR CORAL REEF GROWTH:
● Sea temp between 22-25*C
● Very saline water
● Enough microscopic zooplankton-what they eat
● Have to be underwater as cannot be exposed long above water

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CORAL REEFS

VALUE OF CORAL REEFS:

Provide fish + other foods
Brings tourism
Fishing + diving
Attractive
Rich biodiversity
Contains million of species of plants + animals

THREATS TO CORAL REEFS:

-Fishing industry, oil spills, mining, cement industry

MANGROVE SWAMPS:
= Salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in coastal mudflats
Important natural coastal defence:
Protect coastlines by absorbing the force of hurricanes. Protection form winds

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They act as natural filters, absorbing nutrients from farming and sewage disposal
Protect coast from flooding

Hazards in coasts:
1) Hurricanes: Atlantic + East pacific ocean
2) Cyclones: Indian Ocean
3) Typhoons: West Pacific

Conditions needed to form:

1. Low wind shear
2. Precursor storms
3. Warm sea surface temperatures (27-28), which cause low air pressure

MANAGING COASTAL EROSION

Hard engineering = Building structures along coasts - man made
Soft engineering = Work with the natural processes to manage erosion

2.4 WEATHER

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2.4 WEATHER

Weather= Day to day changes in the atmosphere (changes in temp, rainfall and humidity)
Climate= The overall pattern of weather, along the years

Measuring temperature
MAXIMUM-MINIMUM THERMOMETER (SIX'S):
→ records max and min temperatures reached over a period of time (daily)
- Max: contains mercury, min:alcohol
- As temp rises, mercury expands and pushes up a metal index and when it cools,
mercury contracts and index is left in place at highest temp
- As temp falls, alcohol contracts and pulls metal index with it, but as alcohol expands,
it flows past index, leaving it at lowest temp
- Both indices are read from bottom once every 24 hours to work out the mean temp
for one day
Mean daily temperature= max temp+min temp / 2

The Weather Station

THE STEVENSON SCREEN
→ measure air temp, pressure and humidity
- Contains weather instruments such as:
● a max-min thermometer
● A wet bulb-dry bulb thermometer
● A barograph
- Wooden box with screen, screen is raised so that air temp can be measured
- Slatted sides to allow air to circulate, but slanted downwards to prevent light getting
in
- Roof made of double boarding to prevent sun’s heat from reaching inside of screen
- Painted white to reflect sun
- Legs 1m long- prevent heating from ground, damage
- Sloping roof so that water does not collect on the roof + insulates box.

Measuring rainfall
RAIN GAUGE:
→ measures amount of precipitation over period of time

- The rain directed down the funnel into measuring cylinder

- Kept on flat surfaces and away from sheltered locations (trees + buildings)
- Often dug into the ground or surrounded by bricks to avoid them being knocked over
+ avoid surface runoff entering + avoid splashes
- On grass and not hard surface to avoid splashes
- Check rain gauge everyday (at the same time) for reliable results

Measuring relative humidity

WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETER/HYGROMETER:
→ measures relative humidity of air around it

- Two thermometers:

34
 1. Wet bulb thermometer - has bulb soaked in a damp muslin. If relative humidity
is 100% no water will evaporate from the muslin and temp will be the same on
both thermometers. If relative humidity is less than 100% water will evaporate
lowering the temp on the wet bulb thermometer
2. Dry bulb is a glass (mercury) thermometer which records the actual air
temperature.

Measuring air pressure, wind speed and direction

BAROMETER:
→ measures atmospheric pressure, units: Millibars (Mb)

two types:

1. Mercury barometer
- Hollow tube with mercury that is focused up a tube by pressure of atmosphere
- Glass tube sits in container upside down (reservoir)
- Level of mercury continues to change until the weight of mercury in the glass tube is
exactly equal to the weight of air above the reservoir

→ height of mercury in the tube determines atmospheric pressure. Height of column

changes as air pressure changes

2. Aneroid barometer
- Has a vacuum chamber in the form of a small metal cylinder
- A spring in the chamber contracts and expands with changes in the atmospheric
pressure
- A barograph is a tracing from an aneroid barometer recording for a week
- Records the air pressure in mmHg

→ The greater the reading, the higher the pressure.

Normal pressure is 1000mb with a reading above this being regarded as high pressure and
a reading below is regarded as low pressure.

ANEMOMETER:
→ Measures wind speed

- Rotating cups attached to a recording device

- As wind speed increases the cups rotate more quickly
- The wind anemometer must be kept up high away from any sources of shelter (such
as buildings or trees).

WIND VANE:
→ Measures wind direction

- Horizontal rotating arm pivoted on vertical shaft

- Rotating arm has a tail at one end and a pointer at the other
- When wind blows, arm swings until pointer faces the wind
- Directions north, east, south and west are marked on arms that are fixed to the shaft

35
 - Must be kept up high away from any sources of shelter (such as buildings or trees)

REMEMBER: it points where wind is coming from, not where wind blows

SUNSHINE RECORDER:
→ Measures sunshine received at a place, units hours/mins

- Glass sphere partly surrounded by a metal frame

- A piece of special card is placed below sphere
- When the sun shines, the sphere focuses the Sun's rays on the card
- Burns a line onto card
- At end of the day, the card is removed and replaced
- Length of the trace represents the amount of sunshine that the location received

CLOUDS
10 types divided into 3 categories:

High clouds: Usually composed of ice crystals and base between 5500-14000m

● Cirrus → white filaments

● Cirrocumulus → small, ripped elements
● Cirrostratus → transparent often with halo at top

Medium clouds: usually out of water droplets + ice crystals, and base between 2000-7000m

● Altocumulus → layered + rippled elements, white with some shading

● Altostratus → thin grey layer that allows sunshine pass through

Low clouds: usually composed of water droplets and base below 2000m

● Stratocumulus → layered in rolls, white + grey shading

● Stratus → uniform base, layered + grey
● Nimbostratus → low base, thick + dark layer, rain/snow may fall from it
● Cumulus → individual cells, tower like, flat base
● Cumulonimbus → cauliflower shaped, anvil tops, sometimes giving thunderstorms,
showers of rain/snow

36
2.5 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

EQUATORIAL AND HOT DESERT CLIMATE

Main characteristics of equatorial climates:
● Hot, high temps(26-27 degrees celsius), close to the equator
● Wet: Rainfall is high (more than 2000mm per year)
● High humidity, low pressure and low wind

Main characteristics of hot desert climates:

● Severely hot (30-40)
● Dry: Low and irregular rainfall (about 250 mm per year)
● Low humidity, high pressure and strong wind

Equatorial climate graph: Hot desert climate graph:

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

Latitude
Latitude determines temps. 2 factors affecting climate:
- Angle of overhead sun: high sun over the equator→ high intensity isolation received.
Near the poles insolation has more atmosphere to pass through→ less energy
received
- Thickness of the atmosphere→ the ticker it is the more energy that is lost

Proximity to sea
Coastal areas=warmer winters+cooler summers.
Areas far from the sea are arid: little/no rain, too dry for vegetation.

