INTERNET AND WEB

TECHNOLOGIES
Web Technologies HANDBOOK

Developed By: IKUEJAWA ABIOLA OLADEJI (CPMP,

ACIPM, ACIEHS, CCSP, ACICRM, AESM)

JULY 23, 2023

BEST SOLUTION POLYTECHNIC, AKURE, ONDO STATE
KM 12, Ondo Road, Akure, Nigeria
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Week 1: Know the meaning and historical background of Internet

1.1 Internet

The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that
uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It
is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of
information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents
and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file
sharing.
The origins of the Internet date back to research to enable time-sharing of computer
resources and the development of packet switching in the 1960s. The set of rules
(communication protocols) to enable internetworking on the Internet arose from research
and development commissioned in the 1970s by the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense in collaboration with
universities and researchers across the United States and in the United
Kingdom and France. The ARPANET initially served as a backbone for the
interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the United States to
enable resource sharing. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new
backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions,
encouraged worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies
and the merger of many networks using DARPA's Internet protocol suite.[6] The linking of
commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s, as well as the advent of the World
Wide Web,[7] marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet,[8] and generated
a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal,
and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely
used by academia in the 1980s, subsequent commercialization is what incorporated its
services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.
Most traditional communication media, including telephone, radio, television, paper mail,
and newspapers, are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to
new services such as email, Internet telephone, Internet television, online music, digital
newspapers, and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing

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have adapted to website technology or have been reshaped into blogging, web feeds, and
online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal
interaction through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking
services. Online shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses,
and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar" presence to serve a
larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-
business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.
The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or
policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies.[9] The
overarching definitions of the two principal name spaces on the Internet, the Internet
Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by
a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols
is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of
loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing
technical expertise. In November 2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of
the New Seven Wonders.

1.2 History of Internet

In the 1960s, computer scientists began developing systems for time-sharing of computer
resources. J. C. R. Licklider proposed the idea of a universal network while working at Bolt
Beranek & Newman and, later, leading the Information Processing Techniques
Office (IPTO) at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United
States Department of Defense (DoD). Research into packet switching, one of the
fundamental Internet technologies, started in the work of Paul Baran in the early 1960s and,
independently, Donald Davies in 1965. After the Symposium on Operating Systems
Principles in 1967, packet switching from the proposed NPL network was incorporated into
the design of the ARPANET, an experimental resource sharing network proposed by
ARPA.

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ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were interconnected
between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and SRI International (SRI) on
29 October 1969.[26] The third site was at the University of California, Santa Barbara,
followed by the University of Utah. In a sign of future growth, 15 sites were connected to
the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972
film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing. Thereafter, the ARPANET
gradually developed into a decentralized communications network, connecting remote
centers and military bases in the United States. Other user networks and research networks,
such as the Merit Network and CYCLADES, were developed in the late 1960s and early
1970s.

Early international collaborations for the ARPANET were rare. Connections were made in
1973 to the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), and to Peter Kirstein's research group
at University College London, which provided a gateway to British academic networks,
forming the first internetwork for resource sharing. ARPA projects, international working
groups and commercial initiatives led to the development of various protocols and
standards by which multiple separate networks could become a single network or "a network
of networks". In 1974, Bob Kahn at DARPA and Vint Cerf at Stanford
University published their ideas for "A Protocol for Packet Network
Intercommunication". They used the term internet as a shorthand
for internetwork in RFC 675, and later RFCs repeated this use. Kahn and Cerf credit Louis
Pouzin with important influences on the resulting TCP/IP design. National PTTs and
commercial providers developed the X.25 standard and deployed it on public data
networks.

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science
Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of

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interconnected networks. TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when

the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) provided access
to supercomputer sites in the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and
later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. The NSFNet expanded into academic and research
organizations in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan in 1988–89. Although other
network protocols such as UUCP and PTT public data networks had global reach well
before this time, this marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network.
Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United States and
Australia. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.

1.3 Intranet and Ethernet

What Is an Intranet?

An Intranet is a private computer network used within an organization to share information

and resources. An Intranet is essentially a mini-internet that is accessible only to authorized
users within the organization.

It is typically accessed through a web browser and can be used to share files, documents,
and other information between employees or departments.

An Intranet is hosted on local servers and can be accessed through an organization’s local
network or remotely through a virtual private network (VPN).

Intranets often include security features like user authentication and access controls to
ensure that only authorized users can access sensitive information.

What Is an Ethernet?

Ethernet is a type of networking technology that allows devices to communicate with each
other over a local area network (LAN). It uses a set of protocols (rules) and hardware
standards to transmit data packets between devices connected to the network.

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Ethernet networks can be wired or wireless and are typically used in office buildings, homes,
and campuses to connect devices like computers, printers, and servers.

Ethernet networks are created by connecting devices to a central switch or router, which
manages the flow of data between devices.

Each device on the network is assigned a unique address called a Media Access Control
(MAC) address, which is used to identify the device and ensure that data packets are
delivered to the correct destination.

1.4 Internet and Intranet

Generally, most people are confused between the internet and the intranet. While there
are exist lots of differences to differentiate them.
Internet:
Internet is used to connect the different networks of computers simultaneously. It is a
public network therefore anyone can access the internet. On the internet, there are
multiple users and it provides an unlimited of information to the users.
Intranet:
Intranet is the type of internet that is used privately. It is a private network therefore
anyone can’t access the intranet. On the intranet, there is a limited number of users and it
provides a piece of limited information to its users.

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Types of network

Now, we shall see the difference between the internet and intranet:

S.NO Internet Intranet

1. Internet is used to connect different Intranet is owned by private firms.
networks of computers simultaneously.
2. On the internet, there are multiple users. On an intranet, there are limited
users.
3. Internet is unsafe. Intranet is safe.
4. On the internet, there is more number of In the intranet, there is less number
visitors. of visitors.
5. Internet is a public network. Intranet is a private network.
6. Anyone can access the Internet. In this, anyone can’t access the
Intranet.
7. The Internet provides unlimited Intranet provides limited
information. information.
8. Using Social media on your phone or A company used to communicate
researching resources via Google. internally with its employees and
share information
9. The Internet is a global network that An intranet is a private network that
connects millions of devices and connects devices and computers
computers worldwide. within an organization.
10. It is open to everyone and allows access An intranet is only accessible to
to public information, such as websites authorized users within the
and online services. organization.

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11. It is used for communication, sharing of An intranet is primarily used for

information, e-commerce, education, internal communication,
entertainment, and other purposes. collaboration, and information
sharing within an organization.
12. Users can access the Internet from any Access to an intranet is restricted to
location with an Internet connection and authorized users within the
a compatible device. organization and is typically limited
to specific devices and locations.
13. Security measures, such as firewalls, Intranets employ similar security
encryption, and secure sockets layer measures to protect against
(SSL) protocols, are used to protect unauthorized access and ensure the
against threats like hacking, viruses, and privacy and integrity of shared data.
malware.
14. The Internet is a public network that is Intranets are private networks that
not owned by any particular organization are owned and managed by the
or group. organization that uses them.
15. Examples of Internet-based services Examples of intranet-based services
include email, social media, search include internal communications,
engines, and online shopping sites. knowledge management systems,
and collaboration tools

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Week 2 -3: Understand how to navigate the Internet and Common website
functionalities

2.1 The Internet works and how devices communicate

The Internet is the world’s most fascinating invention to date. The journey started back
in 1969 as a part of a research program and by the time of the ’90s, it became a sensation
among everyone. In fact, today, if you’re reading this, you should be thankful for the
Internet.

With a drastic change over the period of time, technology has changed. Today the Internet
has become a necessity and it is being used by more than 2 Billion population throughout
the globe. So, if we go back to 1969, the journey of the internet started as a host-to-host
network interaction and there’s no denying that it couldn’t have been created by any
individual therefore, a team of researchers developed this idea and with the help of
programmers and architecture, the Internet was born by ARPA (Advanced Research
Projects Agency) in 1969 and was initially called as ARPANET. Now before we jump in,
let’s discuss step by step right from the beginning. If you break it down, the word Internet

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is derived from Interconnected Networks and this simply indicates that it needs networks
to be interconnected.
How does it Work?
Generally, two main components uphold the functionality of the Internet, they are:
1. Packets
2. Protocols
So what are Packets and Protocols?
In networking, the data which is being transmitted through the internet is sent via small
segments/chunks which are later translated into bits, and the packets get routed to their
endpoint (destination) through different networking devices i.e. routers or switches. Later,
once the packet arrives at the receiver’s end, that small chunks of data get reassembled in
order to utilize or check the data that he/she requested. That’s why they are used to push
ease in networking and large data can be easily sent by sending small units and this whole
process of sending/receiving small bits is known as Packet Switching.
Now let’s understand with an example – Let’s say a user wants to load an image from the
internet so the moment user clicks over the image, the whole image will not open in one
go. A small amount of data will start going from the server and will reach the endpoint
(user) and the moment all data will reach the user’s system, the image will open on the
user’s end. Those small packets are being sent via wires, radio waves, etc. of the internet
and once it completes its fetching, the user will be able to view the whole image.
Theoretically, a packet may consist of 1000-1500 bytes depending upon the structure and
connection.
Basic Infrastructure of the Internet
On the other end, do you know what a challenging task could be? Connecting two
computers with the help of any communication method. To solve the connection
issue, protocols were introduced. It is a standardized method of performing certain tasks
and data formatting so that two or more devices can communicate with each other.
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Let’s narrow it down for better clarity:

 Ethernet – If both systems are connected over the same network
 IP (Internet Protocol) – for receiving and sending packets from network to network
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – To ensure that those packets are arriving
successfully in the same order,
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) – for formatting data over websites and apps
Besides this, there are several other protocols for testing, routing, and encryption, and for
streaming games/videos, rather than using TCP, we use UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
The bottom line is, no matter what kind of connection you’re providing to which device,
it can interpret and understand these protocols, that’s just because they’ll are connected
over the Internet.
How Does The Internet Work?
When You “Google” From a Web Browser
From opening a web browser to visiting a website, it all happens with specific methods
that we’re going to check in these 5 easy steps.