Ocean currents
Warm currents from equator raise winter temps in coastal areas, cold currents cool them
down in summer.
Cool currents cool air above→ reduce evaporation from ocean→ dryer conditions

Altitude
Higher altitude= lowers air temp (1 degree per 100m).
Air under greater pressure (lower altitudes) is denser, so warmer.

Pressure
Low pressure→ air is rising→ rain
High pressure means air is sinking→ rain formation prevented

Cloud cover

37
Decreases amount of insolation reaching surface→ reflects
More clouds= less insolation (sun)

Winds
Winds from sea lower summer temps→ raise them in winter.
In temperate latitudes prevailing winds from land lower winter temps→ raise them in summer

TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
- Located in equatorial areas between the lines of
latitude 23.5N and 23.5S
- Between the tropics

Vegetation
- Evergreen→ photosynthesis all year around.
Vegetation don't shed their leaves in winter due to
presence of water and high temps
- Species at top of the canopy receive the most
sunlight,
- Species near forest floor, adapted to darker conditions (e.g. darker colour, shorter)
- Shrub: low shrubs + saplings, plants that adapt because they are extremely close to
forest floor
- Buttress Roots: very long + wide roots that stabilise tall trees + suck up max amount
of nutrients in poor soil
- Drip tip leaves: leaves that face downwards w/ pointed end, pushes water off quickly:
directs water down to leave to prevent damage from heavy rainfall

Wildlife and adaptation

- 50% of all animals on earth
- Many species are arboreal (rarely come down from the trees) e.g. orangutans
- Some species are highly camouflage to avoid becoming a prey
- Some species are poisonous
- Home to many mammals: tigers in SE Asia, jaguars in Central and South America,
leopards in Africa, sloths, primates…
- Home to birds, amphibians, reptiles and insects too

Soils
- Soils typically deep→ large amount of weathering
- Red in colour→ iron presence in soils
- Infertile→ nutrients storage in biomass (living matter)
- Some areas more fertile→ in floodplains and volcanic areas
- Nutrient cycle disrupted- once vegetation is removed from the system, the nutrients
are removed creating infertile conditions
- Affected negatively by deforestation, vegetation removes, nutrients too

DEFORESTATION
Causes:
- Mining
- Forestry
- Agricultural
- Logging

Impacts:

38
 Local environment Global environment People

- Loss of vegetation - Melting ice→ rising sea - Death of local

- Increased floods levels and levels tribes people
sediment content in rivers - Loss of carbon sinks, all - Less oxygen
- Species threatened by carbon contained by trees is - Reduction
extinction released back into materials
- Loss of habitat atmosphere→ extra CO2 available to
- Sandification→ environment emissions→global build buildings
becomes sandy warming→ increase in
- Surface erosion and temps
compaction of soils, - Changes in climate patterns
decrease in infiltration, eg drought + more forest
increase in overall runoff and fires + reduced rainfall
surface erosion - Loss of species such as
- Food chain disrupted polar bears

HOT DESERTS
- Found in subtropical areas between 15 degrees and 30 degrees N/S of the equator
- Mainly found around Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
- Largest area of hot desert is the Sahara
- Australia is country with more desert
- Hot throughout the year and low unreliable rainfall (<250mm)

Vegetation
PERENNIALS: plants with a life cycle over 2 years
SUCCULENTS: plants that store water in leaves/stem, small to reduce water loss
EPHEMERALS: plants that live for a short time (annuals), evade drought
XEROPHYTES: plants adapted to live in hot+dry conditions (droughts).

How are these adapted to survive in hot deserts?

- Being succulent → store lots of water + small, to reduce water loss
- Plants produce lots of flowers + fruits everytime it rains
- Flowers produce seeds, remain dormant until next rainfall
- Water loss minimised by:
- leaf hairs-waterproof
- thick waxy cuticles→ reduces transpiration
- deep + large roots to search for water
- Light colours to reflect sunlight

Animal adaptations
- Camel have humps to store water
- Foxes have big ears to reduce heat
- Shelter in underground to avoid heat
- Only comes out at night to hunt→ avoid heat of day
- Long-term sleep→ ends when temp and moisture conditions cooler
- Nocturnal:avoid heat of day
- High conc. Urine acid→ reduce water loss
EXAMPLES:
Golden Barrel Cactus:
● Covered w/large small spines
● Larger spines keep away thirst creatures

39
 ● Small spines prevent water loss
● Grow at angle south to shade themselves + prevent sunburn
Aloe Vera:
● Tissue storing large amounts of water→ enable plant to thrive in low water conditions
● Contains aloe vera gel→ stores water + energy for plant
● Waxy coating prevents water loss
Kangaroo rat:
● Licks fur to keep cool body temp
● Reduces water loss by resp.→ cools nasal passage
● Doesn’t drink- gets water from food
Fennec Fox:
● Light coloured coat of fur to reflect heat
● Large ears w/ lots of blood vessels→ loses body heat
● Excretes highly concentrated urines→ reduces water loss

40
THEME 3→ ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
3.1 DEVELOPMENT
Indicators of development
GNP (Gross National Product): measures the total economic output of a country, including
earnings from foreign investments
GDP per capita: value of a country's final output of goods + services in a year, divided by its
population.
Literacy rate: percentage of ppl that can read and write
Life expectancy: average amount person lives
Infant mortality: numbers of in
→ Other rates (e.g. unemployment rate, doctors per 1000 ppl, birth rate, death rate…) also
show level of development

Human development index (HDI): composite index that includes life expectancy, education,
income per capita...
Composite index → individual indicators compiled into a single index. It is better because it
takes into account multiple areas of development eg social and economic, and it gives the
bigger picture. Whereas a single indicator only takes into account one aspect of
development

Other examples: Gini Index, Gender equality index..

Economic sectors

Primary Sector Exploit/extract raw materials directly from land, water and air (e.g. farming,
fishing, forestry, mining)

Secondary Sector Manufactures raw materials into products for consumer

(e.g. production, construction, manufacturing)

Tertiary Sector Provides services to businesses and to people

(e.g. health, education, transport)

Quaternary Sector Use high tech to provide information and expertise. Research and
development is important in this sector
(e.g. medical research, engineers, computer designs)

→ when describing the Clark-Fisher Model, describe it in sections not by time period

Factors that affect development:

● Climate: some areas have very hot climates or arid (a lack of water) climates→
difficult to grow sufficient food. Where it’s hot, the land is less fertile, water is scarce,
and diseases flourish.
● Natural resources: Some raw materials are valuable and can help a country
develop if they have the resources to collect and process them, e.g. oil, diamonds,
forests and gold.
● Location: Countries closer to trade routes + access to the sea: more developed due
to easy trade. Landlocked countries at a disadvantage.