Internet Working Metrics

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1. Firstly, you’ll be required to connect your system or PC with any router or modem to
establish a connection. This connection is the base of the internet connection.
2. When you open the browser and start typing something like “www.google.com”, your
system will push a query command to your ISP (Internet Service Provider) that is
connected with other servers that store and process data.
3. Now, the web browser will start indexing the URL that you’ve entered and will fetch
the details in numeric format (in their own language to identify the
address (unique) that you’re trying to reach.
4. Next is, now your browser will start sending the HTTP request where you’re trying to
reach and sends a copy of the website on the user’s system. Note: The server will send
data in the form of small packets (from the website to the browser)
5. Once all the data (of small packets) will be received at the user’s end (PC/Laptop), the
browser will start arranging all those small packets and later will form a collective file
(here, the browser will gather all the small packets and rearrange them just like a
puzzle) and then you’ll be able to see the contents of that website
Note: The action happens so quickly that we don’t even notice what’s actually going
behind. Only, when the connection is poor, you do face difficulty in reaching or loading
any website or its content.
What are the Modes of Connecting through the Internet?
There are certain ways of getting connected to the Internet and going online. So, for that,
you need an ISP (Internet Service Provider), the type of ISP you’ll be choosing will
depend upon the availability in your area and what kind of services they’re offering to
their customers. So, here we are listing some universal modes of the internet:
 DSL: This technology (Digital Subscriber Line) uses a Broadband connection which
is in trend for the past few years. Your ISP will connect your premises with the help of
telephone wire despite the fact that you own a telephone.

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 Dial-Up: People used to connect their system with the help of a dial-up connection,
and it is one of the slowest types of Internet connection. This is used to enable internet
connectivity with the help of a telephone connection and the user must have multiple
connections then only they can use a Dial-up connection.
 Cable TV Connection: It is being used to connect your system to the Internet, and for
that, you, ISP will connect it via cable TV wire. It also uses Broadband technology
and you really don’t need to have a Cable connection for that. Cable is considered as
most accessible as and faster than dial-up and DSL that we have for connection.
 Satellite: It also uses broadband technology but without interacting with any cable
connection. Hence, it connects wirelessly with the help of a satellite and this enables
its availability anywhere in the world. Thus, being fancy and accessible it comes with
a few drawbacks:
a- There can be network disturbance if the weather is unstable because it connects via
satellite.
b- The connectivity is not stable and they are considered slower as compared to DSL
or cable connection.
 3G/4G/5G: This is the new age technology in the entire world. It connects wirelessly
via different ISPs and is widely used in cell phones. But they aren’t considered as stable
as DSL or cable and most importantly they come with a DATA LIMITATION cap for
each month.

What are Internet Connection Protocols & Why is it Important for the Internet?
The protocols decide how the technology is going to work and in what governing ways
and what would be the quantity of data will be shared. They all are defined by protocols
and as per standard, both the parties (sender/receiver) have to follow the same rule in order
to communicate. However, these protocols are categorized into 3 major units:

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1. TCP/IP: It is a variety of internet protocols (TCP/IP) for communicating between a

sender and a receiver. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) / IP (Internet Protocol)
ensures that all users who are connected to the internet have their own unique identity
known as IP Address. However, how data will flow into what segments (packets) is
being decided by TCP. It divides the whole message into small packets and reassembles
them before it reaches the receiver.
2. FTP: It is used for communicating from one point to another (computer)
over LAN (Local Area Network) or WAN (Wide Area Network). File Transfer
Protocol or FTP acts like a host and establishing connections between computers and
transferring files between them are seamless whereas one connection is used for data
connection and the other for the control connection.
3. HTTP: The base of the Internet starts from HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and
is being used to communicate all over (World Wide Web) WWW. The concept of
HTTP is to provide data over the Internet (image, video, text, etc.) and the moment a
user opens their web browser, they’re connecting to the Internet and establishing an
HTTP connection. The foundation of HTTP began in the ’90s by Tim Berners-Lee
which runs on top of the TCP/IP network.
What are the Pillars of the Internet?
As we’ve discussed above, the Internet is built with different architectures and that’s what
makes it feasible for the general population. Besides this, some of the most important types
include the following:
 Switches: Switches help for connecting devices in a single network and use small
packet switching to send and receive data packets over the Internet. Besides this, they
have multiple ports by which a system can be connected. So, when a packet arrives at
any port, it starts cross-checking the specifications and forwards the same to its
destination. It also supports broadcast and unicast communication.

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 Router: They operate at the layer 3 OSI (Open Systems Interconnection Model) model
that is created for sending, receiving, and forwarding small data packets within the
connected system over the same network. In this architecture, once the router receives
the data packets, it inspects the destined address, then consults its routing and transfers
the same packet to its desired location.
How do Websites and Several Applications use the Internet?
Let us understand in a simplified way, considering this article that you’re reading right
now. How you’re accessing it? The answer is pretty simple, as we discussed above, this
article is being sent via cable or radio waves to your system in the form of small data
packets from our web server right through the router and switches. Now, right after this,
once your system receives those small packets, the system will pass the same to your web
browser, and at last, your web browser (chrome, edge, etc.) will reassemble all those small
packets in a singular unit so that you can now view the display for what you’ve requested
from the server i.e. this article.
However, there are other specifications too which involves in this process, they are:
1. DNS Query: They act as a directory in the web browser. When you’re looking for any
specific domain, let’s say www.onlineabiolian.com.ng So here, your browser doesn’t
know this address, and for that, it will start looking out for validation and a request will
be sent to the server. Once the identity will get confirmed from the database, you’ll get
to see the results on your system.
2. Handshaking (TCP & TLS): When two system connects via a router, the process of
determining protocols, speed, compression, and error correction during that particular
session is simply called handshaking between networking devices. In this, establishing
a connection with that IP is what we call TCP handshaking whereas, it is also mandated
to keep your system safe so that no attackers can read those data packets and for that,
encryption is being created which is known as TLS handshake.