41
 ● Natural hazards: Places vulnerable to natural disasters, e.g. Haiti is located in an
area prone to earthquakes and hurricanes- disadvantage because need a lot of
money to recover→ can weaken country’s economy making it even poorer in Haiti’s
case
● Trade: Goods are traded on a global scale - difficult for poor countries to compete
(no resources). Rich countries can raise tariff barriers to stop cheap imports
undercutting their own goods.
● Economy: depends on what country’s economy is based on - more or less
developed
● Corruption/poor management: Countries need strong, stable and honest leaders to
help them develop, when corruption factors for improvement aren’t prioritised → left
behind → Therefore money does not reach the people who need it most and
spending on areas such as education and infrastructure may be insufficient.
● War: Wars use up resources and make it difficult to produce goods and trade. Civil
wars make country retrograde
● Discrimination + social aspect: Some groups may have less opportunities and this
can hold back overall development, eg if women are not educated to the same
standard as men in a country. Some parts of the world have issues that are caused
by people. These include low levels of education, poor water quality or a lack of
doctors.
● Population: Overpopulation occurs where population growth outstrips resources

The model of Cumulative Causation

Comparing nations:
1. An MEDC: U.K
Low proportion of people in primary industry:
● Mechanisation; machinery replaces ppl
● Primary resources exhausted e.g. coal
● Resources are not imported
Numbers falling in secondary sector:

42
→ robots taking over jobs-less ppl need
Tertiary sector is main growth area:
● Most work in hospitals, schools, offices & financial services
● Greater demand for leisure services as people more free time
● More jobs become available in the tertiary sector

2. An LEDC: Ghana
Majority in primary sector:
● Lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and mining
● Farming very important→ most eat what they grow
Few in secondary sector:
● Lack of factories+too expensive→ not as much available jobs
● MNCS manufacture instead as rely on their raw materials
Tertiary may be larger than secondary:
● Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
● Growth of jobs in tourism

3. A NIC: Brazil
Despite developing:
Large numbers of people employed in primary industries:
e.g. such as farming.
Large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries.
● Growth as a tourism destination
● improvements in the provision of health care, education
and transport

GLOBALISATION
Globalisation→ process in which the world becomes increasingly more interconnected
→ helps create more wealth in developing countries - doesn’t help close the gap between
the world's poorest countries and the world's richest.

Reasons for Globalisation:

Transport:
- Large cargo ships allow exporting more for less money between countries
- Growth of economies of scales→ allows cost of production to lower as more being
produced
- Transport improvements→ goods + ppl travel quicker

Trade:
- E.g. WTO, allows free trade between countries→ barriers removed

Communication:
- Technology + internet allows communication between countries

Labour availability + skills:

- Countries like India produce at lower labour costs + high skill levels

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 - Industries take advantage (e.g. fashion) by producing at cheaper labour costs + with
less restrictions

How does technology help increase the rate of globalisation?

● Smartphone→ easier to communicate instantly w/ world→ spread of ideas
● Jet engine technology→ aeroplanes→ ppl +commodities transported worldwide→
distant becomes less relevant + more connected worldwide
● T.V→ advertisements-->products known and sold worldwide + companies too--<
global news outlets
● Internet → essential for development and speed of globalisation. Fastest growing
mode of communication. Allows TNC’s to manage complex operations all over world.
Can react more quickly than ever before to changing consumer demands.

Advances in transportation and telecommunication systems have significantly reduced the

geographical barriers separating countries and people. The diffusion of new ideas has
progressed

Transnational Corporations: a firm that operates in several countries through foreign

direct investment.
→ when a company takes controlling ownership in a business entity in another country

How do TNCs help increase the rate of globalisation?

● Relocation of manufacture to cheaper producing countries (more profit) e.g. India
● New products w/newest technologies→ better communication + widespread of
news→ increased rate of globalisation
● Marketing, spreads global brands → globally known
● Relocation of employers → moved worldwide → globalised brand

+ Growth of NICs- increased production of goods→ cheap workforce → increase in

consumer goods
+ Encourage of free trade-capitalist ideology ,IGOs→ spread of globalisation

Impacts of globalisation

Positive Negative

- Rapid spread of new ideas + info - Local stores can’t compete w/multinational
- Increases awareness of events in faraway companies due to massive on scale
parts of the world + global issues → quicker economies→ Local business shut down
responses e.g. 2004 tsunami,U.K sent help - Increases traffic congestion, noise pollution
rapidly - Air + water pollution from factories + industry
- TNCs bring wealth and foreign currency to - Culture being lost e.g. tradition + languages
local economies when buying local - Large TNCs may not contribute through taxes,
resources,services → extra money created due to FDI
can be spent on education, health and - Overexploitation of raw materials e.g.
infrastructure. Amazonas → materials needed for production
- TNCs investing on countries creates - Global cultural erosionGlobal inequality
employment + new skills enhanced→ more gap between richest and
- Ppl can experience food which weren’t poorest countries
before available in their countries

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- Populations of many local communities have - Impose poor working conditions and low
become multicultural wages on local workers in LEDCs as
- Growing powers of TNC’s and global brands production takes place there
- Higher levels of incoming and outgoing - Industry can begin to thrive in LEDCs at
international tourism expense of jobs in manufacturing in MEDCs
- TNC’s employing an increasing share of → lower wages, cheaper to manufacture
workforce - Climate change → deforestation + CO2
emissions→ trade

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3.2 FOOD PRODUCTION

What are the main features of an agricultural system?

Inputs- things that go into the farm and may be split into physical inputs (rainfall, soil, relief,
climate) and human inputs (labour, money, seeds, farming tools)

Processes- acts in the farm to convert the inputs to outputs(sowing, irrigation, harvesting)

Outputs- cash products made, waste (i.e wheat, barley, cattle)

Why is farming considered to be a primary industry?

Because it is providing natural raw food to convert it into food.

FARMING TYPES
Commercial farming: growing crops/ rearing animals to make profit .
Subsistence farming: just sufficient food produced to provide for the farmer’s family. Feed
yourself
Arable farming: growing of crops (no livestock).
Pastoral farming: rearing of animals
Intensive farming: small farm compared to large amount of labour, large input, near market
Eg. Dairying
Extensive farming: large farm in comparison to small inputs of money, labour, remotely
located, inexpensive land, poor quality soil. Eg. Shifting cultivation.
Mixed farming: Involves both growing crops and raising livestock. Arable/ pastoral
Organic farming: Does not use manufactured chemicals, so production is without chemical
fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides.