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3. HTTP (Request & Response): When you request any page from the browser, take an
example of www.onlineabiolian.com.ng here, so when you send a request to read the
article “How does the Internet work?” then the server pushes the content to the form of
CSS, HTML, and JavaScript and same will get distributed in small data packets. The
moment your system will receive those packets, your browser will start interpreting
those packets, and the whole article will appear on your screen. (It might sound typical,
but won’t take more than 3 seconds)

2.2 Domain Name System DNS and explain how to name servers in the DNS
The Domain Name System (DNS) turns domain names into IP addresses, which browsers
use to load internet pages. Every device connected to the internet has its own IP address,
which is used by other devices to locate the device. DNS servers make it possible for people
to input normal words into their browsers, such as Fortinet.com, without having to keep
track of the IP address for every website.

What is a DNS Server?

A DNS server is a computer with a database containing the public IP addresses associated
with the names of the websites an IP address brings a user to. DNS acts like a phonebook
for the internet. Whenever people type domain names, like Fortinet.com or Yahoo.com, into
the address bar of web browsers, the DNS finds the right IP address. The site’s IP address
is what directs the device to go to the correct place to access the site’s data.

Once the DNS server finds the correct IP address, browsers take the address and use it to
send data to content delivery network (CDN) edge servers or origin servers. Once this is
done, the information on the website can be accessed by the user. The DNS server starts the
process by finding the corresponding IP address for a website’s uniform resource locator
(URL).

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How Does DNS Work?

In a usual DNS query, the URL typed in by the user has to go through four servers for the
IP address to be provided. The four servers work with each other to get the correct IP address
to the client, and they include:

1. DNS recursor: The DNS recursor, which is also referred to as a DNS resolver, receives the
query from the DNS client. Then it communicates with other DNS servers to find the right
IP address. After the resolver retrieves the request from the client, the resolver acts like a
client itself. As it does this, it makes queries that get sent to the other three DNS servers:
root nameservers, top-level domain (TLD) nameservers, and authoritative nameservers.
2. Root nameservers: The root nameserver is designated for the internet's DNS root zone. Its
job is to answer requests sent to it for records in the root zone. It answers requests by sending
back a list of the authoritative nameservers that go with the correct TLD.
3. TLD nameservers: A TLD nameserver keeps the IP address of the second-level domain
contained within the TLD name. It then releases the website’s IP address and sends the
query to the domain’s nameserver.
4. Authoritative nameservers: An authoritative nameserver is what gives you the real answer
to your DNS query. There are two types of authoritative nameservers: a master server or
primary nameserver and a slave server or secondary nameserver. The master server keeps
the original copies of the zone records, while the slave server is an exact copy of the master
server. It shares the DNS server load and acts as a backup if the master server fails.

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Authoritative DNS Servers vs. Recursive DNS Servers: What’s the Difference?
Authoritative nameservers keep information of the DNS records. A recursive server acts as
a middleman, positioned between the authoritative server and the end-user. To reach the
nameserver, the recursive server has to “recurse” through the DNS tree to access the
domain’s records.

Authoritative DNS Server

To use the phone book analogy, think of the IP address as the phone number and the person’s
name as the website’s URL. Authoritative DNS servers have a copy of the “phone book”
that connects these IP addresses with their corresponding domain names. They provide
answers to the queries sent by recursive DNS nameservers, providing information on where

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to find specific websites. The answers provided have the IP addresses of the domains
involved in the query.

Authoritative DNS servers are responsible for specific regions, such as a country, an
organization, or a local area. Regardless of which region is covered, an authoritative DNS
server does two important jobs. First, the server keeps lists of domain names and the IP
addresses that go with them. Next, the server responds to requests from the recursive DNS
server regarding the IP address that corresponds with a domain name.

Once the recursive DNS server gets the answer, it sends that information back to the
computer that requested it. The computer then uses that information to connect to the IP
address, and the user gets to see the website.

Recursive DNS Server

After a user types in a URL in their web browser, that URL is given to the recursive DNS
server. The recursive DNS server then examines its cache memory to see whether the IP
address for the URL is already stored. If the IP address information already exists, the
recursive DNS server will send the IP address to the browser. The user is then able to see
the website for which they typed in the URL.

On the other hand, if the recursive DNS server does not find the IP address when it searches
its memory, it will proceed through the process of getting the IP address for the user. The
recursive DNS server's next step is to store the IP address for a specific amount of time.
This period of time is defined by the person who owns the domain using a setting referred
to as time to live (TTL).
DNS Servers and IP Addresses

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Computers and various devices that use the internet depend on IP addresses to send a user's
request to the website they are attempting to reach. Without DNS, you would have to keep
track of the IP addresses of all the websites you visit, similar to carrying around a phone
book of websites all the time. The DNS server allows you to type in the name of the website.
It then goes out and gets the right IP address for you. Armed with the IP address, your
computer (or browser) can bring you to the site.

For instance, if you input www.fortinet.com in your web browser, that URL, on its own,
cannot bring you to the website. Those letters cannot be “read” by the servers that connect
you with the site. However, the servers are able to read IP addresses. The DNS server figures
out which IP address corresponds with www.fortinet.com and sends it to your browser.
Then the website appears on your device’s screen because the browser now knows where
to take your device.

DNS Server Not Responding? What Does That Mean?

You may get a message that says “DNS server isn’t responding” after entering a domain
name in the URL bar of your browser. This means there was an attempt to communicate
with the DNS server, but the server failed to return a result. This could be due to a few
different things:

1. Your internet connection is weak or unstable, making it hard for your browser to
communicate with the DNS server
2. Your DNS settings or browser need to be updated
3. There is an issue with the DNS server, such as a loss of power at the data center where it is
housed

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Best DNS Servers

Here are some of the top DNS servers available:

1. Cloudflare 1.1.1.1. This is a simple-to-use DNS service that comes with tutorials
for all of the most popular operating systems, such as Mac, Windows, Android, iOS, and
Linux. Users can also use Cloudflare’s service to block adult content.