Subsistence farming vs Commercial farming

Subsistence farming: Commercial farming:

When crops are grown for personal When crops are grown for the purpose of
consumption e.g. farmer’s family trade/selling…

Labour intensive Capital intensive (lots of money invested)

Small area Large area
Traditional methods used Machinery used

Influences of natural and human inputs on agricultural land use:

Climate: Temperature affects crop growth- each crop requires a minimum growing temp and
a minimum growing season
Precipitation: long steady periods of rainwater make water available for soil growth; short
heavy downpours can result in surface runoff, and soil erosion
Soil type and fertility: Huge impact on agricultural productivity
Water: Irrigation is vital for crop growth

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Labour: Human labour or machinery for farm to function, can need more (e.g. rice farming)
or little labour (sheep farming)
Market: products need to be sold for profit; perishable crops high price- but need to be
grown close distance to market
Closer to market→ easier to make profit, as more likely to sell
Relief:
Depending on relief, land suitable for a type of farming or other:
● Steep slopes limit machinery due to thin soils
● Lowland easier to be farmed.
Soil type:
● Brown earths better for farming-more fertile
● Less fertile soils→ waterlogged→ best for pastoral farming
Aspect: south-facing slopes best for growing crops
Politics: subsidies + loans can be provided to encourage new farming practice/ limits on
production can also be placed by gov to avoid overproduction

How relief on the land can influence agricultural land use (3)
Relief- refers to the way the landscape changes in height
● Steep slopes = limited use of machinery and cause thin soils
● Altitude = more wind and rainfall→ good for farming
● Flat land = Equal amounts of rainfall and sunlight for crops
● Lowland = rivers there have richer minerals. Easier farmed
● Mountainous terrain = livestock adapted better. More rainfall in these areas.

How to increase outputs (4)

● Increase in mechanisation - process becomes faster and more efficient eg harvesting
● Greater use of irrigation - involves providing extra water- crop yields increase
● Pesticides - kills animals and insects that eat and destroy crops
● Genetically modified crops - help adapt crops eg drought resistant seeds
● Crop rotation - prevents exhaustions of land meaning increase in output, less going
to waste
● Use of fertilisers and manure- helps crops grow better, bigger and faster
● Greenhouses - increase production at all times and seasons
● Farming systems e.g crop location and leaving fields fallow
● Better quality of seeds
● Agricultural education - with proper knowledge several techniques can be used to
increase output

FOOD SHORTAGES
The global food security index is a composite index that considers core issues of
affordability, availability and quality that influence food security across both developing and
developed countries.

Causes of food shortages

NATURAL FACTORS

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 Soil exhaustion→ soil has been flushed of all its nutrients→ it is no longer fertile, crops cannot grow
Drought→ prolonged period of no rainfall→ hard for plants to grow→ rate of agricultural production decreases
Floods→ water spills onto flood plain washing away fertile topsoil→ leaves plants with nowhere to set roots→
destroys crop and food supply
Tropical cyclone→ strong winds, heavy rains→ cause delays in and reduction of crop harvest→ leading to
lack of food supply
Pests→ damage crops, livestock and food→ not only kill intended prey but also predator→ pests washed into
rivers kill fish+birds→ less eatable food available

ECONOMIC FACTORS
Low capital investment→ countries cannot develop their agricultural practises→ no money is invested in
machinery or seed→ less food made
Poor distribution and transport difficulties→ food isn't transported→ certain regions may have no access
to any market or source of food

POLITICAL FACTORS
Wars→ conflicts trigger displacement of food → wars halt and disrupt production? Import of food→ farmers
are killed or flee, farmland destroyed/explodes. Afterwards soil is eroded taking longtime to recover

Effects of food shortages

- Social unrest
- Malnutrition
- Famine
- Rising prices
- Overgrazing
- Looting / riots
- Undernutrition
Solutions to food shortages
- Improve food aid
- Boosting crop yield
- Food banks, soup kitchens
- Reducing food loss / waste
- Improve trade policies
- Improve existing infrastructural programs

Food aid= help in the form of basic items of food given to a country or region suffering from a
food shortage

The green revolution

It refers to the introduction of modern farming techniques in developing countries. This
involves the use of high yielding varieties of grains (HYVs), fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation
and mechanisation

Much of the global increase in food production in the last 50 years can be attributed to the
green revolution:
Disadvantages:
➔ High inputs of fertiliser and pesticide are costly in both economic and environmental
terms.
➔ Chemical inputs have a negative effect on biodiversity
➔ Ill health → contaminated water.
➔ These crops are often low in important vitamins and minerals

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3.3 INDUSTRY

Inputs: the elements required for processes to take place e.g.raw materials,energy,capital
Processes: Converting raw materials into finished goods e.g.steelmaking,packaging,mixing
Outputs: the finished products that are then sold to customers e.g. waste,profit,goods for
sale

Waste products: products that have no value and must be disposed of

By-products: products that have some vale and therefore can be sold

→ inputs + processes must be lower than value of outputs sold to make a profit

INDUSTRY TYPES
Manufacturing: the large-scale production of goods, normally involving machinery to make
the products e.g. bakery, shoesmarkets
Processing: when raw materials undergo some kind of physical or chemical process that
turns them into something new or preserves them e.g. processed ham
Assembly: putting together manufactured parts to make completed products (use
machinery)
High technology: tech that involves highly advanced/specialised systems/devices-
techniques used in manufacturing of a product e.g. aerospace, pharmaceuticals

Both assembly and processing are examples of types of manufacturing or steps that can
take place in the overall manufacturing process.

Footloose industry: industry not tied up to a certain area as not reliant on raw
materials,energy… from location.

High-tech industry: industry that produce most advanced tech available/cutting edge
technology

ECONOMIC SECTORS
Primary sector: extracts raw materials directly from the land/sea e.g. farming, fishing,
forestry, mining
Secondary sector: manufactures raw materials into products for the consumer e.g. food
production, construction, manufacturing
Tertiary sector: provides services to people and businesses e.g. health, education,
transport, retailing
Quaternary sector: use high tech to provide information and expertise. Research and
development is important in this sector e.g. medical research or computer design

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 - As countries develop further it is more likely that primary industry decreases due to
mechanisation→ less ppl needed e.g. machines pick up crops instead of farmers
- Also the tertiary sector is more likely to increase as more rural-urban migration looks for
jobs. Due to increase in leisure activities also more ppl needed to work

Factors influencing location:

HUMAN PHYSICAL

Labour: Available raw materials:

- Skilled: quaternary needs skilled labour For any industries that use raw materials
- Cheap: some industries produce in LEDC’s as (especially weight loss industries), it is very
producing costs cheaper important to be close to them.
Reliable Electricity and Water Supply: For all Climate: For some industries a good climate can
industries a constant electricity supply is essential be very important. For example you would not
because industries can't afford breaks in production. locate a solar panel research and development
Markets: To survive, need customers- important to company in a place where the sun never shines.
locate near potential market. (Industries that produce Natural Transport Links: In an increasingly
bulky + heavy, more expensive to transport so need to globalised world, products are now sold worldwide.
be closer to market, footloose industries= high tech, no) Therefore it is important to be close to natural
Gov. policies: transport routes e.g. rivers and the coast.
Industrial development can be encouraged or restricted Nice Environment: For tertiary+quaternary
by gov. E.g. Industries located near depressed industries who are trying to attract skilled workers,
development offered incentives by gov. → more likely useful to be near nice environment to make
to be set there working there more attractive.
Transport Links: Imp, to be near major transport routes Land:
and rail links-reduces transport costs → allow the import - Flat: lot easier to build on flat land than
of raw materials and the export of finished goods. hilly land so most industries look for flat
Nearby Universities: Especially for quaternary sites.
industries, really important to be close to good - Available: If industries are successful they
universities → need skilled workers for research + will want to expand, so most industries will
available laboratories look for sites that have the potential to
expand factories/offices. Needs lots of land
Good Housing:To attract workers to location it is to expand so not only does it have to be
important that there is suitable housing nearby so that large but also cheap to avoid high cost
they don’t have to commute. In quaternary sectors-good
housing, in secondary industry- high density cheaper Water supply:
housing For many industries, especially manufacturing, it is
very important to be near a reliable water supply
(river or reservoir).

Why does sometimes production take place in other countries?

1) Cheaper production, as workforce paid less, eventually company benefits more as
produces more quantity for less
2) Cheaper work material, sometimes more availability of products → wider range +
cheaper
3) Easier access to markets: the place were manufacture can take place could be
closer to big markets, which means that it is closer to potential customers→ increase
in sales
4) If companies produce in other countries→ greater chance of being known worldwide
as it expands globally e.g. If an american company produces in China, the product
reaches American markets and Chinese markets

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Benefits for country where production takes place:
● More recognition
● Improvement of transport

3.4 TOURISM

Tourism → travel away from the home environment, for leisure, recreation, to visit friends
and relations or for business reasons

Physical and human attractions of a landscape:

Physical Human

- Beach - Monuments / historical buildings

- Pleasant climate, clear skies - Shops
- Cliffs, beautiful scenery - Restaurants
- Vegetation - Events eg football/ festivals
- Sea - Architecture

The growth of tourism

- World tourism has increased gradually each year. The gradient/speed of growth has
increased from 2010. In 2009, it dropped rapidly. Increases from 25 million in 1950 to
1.3 billion in 2017.
- The number of tourism decreases due to the global economic crisis, this is why less
people travelled→ less tourism

Reasons for the growth of tourism *common 5 mark question

Cheaper flights/ budget airlines Means more people can afford to fly and go on holiday

Internet Has allowed people to book online, which is quicker,

easier and often cheaper

More adverts Means more people are aware about different holiday
destinations available. This means that they want to
travel abroad

More retired people Have more free time as they dont work, so they can go
away. They also have more money to spend on holiday

Eurotunnel Allows people to travel by train, which is more

convenient as you do not have airport check-in and
security. It is also a different option for travelling to and
from the UK

Increased life expectancy More years of travel

High levels of international migration People travel to visit families

Government backing for major E.g Olympic Games and World Cup
events

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 Many governments have invested Growth in tourism as it has improved, more people
heavily to encourage tourism want to travel

Growth of range of activities E.g adventure sports or surfing

Suggest factors that may cause a decline in tourist arrivals at a particular destination
- Overcrowding
- Bad weather
- Unwelcoming locals/ tensions
- Terrorism/ crime/ dangerous - less secure
- High costs
- Natural hazards or risky areas
- Low tech or connectivity
- Bad transportation systems/ bad airports
- Pollution
- Outbreak of disease
- Visa restrictions
- Exchange rates: the currency is expensive to buy

Leisure time: free time used for enjoyment

Disposable income: money that people have left over after paying for basics such as
mortgages and other bills that they can spend on luxuries such as holidays

Benefits and disadvantages of tourism

BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES

Growth in income→ tourism provides Seasonal unemployment→ unreliable as no one has stable
jobs- unemployment is lower- more for full years
money- improves quality of life Under-use of facilities at certain times of the year→
An increase in foreign exchange→ decrease in economy during certain times of the year- also
increase in trade and creates better means facilities need maintenance as aren't being in use
relationships with other countries Shortage of services→ people suffer and dont have the
Employment opportunities→ more good living standard to live a free life e.g water supplies
people gain jobs- less unemployment- Damage physical landscapes→ less attractive place
can have a stable life Increased congestion→ hard movement- transport is
Development of infrastructure and collapsed- people avoid visiting again
facilities which may be used by local Pollution→ health risks, global warming- dirty- less people
population→ more places for people to visit
use and relax- attracting more people Social/ cultural problems→ discrimination, disagreements
Cultural exchange→ better relationships, might lead to conflicts- people feel unwelcome, don’t visit
makes economy better and new ideas Exploitation of culture/ loss of traditional culture→ leads to
displacement of tourist shops, replacing local shops

Describe how tourism can earn money for a country

- Creates thousands of jobs directly eg hotels
- Creates jobs indirectly eg improving infrastructure
- Boosts revenue of economy

How does tourism create employment

- Services e.g people working in hotels, restaurants etc.

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 - People building infrastructure
- Transport- bus drivers, taxis, pilots

Explain why tourism leads to the development of a country's infrastructure

- Creates additional development of the place e.g parks, gardens and museums
- Have to improve/ build more roads, airports- so tourists can move easily and arrive at
destination
- Increases reliability of water/ electricity- tourists won’t go if it isn't good
- Invest in communication systems e.g wifi connections- so they can talk back no me
and can stay connected
- Hospitals/ health care improved
- Attracts foreign exchange/ money brought in- more (tax) income- increases economy

Benefits tourism brings for an LEDC

- Foreign currency spent by tourists- invested in improving local education/ health
- Local infrastructure is improved e.g sanitation/ water facilities
- Foreign cultures or ideas are brought to LEDC

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Sustainability: the practice of using natural resources responsibly, so they can support both
present and future generations

Ecotourism: a type of sustainable development so that natural environments and wildlife

are protected

How can tourism in an island be developed in a sustainable way/neg. impacts

reduced:
● Introduce quotas: amount of tourists limited e.g. Machupicchu= also means that the
fewer people the less damage to env. As can be controlled much more
● Protecting natural parks
● Fines set up for people who damage environment by for example littering
● Entry fees to natural reserves→ money then used to preserve environment
● Encourage tourists to eat local products to avoid imports + encourage tourist to stay
in local owned places→ locals earn more money
● Increase use of renewable energies(solar,wind,hydroelectric), also in hotel e.g. offer
incentives to customers not asking for towel wash everyday
● Increase number of resorts that protect natural environment→ eco lodges