2. Google Public DNS. The Google Public DNS service is different from Cloudflare’s
in that it is designed for more technically adept users. But you can find tutorials if needed.

3. Quad9. Quad9’s DNS service is renowned for its fast performance. It also claims to
block malicious sites using threat intelligence data.

Browser DNS Caching

The operating system (OS) used by your device stores DNS resource records through the
use of caching. Caching prevents redundancy when someone tries to go to a site. This, in
turn, reduces the amount of time it takes to get to the website. If the device you are using
recently went to the page it is trying to access, the IP address can be supplied by the cache.
In this way, the website request can be completed without involving the DNS server.

The DNS cache, therefore, helps streamline the DNS lookup process that would otherwise
be necessary to link a domain name to an IP address. This makes the process of getting to
the website much faster.

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OS DNS Caching

The operating systems of many devices are capable of maintaining a local copy of DNS
lookups. This makes it possible for the OS to quickly get the information it needs to resolve
the URL to the correct IP address.

How to Perform a DNS Lookup

Each domain has DNS records, and these are pulled by nameservers. You can check the
status of the DNS records associated with your domain. You can also examine the
nameservers to ascertain which records are being pulled by the servers. On a Windows
computer, for example, this is done using the NSLOOKUP command. Here’s how to do it:

1. Access the Windows command prompt by going to Start >> command prompt. You can
also get to it via Run >> CMD.
2. Type NSLOOKUP and then hit Enter. The default server gets set to your local DNS, and
the address will be your local IP address.
3. You then set the type of DNS record you want to look up by typing "set type=##" where
"##" is the record type, then hit Enter. You can also use A, AAAA, A+AAAA, ANY,
CNAME, MX, NS, PTR, SOA, or SRV as the record type.
4. Enter the domain name you want to query. Hit Enter.
5. At this point, the NSLOOKUP returns the record entries for the domain you entered.

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What is a DNS Revolver?

A DNS resolver is also referred to as a recursive resolver. It is designed to take DNS queries
sent by web browsers and applications. The resolver receives the website URL, and it then
retrieves the IP address that goes with that URL.

What are the Types of DNS Queries?

During the DNS lookup process, three different kinds of queries are performed. The queries
are combined to optimize the resolution of the DNS, saving time.

1. Recursive query
2. Iterative query
3. Non-recursive query

Free vs. Paid DNS Servers: What is the Difference?

In some cases, a regular user may not need a paid DNS server. However, there are significant
benefits of paying for a premium DNS.

1. Dynamic DNS (DDNS): A DDNS maps internet domains, matching them to IP addresses.
This enables you to get into your home computer no matter where you are in the world.
DDNS is different from a regular DNS because it works with changing or dynamic IP
addresses, making them a good choice for home networks.
2. Secondary DNS: A secondary DNS nameserver makes sure that your domain does not go
offline. It provides you with a redundancy or backup that can be accessed in the event of a
complication.
3. Management interface: Many paid DNS servers offer users a dashboard they can use to
manage their service and tweak it according to their needs.
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4. Two-factor authentication: You can provide protection for your domain with an extra level
of authentication.
5. More security: When you make use of a paid DNS server, you get another protective level
of security. This helps shield your website from attackers.
6. Better, faster performance: A paid DNS server comes with a service-level agreement
(SLA). Each SLA guarantees a high rate of DNS resolution, often between 99% and 100%.
7. Customer service: With a paid DNS server, you get the additional advantage of customer
service that can answer questions and troubleshoot any issues.

What is DNS Cache Poisoning?

DNS cache poisoning, also called DNS spoofing, involves the introduction of corrupt DNS
data into the resolving device’s cache. This results in the nameserver returning the wrong
IP address.

The operating systems of many devices are capable of maintaining a local copy of DNS
lookups. This makes it possible for the OS to quickly get the information it needs to resolve
the URL to the correct IP address.

2.3 IP addressing (IPv4 and IPv6) and explain subnetting

In computing networks, IP addressing and sub-networks are linked ideas. The subnet is
the act of dividing a network into smaller subnets, or subnets, while IP addressing is the
process of giving unique addresses to devices over a network.

IP Addressing
Each device that uses a network receives an IP address, which is a special identifier
number. IP addresses are necessary for routing packets of data between devices and for

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enabling Internet communication between devices. Dotted decimal notation, which depicts
four sets of dig The network, separated by periods, is the most common way to express IP
addresses. The address is 32 bits, and every number corresponds to a byte of the address.

There are two primary forms of IP addresses IPv4 and IPv6. Because of the 32-bit length
and the limited amount of unique IPv4 addresses, subnets and various methods for storing
IP addresses have been developed. There are many more unique addresses available for
IPv6 addresses that are 128-bit.
Subnetting
A network is divided into smaller subnetworks, or subnetworks, through the process
known as a subnetwork. For this purpose, a network part of the IP address is created by
taking bits from the host part. The host party identifies the specific device on the
subnetwork, while the network party identifies the subnetwork as a whole.
The sub-network enables network managers to create more controllable and segmented
networks for performance or security needs. For example, a large enterprise could segment
its network into subnetworks for multiple divisions or locations.

A subnet mask, a 32-bit integer that denotes the network component of the IP address, is
commonly used to represent subnetting. The subnet mask is stated in binary form to make
it simpler to comprehend which bits are being used for the network section and which bits
are being used for the host portion. The netmask is represented as a dotted decimal
notation, similar to an IP address.

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Difference Table
Parameters IP Addressing Subnetting
Purpose Assign unique Divide a network into smaller subnetworks for
identifiers to devices on better management and performance.
a network.
Process Assigns unique IP Divides a network into smaller subnets by
addresses to devices on borrowing bits from the host portion of the IP
a network. address to create a network portion.
Result Each device on the The network is broken down into smaller
network has a unique IP subnets, each with its own unique network ID
address. and range of IP addresses.
Benefits Enables devices to Improves network performance and security by
communicate with each reducing network congestion, isolating network
other over the Internet. traffic, and making it easier to manage IP
address assignments and security.
Types IPv4 and IPv6 CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
Notation Dotted decimal notation Subnet mask (e.g., 255.255.255.0) or CIDR
(e.g., 192.168.0.1) notation (e.g., /24)
Length 32 bits (IPv4) or 128 Variable (depends on the number of bits
bits (IPv6) borrowed for the network portion of the IP
address).
Example 192.168.0.1 192.168.0.0/24
In conclusion, subnetting and IP addressing are both crucial ideas in computer networking.
In contrast to subnetting, which involves partitioning a network into smaller subnetworks,
IP addressing involves giving each device on a network a distinct address. The sub-
network enables network managers to create smaller, more manageable networks that can
be split for performance or security reasons.

Each IP class is equipped with its own default subnet mask which bounds that IP class to
have prefixed number of Networks and prefixed number of Hosts per network. Classful IP
addressing does not provide any flexibility of having less number of Hosts per Network or
more Networks per IP Class.

CIDR or Classless Inter Domain Routing provides the flexibility of borrowing bits of Host
part of the IP address and using them as Network in Network, called Subnet. By using

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subnetting, one single Class A IP address can be used to have smaller sub-networks which
provides better network management capabilities.

Class A Subnets

In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest of three octets are used
to be assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class
A, bits from Host part are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly.

For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host bits of second octet
and added to Network address, it creates two Subnets (21=2) with (223-2) 8388606 Hosts per
Subnet.

The Subnet mask is changed accordingly to reflect subnetting. Given below is a list of all
possible combination of Class A subnets −

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In case of subnetting too, the very first and last IP address of every subnet is used for Subnet
Number and Subnet Broadcast IP address respectively. Because these two IP addresses
cannot be assigned to hosts, sub-netting cannot be implemented by using more than 30 bits
as Network Bits, which provides less than two hosts per subnet.

Class B Subnets

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By default, using Classful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing (214)
16384 Networks and (216-2) 65534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can be subnetted the same
way as Class A addresses, by borrowing bits from Host bits. Below is given all possible
combination of Class B subnetting −

Class C Subnets

Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size network because it can only
have 254 hosts in a network. Given below is a list of all possible combination of subnetted
Class B IP address −

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2.4 Bandwidth, its characteristics and how it is managed

Network bandwidth is the maximum capacity of a wired or wireless communications link
to deliver data via a network connection in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically
defined as the number of bits, kilobits, megabits, or gigabits that may be sent in one
second.
Bandwidth and capacity are terms that are used interchangeably to describe the pace at
which data is delivered. It is a common misconception that bandwidth is a measure of
network speed. Throughput is what bandwidth is all about. Bandwidth in networks refers
to how much digital data we can send or receive through a link in a given length of time.
It’s also referred to as the data transfer rate. The majority of the time, bandwidth refers to
maximum throughput, and the amount of data transferred is measured in bits per second.
A bit is the smallest unit of digital data, and it is represented by a 1 or 0.
We might use terms like kilobits per second (Kbps or 1,000 bits per second) or megabits
per second (Mbps or 1,000,000 bits per second) to describe how many bits can be
delivered or received in a second because the number of bits might be rather enormous. A
typical internet speed is around 10Mbps (megabits per second), which equates to roughly
1.3MBps (megabytes per second). By the way, if you’re curious about how 10Mbps
translates to 1.3MBps, simply divide by 8, which is the number of bits in each byte.

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Working of Bandwidth
A data connection’s bandwidth determines how much data it can send and receive at once.
The volume of water that can flow through a conduit can be likened to bandwidth. The
larger the diameter of the pipe, the more water can flow through it at once. The same idea
applies to bandwidth. The higher the communication link’s capacity, the more data it can
handle per second.

As bandwidth grows, so does the cost of a network connection. As a result, a Dedicated

Internet Access (DIA) link capable of 1 gigabit per second (Gbps) will be more expensive
than one capable of 250 megabits per second (Mbps).

Importance of Bandwidth
It is the bandwidth of a web page that determines how quickly it will load in a browser.
When choosing a web hosting platform, this is arguably the most important factor to
consider. It is important to consider how the website and internet connection will impact
bandwidth. The bandwidth requirement for a website with a lot of graphics can reach 10
gigabytes or more. The bandwidth usage of a simpler website will also be lower. A faster
internet connection will allow you to download web pages and movies smoothly, just as a
higher bandwidth will improve the user experience.