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3.5 ENERGY

Energy: a property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work or heat on
that object

FUELWOOD
→ Wood is harvested from forest lands and combusted directly for useable heat= renewable
energy
- Uses: heating, cooking, scaring away wild animals+fuelling steam engines/turbines
that generate electricity
- Most common source of energy in LEDCs- about 2.5 billion people rely on fuelwood
as main source of energy
- Countries can't afford to buy raw materials to produce energy, don't have
technology/money to build+operate power stations and don't have a national grid to
distribute energy→ so use fuelwood

Problems include social and environmental:

- Deforestation and biodiversity loss
- Dangers of breathing in smoke inside houses
- Risk of fires

NUCLEAR POWER
→ Electric/motive power generated by a nuclear reactor.
- Heat is used to change water into steam in boiler→ steam drives the turbine (heat→
kinetic energy) → this drives generator to produce electricity (kinetic to electrical
energy)
- Non-renewable

Advantages Disadvantages

- Reduces dependency on fossil fuel - Risk of nuclear accidents- large

countries amounts of radioactive material
- Fuel prices don’t fluctuate as much as oil released
or gas - Terrorist target
- Low carbon greenhouse gas emissions - Possible increase in certain types of
- High energy density cancer near nuclear plants
- High level of reliability - Nuclear waste remains radioactive and
- Nuclear technology helps in fields such is hazardous to health for thousands of
as medicine and agriculture years, must be stored safely
- Only small amounts of uranium used so - Socially seen as a threat
could be developed in any country - Radiation could end up ruining
communities

Non-renewable energy
Non-renewable energy→ energy that exist in finite amounts and are not renewed after they
have been depleted e.g oil, coal and natural gas
- Mainly used in MEDCs
- Takes millions of years for them to form

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 - Coal: formed by energy stored by plants which by heat and pressure turn dead plants
into coal
- Petroleum and natural gas: pressure and heat turn buried dead tiny sea plants and
animals into oil and gas by drilling down through layers of sand, silt and rock to reach
rock formations that contain gas and oil deposits

FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuel Advantages Disadvantages

Coal - Lasts 300 years, lasts longer - Non-renewable

than oil or gas - Cost of production is high
- Cheap to mine - Pollutes atmosphere- leads to global
- Ready made fuel warming
- Cheap to convert to electricity - Produces lots of greenhouse gases
- Affordable→ stable price

Oil - More efficient than coal - Running out, limited supply

- Easier to transport - When burnt→ gives off atmospheric
- High energy density pollutants e.g greenhouse gases
- Cheap to extract and convert - Most expensive to export
into energy - Leaks+accidents when transported
- Lasts only 50-70 years

Gas - Energy efficient - Explosive

- Cheaper than oil - Prices fluctuate
- Cleanest of fossil fuels - Acid rain
- Abundant - When burnt burned→ GH gases
- Harder to transport

Availability of Fossil fuels

- Direct access to fossil fuel reserves is a coincidence of geology and international

boundaries
- Some countries have more FFs supplies than their needs, others have none
- Reserves decrease over time e.g. gas in UK’s once abundant North Sea oil and gas
- Remaining oil and gas will increasingly concentrate in the Middle East over the next
30 years

High reserves of:

Oil- Venezuela, Saudi Arabia and Canada
Gas- Russia, Iran, Qatar
Coal- USA, Russia, Australia

Suggest reasons for the varying patterns in energy consumption (4)

● Factories and offices are run using energy. As countries develop economically,
build more factories+offices for ppl to work in. Consumer appliances+
devices→ more technology→ higher demand
● High natural supply available in country→ cheap
● Population size (big= more demand)
● Large manufacturing/industrial sector= high demand
● Large quaternary sector- reliant on it= high demand

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 ● Geolocation: cold= more heating (far north), hot= more A.C } higher demand

Suggest reasons why the importance of different methods of generating electricity varies
from country to country (4)
● Availability of reserves of fossil fuels/coal/oil/natural gas
● Level of development/technology available
● Government policy/attitude/towards the environment eg nuclear power
● Environmental conditions e.g opportunity to use solar power, HEP etc

Renewable energy
Renewable resources can be used over and over again (continuous) and are considered to
be sustainable, infinite supply e.g geothermal, solar, wind.

SOLAR POWER: energy from sun- sunlight is captured by solar panels and turned into
electricity
ADVANTAGES
- No noise or direct pollution
- Very limited maintenance required
- Technology is improving and reducing costs

DISADVANTAGES
- Initial high cost of solar plants
- Solar power cannot be harnessed during storms, clouds, night…
- Large areas of land required
- Limited use in countries with low annual hours of sunshine

TIDAL: marine turbines in the sea use the movement caused by tides to generate electric
power
ADVANTAGES
- Ideal for islands
- Potential to generate lots of energy

DISADVANTAGES
- Expensive

WIND ENERGY: wind turbines are used to make electricity in windy places
ADVANTAGES
- Produces reasonable levels of electricity (effective and comparatively cheap)
- Emission free
- Suitable locations for turbines can be found in almost every country
- Flexibility of location with offshore wind farms gaining in popularity

DISADVANTAGES
- Requires wind
- Visual impact on scenic landscapes
- Rotor blades may kill birds
- Noise pollution

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BIOMASS: plant and animal matter (e.g wood, waste food) burnt to produce energy, but
gives out pollutants

HYDROELECTRICITY: kinetic energy from moving water. Water flowing from a reservoir
to a river through a dam is used to make power
ADVANTAGES
- Can easily be turned on
- Very reliable

DISADVANTAGES
- Destroy habitat of estuary species and may flood farmlands
- Rotting vegetation underwater releases methane- greenhouse gases

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: energy from the natural heat of the Earth, deep underground
ADVANTAGES
- Geothermal plants occupy relatively small land areas
- Not dependent on weather conditions
- Relatively low maintenance costs and emission free

DISADVANTAGES
- Few locations world wide where big energy can be created
- Installation costs of plants and piping are relatively high
- Locations are far from where the energy could be used

WAVE: generators are placed on the ocean's surface, energy levels are determined by
strength of the waves
ADVANTAGES
- Abundant and widely available
- No damage to land

DISADVANTAGES
- Noise + visual pollution
- Effects of marine ecosystems

HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS: make ‘clean’ electricity from hydrogen gas. They work like
batteries and can power cars or buses

Suggest reasons why the USA wants to reduce its dependence on imported oil
● Increase economic growth
● Reduce economic vulnerability
● Increase reliance secure powers
● Increase employment + faster economic growth
● Inflation would be adjusted

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3.6 WATER

Uses of water
Agriculture: to water plants→ irrigation

Industrial:
● Heated to make steam to turn turbines
● Cooling down reactors

Domestic:
● Household: e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking
● Recreational e.g. swimming, sports

Environmental: preserving water in a dam

Methods of water supply

DAMS → wall built across a river made out of concrete, holds back water
+ Water can be released gradually when needed

RESERVOIRS → artificial lake (man made) that develops behind a dam

+ Can be used when needed
- Too large scale + expensive for rural areas

WELLS/BOREHOLES → holes dug deep to access water

+ Inexpensive + lasts long
- Takes long time + chance of contamination

SEWAGE TREATMENT→ Removal of contaminants from waste water & household

sewage
● Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to remove all the contaminants
and make safe

DESALINATION
● Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
● Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semipermeable membrane to remove salt
+ Accessible drinking water + helps w/habitat protection
+ Reuses waste gases/energy
- High costs to operate + lots of energy needed

Key terms
Aquifer: Porous rocks were water is stored
Water table: Rocks that can hold water
Groundwater: The barrier/boundary between saturated and unsaturated ground

Problems caused when groundwater not used responsibly:

58
Salinisation: An increase in salt content of water-occurs if more water being removed than
replaced in aquifer
Saltwater intrusion: the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers-leads to
contamination of fresh drinking water sources
Subsidence: collapsing of ground- happens if ground is removed from an aquifer
underground

Water shortages
Economic water scarcity: water available, but inaccessible due to lack of
investment/infrastructure, to extract/transport water
Physical water scarcity: not enough water available to meet demands – can be caused by
low precipitation
Water stress: demand exceeds supply of water → water shortages→ droughts

CAUSES OF WATER SHORTAGES

→ As economies develop the demand for water increases. Demand for water in HICs is
considerably higher than NEEs and LICs.

● Population Growth: world's population grows→ pressure on water sources due to

increase in demand
● Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries→ less water available to
supply demand
● Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that waste is often pumped directly
into water sources→ fall in supply
● Climate Change:
● Global warming may be releasing freshwater from glaciers & ice shelves, but
much of it is running directly into oceans; inaccessible
● Climate change→ increase in temp→ more evaporation → fall in supply
● Political: water sources are often shared between countries, come countries more
control than others
● Rising sea levels: causes an increase in saltwater intrusion of aquifers→ less
drinkable water→ fall in supply
● Agriculture: A greater demand in food leads to greater need for irrigation, so more
water needed
● Rapid urbanisation: → more shanty towns → no proper sewage treatment → water
pollution → fall in supply
● Increase in wealth: more domestic use-e.g. More demand for baths/showers,
washing machines…

IMPACTS OF WATER SHORTAGES

● Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged period
● Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage → Ppl undernourished + suffer
from famine
● Conflict: arise when sharing a limited supply of water
● Crop failure: farmers cannot irrigate crops
● Refugees: If drought or famine, ppl forced out to relocate or face death
● Stagnant dirty water: increased risk of diseases

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 ● Disease: Dirty water attracts mosquitoes→ diseases e.g. Malaria Hepatitis, Typhoid
also caused by dirty water
● Groundwater depletion
● Biodiversity loss: Big animals that require lots of water to survive, can die if water
shortage
→ die of thirst and starvation→ loss of biodiversity due to animal death
● Eutrophication:
● Run-off from farms containing fertilisers causes excess growth of algae in
water
● Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light
● Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die

SOLUTIONS
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better policies regarding disposal and
reuse of wastewater

Water metering: Measuring water use and charging them per unit of water used + reduces
wastage + makes ppl conscious of water use

Conservation:
● Half flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
● Collecting rainwater to use on garden
● Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
→ ppl can also be educated to reduce water usage

International cooperation: sustainable policies used when water is shared amongst

countries
→ encourages responsible use, preventing water shortages

Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute water & water the land

Dam Construction: can create artificial stores that can collect water in rainy seasons and +
distribute during drier seasons

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3.7 ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Threats to natural environment due to economic activities
● Thermal power stations burn fossil fuels which release greenhouse gases
● Non-biodegradable waste from industries and households lead to soil pollution
● Chemical wastes from industries and mining lead to water pollution
● Agriculture→ requires pesticides + fertilisers which lead to water pollution of rivers +
desertification + soil erosion
- Eutrophication: excessive algae grown on surface→ plants underneath/fish
starved from light + oxygen
● Nuclear power stations→ radioactive waste disposed into rivers, water pollution
● Overfishing→ reduces biodiversity in marine life
● tourism → litter damages habitats + wildlife, deforestation to build hotels + resorts
● Manufacturing goods→ waste disposal in rivers, water pollution
● Deforestation→ soil erosion leads to higher flood risk as tree roots make soil porous
● Logging to timber/palm oil industry → animals lose habitat
● Urbanisation: land cleared for buildings→ deforestation + habitats destroyed
● Increase in non-renewable resources leads to higher levels of air pollution + global
warming
● Coal mining: collapse of ground-subsidence→ destruction of habitat
● Machinery, motor vehicles lead to noise pollution/air pollution
● Transportation: vehicles emissions from combustion = increase in
greenhouse gases

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES THAT POLLUTE WATER

● Agriculture: pesticides used in agriculture runoff into rivers when it rains→ water
pollution, kill marine life
● Manufacturing: produce lots of waste→ part of it is disposed into rivers→ water
pollution
● Fossil fuel production: cause oil spills→ water polluted, marine life killed due to toxic
substances

SOIL EROSION
→ involves erosion and reduction of topsoil quality (upper soil loses organic matter and
nutrients + loss of the most fertile topsoil reduces crop yield-productivity)

→ The more extreme the climate, the poorer the soils + greater chance of soil
degradation/erosion

Causes:
● Overcultivation: loss of soil structure through ploughing + digging
● Overgrazing by animals-rearing too many animals in relation to amount of grass
available
● Removing vegetation by cutting down trees and bushes for fuel or to make way for
more farmland. This exposes the soil to the wind and rain.
● Floods: powerful flow of water- tears away top layers of soil

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 ● Population increase: demand for food increases → lack of arable land leads to
intensive cultivation → causes degradation + infertile soil

● In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers & pollutes drinking water

DESERTIFICATION
→ an impact of soil erosion: destroying vegetation, resulting in “desert” like conditions

Physical causes:
● Droughts: plants aren’t watered→ extreme dry conditions→ desertification
● High temps: high temperatures cause high rates of evapotranspiration → high rate
of moisture loss from soils → desertification
● Climate change: global climate getting warmer + drier → desertification
● Infrequent periods of rainfall:
○ if infrequent, the cooling effect of rainfall on the land surface declined → soils
to dry out in the heat → more prone to erosion.