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Bandwidth

Uses of Bandwidth
The following are common some use of bandwidth:

 When a network link becomes crowded, network engineers have various choices.
Increasing bandwidth is the most common option. This can be accomplished by
increasing the physical throughput capability of the network or by conceptually
splitting traffic across numerous lines using port aggregation and load balancing.
However, these methods are not always available.
 ISPs or network administrators can also employ bandwidth throttling to purposely slow
the rate at which data travels across the network (up or down). One of the motives for
bandwidth restriction is to reduce network congestion, particularly on public access
networks. ISPs use throttling to limit the amount of bandwidth utilized by a certain user
or group of users. For example, a service provider may offer a menu of upload and
download bandwidth with tiered pricing. ISPs can also set bandwidth limits to balance
network demand across all clients.

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 Higher bandwidth allows data to be moved more quickly (although “bandwidth” is not
synonymous with “internet speed”). A network with increased bandwidth allows for
more devices to join at the same time.
 In filter or communication channel systems, the bandwidth is sometimes used to denote
system bandwidth. When a system is said to have a given bandwidth, it signifies that it
can process signals with that frequency range or that it can reduce the bandwidth of a
white noise input to that bandwidth.
Measuring Bandwidth
While bandwidth was once measured in bits per second (bps), modern network cables
today have a significantly larger capacity, therefore bandwidth is now measured in
megabits per second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps).

Bandwidth connections can be symmetrical, which means that the data capacity is the
same in both directions (upload and download), or asymmetrical, which means that the
data capacity is not the same in both directions (upload and download). In asymmetrical
connections, which are common in consumer-grade internet broadband connections,
upload capacity is frequently lower than download capacity. In enterprise-grade WAN and
DIA lines, symmetrical bandwidth is more frequent.

Considerations for Calculating Bandwidth

Several bandwidth calculations have become more sophisticated as a result of technical
improvements, and they can vary according to the network link type used. A fiber-optic
connection has a much higher bandwidth than a copper Ethernet alternative. This is due to
fiber optics utilizing a wide variety of light waves, using time-division multiplexing, and
relying on light waves of multiple wavelengths.

As part of the federal telecommunications and information administration’s negotiations

with the Federal Communications Commission and the National Telecommunications and
Information Administration, the federal government is defining the bandwidth of mobile
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data networks like Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G as a spectrum that the federal
government can license to mobile operators for use in the United States. Using this
spectrum requires a license, which is only available to the appropriate company. Wireless
technology can then be used to transport data over that spectrum, maximizing the
bandwidth of the hardware.
While Wi-Fi does not require a license, it is a disruptive technology. You can set up a
wireless network with any Wi-Fi access point (AP) or Wi-Fi router. The spectrum may
not be available at all times, which is a constraint. As a result, Wi-Fi bandwidth can suffer
when other Wi-Fi APs try to use some or all of the same frequencies.
A bandwidth test can be used to assess effective bandwidth, which is the highest reliable
transmission rate a link on any particular transport technology can provide. During a
bandwidth test, the time it takes for a given file to leave its point of origin and successfully
download at its destination is used to estimate the link’s capacity.

Following a review of network bandwidth usage, determine where apps and data are stored
and calculate the average bandwidth requirements for each user and session.

Follow these four steps to figure out how much bandwidth a network uplink or internet
broadband requires:

 Select the program that will be used.

 Determine each application’s bandwidth requirements.
 Multiply each application’s application needs by the number of expected concurrent
users.
 Add up all of the application bandwidth numbers.
The same procedure can be applied to determining bandwidth requirements for public or
private clouds connected to the internet or via WAN lines. When compared to WAN or
DIA connections, however, available bandwidth over a local area network or wireless
LAN is frequently far higher. As a result, it’s critical to accurately estimate bandwidth
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requirements and track connection consumption over time. Monitoring bandwidth

utilization over the course of a day, week, month, or year can help network engineers
determine whether a WAN/DIA link is sufficient — or whether a capacity expansion is
necessary.

Applications and services operate poorly when a network’s bandwidth is insufficient.

Factors Affecting Bandwidth Performance

The following are some factors that affect the performance of the bandwidth:

 Network performance is influenced by many factors, including the maximum capacity

of a network connection. Packet loss, delay, and jitter can all decrease
network throughput and cause a high-capacity link to function as if it had less
bandwidth available.
 A typical end-to-end network path consists of several connections, each with varying
bandwidth capacities. As a result, the lowest-bandwidth link is frequently referred to
as the bottleneck, as it has the potential to reduce the overall capacity of all connections
in the path.
 Multiple aggregated links serving as a single logical connection are used in many
enterprise-grade networks. A switch uplink with four aggregated 1 Gbps connections,
for example, has a throughput capacity of 4 Gbps. The bandwidth limit would be
reduced to 2 Gbps if two of those links failed.
How to Increase Bandwidth?
Bandwidth can be increased with the help of many ways, which you are likely to get from
the Internet. Some of them are mentioned below.

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Internet Plan

Internet Plan helps in increasing the Bandwidth if you go with higher Mbps if you use
multiple devices or stream heavy content. There is a lot of connection that gives speeds
up to 800-900 Mbps.

Router

Bandwidth can be increased with the help of routers if you use advanced routers for
transmission that help in providing higher frequency in case of multiple connections.

Ethernet Cable

Ethernet Cables help in increasing the bandwidth as it provides direct cable connection to
the system that helps in reducing connecting issues and also bandwidth issues.

2.5 How to search the internet and explain browser resources

With billions of websites online today, there is a lot of information on the Internet. Search
engines make this information easier to find. Let's look at the basics of using a search
engine, as well as some techniques you can use to get better search results.

How to search the Web

There are many different search engines you can use, but some of the most popular
include Google, Yahoo!, and Bing. To perform a search, you'll need to navigate to a search
engine in your web browser, type one or more keywords—also known as search terms—
then press Enter on your keyboard. In this example, we'll search for recipes.