Human causes:
● Overgrazing: when farmers have too many livestock in a small area → exhausts
land → too dry → desertification
● Agricultural mismanagement: lack of knowledge → poor irrigation techniques →
dry land: desertification
● Overcultivation: In order to support increasing populations or when cash crops
grown → ppl needing to cultivate in marginal areas → soil fertility falls → nutrients +
soil structure deteriorates → exposing soil to erosion → desertification
● Population growth - the population in some desert areas is increasing, due to
developments in mining, tourism..
○ increased population=greater pressure on the environment for resources
such as wood and water.
● Removal of wood - As the population in desert areas increases, there is a greater
need for fuel wood e.g. for cooking or as an energy source→ if land cleared,roots of
the trees no longer hold the soil together→ more vulnerable to soil erosion →
desertification

Exam question: suggest three reasons why some areas have severe levels of desertification
Over abstraction: (excessive use of water) for agricultural irrigation has left behind a higher
salinity of soil → drier deserts → potential risk of desertification
Overpopulated areas: more people, so more resources needed e.g. paper. In order for this
to happen more trees need to be cut → more deforestation → area starts to dry →
desertification
Extreme temps. in some areas: as temps rise, more evaporation occurs → less
precipitation → drier areas

ENHANCED GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming occurs due to too much greenhouse gases

Greenhouse effect:

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 - When infrared radiation passes through atmosphere, & some is absorbed and
re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse
gas molecules
- This warms the surface & lower
atmosphere
- Occurs due to too much greenhouse
gases

Greenhouse effect→ greenhouse gases in

atmosphere trap heat around Earth. Without this,
the planet would be too cold for life.
Enhanced greenhouse effect→ caused by
human activity and is heating the atmosphere
too much. Causes global warming much quicker.

CAUSES OF (ENHANCED) GW/CC:

● Energy: Fossil fuels burnt→ release CO2 → Greenhouse gases trap heat→ warmer
Earth (GW, CC)
● Deforestation: release carbon sinks of trees to atmosphere (release of Greenhouse
gases) & cut off oxygen produced by trees
● Tourism→ deforestation & waste disposal→ pollution and emission of GHGs→ GW

Greenhouse gases:
CO2= human activities→ burning fossil fuels or wood, deforestation
Methane= very potent GHG, released from digestive processes of livestock and from
decomposing organic matter & waste
CFCs= aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators
Nitrogen Oxides= car exhausts & power stations, and biomass combustion

Effects:
- Melting poles= rising sea levels= increase in storms
- Change in the distribution of precipitation
- Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust
- Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America
- More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases

Explain how economic activity is leading to enhanced global warming. (5)

- Cattle farming to meet global rise in demand for food (mainly beef)--> more methane
released from cattle digestive processes
- Increase in transport due to global trade→ fossil fuel combustion releases CO2
- Burning of fossil fuels to produce energy e.g. power stations→ CO2 produced→ GHG
in atmosphere that trap extra heat are released
- Urbanisation→ land destroyed to build→ deforestation→ felled trees release CO2,
loss of carbon sink, less CO2 removed from atmosphere
- Tourism→ land cleared to build resorts/hotels/casinos→ deforestation= CO2
emissions and extra high energy use→ global warming

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Impacts of Climate Change

- Melting glaciers→ loss habitats (e.g. polar bears); sea level rise; scarce drinking
water
- Frequent Extreme Weather Events:
● Warmer global temperatures & thermal expansion of water > sea level rise >
stronger waves > more erosion > land destroyed / flooded > loss of habitats and
houses > homeless > poverty ...
● Floods > destruction of homes
● Droughts > Less soil moisture & Desertification > Famine
● Forest fires
● Coral reefs will disappear > many dependent species will extinct

Why might people be afraid? Threat to extinction of species, floods (due to sea level
rise), starvation (crop reduction), frequent extreme weather events

Thermal expansion of water→ increase in volume of ocean water as a result of increased

temperature of the water

Explain why global warming is a threat to the natural environment (4)

- Increase in temps may lead to rise in sea levels→ floods→ destroy habitats and and
kill/damage biodiversity
- Rise in temps→ long periods of dryness→ droughts→ huge wildfires→ deforestation
and animals/species killed
- Changes in climate→ makes it uncertain to predict→ hurricanes→ destruction of
habitats
- Warmer climate creates atmosphere that can collect, retain, and drop more water→
changing weather patterns→ wet areas become wetter and dry areas drier

Pollution
AIR POLLUTION
● Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances→
oxygen starvation
● Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes respiratory problems and acid rain
● Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to heat (furnace/engine); same effect
as sulphur dioxide
● Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous system

WATER POLLUTION
● Caused by manufacturing industries→ waste is thrown in water
● Wastewater is discharged into rivers→ sewage
● When transporting oil→ oil spills in sea→ pollution
● Acid rain→ destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
● Cancer rate has grown 30 times
● Chemicals in fertilisers cause eutrophication
● Health hazards for humans
● Damages limestone buildings and sculptures

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 ● Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field

NOISE POLLUTION
● Vehicles
● Machinery in industries and farms
● Noisy humans
● Congestion in highways
● Transport, tractors, agriculture, mining or quarrying (Lake District)
● Noisy people who stay up late partying, music
● Tourism
●
VISUAL POLLUTION
● All man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled nature
● Excessive artificial light: headaches, fatigue and loss of sleep
● Manufacturing industries setting up huge factories
● Street lights and buildings

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT + MANAGEMENT

Sustainable development= development that meets needs of present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Economic development without
destroying natural resources.

Why is sustainability important?

Considers future generations
Takes in consideration:
- Social: people treated equally e.g. minority groups and local people. Local benefit
and are involved in decision making
- Economic: makes profit and not expensive
- Environmental: protects environment. Minimises damage to environment

● Sustainable tourism
● Population policies
● Afforestation
● Use of renewable energy
●
RESOURCES CONSERVATION:
→ Meeting needs of present without affecting needs for the future
Due to higher population more demand of resources
Difficult to preserve and conserve when there is such a high demand

Why is it important to preserve natural resources?

→ helps maintain natural env.
→ protects environment from harmful human activities
→ takes millions of years to form natural resources so must preserve them and manage
correctly
→ plays an important role in the economic development of a country (trade, agriculture…)

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Examples:
● 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
● Renewable energy e.g. tidal, solar, wind to prevent usage of finite and more
damaging resources
● Afforestation- planting trees- prevents soil erosion, replaces trees + carbon sink
● Government can raise tax on petrol prices
● EU's common Fisheries policy: quota all countries agree on taking a certain amount
of resource to avoid finishing it
● Building of dams +reservoirs → conservation of water, also HEP generated
● Educating people on conserving resources e.g. using less water + energy
● Sustainable agriculture
○ Agroforestry- planting crops amongst trees e.g. vanilla succeeds in shade
○ Multiple crops on one form to limit used space

Why is it difficult to conserve resources?

- Growing population→ resources are needed for basic survival
- Lack of funding→ expensive
- Human ignorance→ people don't understand the value of protection
- Pursuit of profit+ high quality life→ overproduction and overconsumption

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