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After you run a search, you'll see a list of relevant websites that match your search terms.
These are commonly known as search results. If you see a site that looks interesting, you
can click a link to open it. If the site doesn't have what you need, you can simply return to
the results page to look for more options.

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Most browsers also allow you to perform a web search directly from your address bar,
although some have a separate search bar next to the address bar. Simply type your search
terms and press Enter to run the search.

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Search suggestions

If you don't find what you're looking for on the first try, don't worry! Search engines are
good at finding things online, but they're not perfect. You'll often need to try different
search terms to find what you're looking for.

If you're having trouble thinking of new search terms, you can use search
suggestions instead. These will usually appear as you're typing, and they're a great way to
find new keywords you might not have tried otherwise. To use a search suggestion, you can
click it with your mouse, or select it with the arrow keys on your keyboard.

Refining your search

If you're still having trouble finding exactly what you need, you can use some special
characters to help refine your search. For example, if you want to exclude a word from a
search, you can type a hyphen (-) at the beginning of a word. So if you wanted to find
cookie recipes that don't include chocolate, you could search for recipes cookies -
chocolate.

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You can also search for exact words or phrases to narrow down your results even more.
All you need to do is place quotation marks (" ") around the desired search terms. For
example, if you search for recipes "sugar cookies", your search results will only include
recipes for sugar cookies, instead of any cookies that happen to use sugar as an ingredient.

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These techniques may come in handy in certain cases, but you probably won't need to use
them with most searches. Search engines can usually figure out what you're looking for
without these extra characters. We recommend trying a few different search
suggestions before using this method.

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Content-specific searches

There may be times when you're looking for something more specific, like a news
article, picture, or video. Most search engines have links at the top of the page that allow
you to perform these unique searches.

In the example below, we've used the same search terms to look for images instead of
websites. If you see an image you like, you can click to visit the website it originally came
from.

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You can use the extra search tools to narrow down your results even more. These tools will
change based on the type of content you're looking for, but in this example we can filter our
images by size, color, image type, and more. So if you wanted to find cookies with pink
frosting, you could search for images that are mostly pink.

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Advertisements

One final thing to note: Most search engines include advertisements with search results.
For example, you can see advertisements at the top of the search results below.

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These ads are based on your search terms, and they often look similar to other search results.
While they may be useful in some cases, it's usually more helpful to focus on the actual
search results.

2.6 Intellectual Property and its rights usage

Intellectual property law is an area of law which concerns legal rights associated with
creative effort or commercial reputation and goodwill. The law deters others from copying
or taking unfair advantage of the work or reputation of another and provides remedies where
this arises. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a
variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and
inventions; words, phrases, symbols, and designs. According to Paul Marett, the term
intellectual property has come into vogue relatively recently. To describe property rights in
most of the various intangible products of the human intellect, sometimes the term is used

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to include Copyright, the law of confidence and others are classified as industrial property
rights such as Patent, Trademark and industrial design. David Bainbridge defines
intellectual property as that area of law which concerns legal rights associated with creative
effort or commercial reputation and goodwill. Intellectual property law deals with the
protection of inventions. It is also a means of safeguarding the fruits of their creativity and
maintaining their incentives to invest in innovation. Intellectual property can be passed on
to someone like other kinds of property by gift, sale or bequest, and it could be temporary
or permanent in nature. However, it is a right that is limited in nature. There are different
periods for all the forms of the intellectual and industrial property.
The modern concept of intellectual property dates back to medieval Europe when Venetian
artisans and guilds were issued patents to protect textile designs and patterns during the
Renaissance. The Venetian Statute on Industrial Brevets of 1474 is widely recognized as
establishing the modern requirements for patent protection. In England, patents of
monopoly had been issued by the monarchy throughout the medieval era to bring new
technology to England, regulate trade, and attract artisans and inventors from continental
Europe. It was not until 1624, however, when the Statute of Monopolies was passed by
Parliament that patents became institutionalized in England. These two pieces of legislation
form the modern basis of intellectual property in common law. Today, the World
Intellectual Property Organization serves as the international authority on intellectual
property and administers more than 25 international treaties. It has 193 member states,
including the United States, and operates as a self-funding agency of the United Nations.

Intellectual property definition: Intellectual property is any creative or mental process that
produces a new work, method, or novel invention.

Intellectual property meaning: The term intellectual property commonly refers to a

property that is registered and protected as a patent, trademark, copyright, industrial design,
or trade secret.

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What is intellectual property law?

In the United States, the laws governing intellectual property are consecrated in Article I,
Section 8, Clause 8 of the Constitution. It gives Congress the authority to grant rights to an
author or inventor for a limited time in order to advance artistic and scientific innovation.
The first law to regulate intellectual property in the US was the Patents Act of 1790, which
established the criteria to receive a patent. In 1836, Congress established the United States
Patent Office to review applications and award patents. Today, intellectual property is
registered through the United States Patent and Trademark Office, an agency operating
within the United States Department of Commerce, and the United States Copyright Office,
which is part of the Library of Congress.

Intellectual property law definition: Intellectual property law can be the various laws,
statutes, and international conventions that are in place to protect intellectual property rights.

Intellectual property rights definition: Like other forms of private property, the property
holder is endowed with certain privileges to exploit the property for their economic gain or
benefit. These are commonly referred to as intellectual property rights.

What are the Four Types of Intellectual Property?

Intellectual property is generally categorized into industrial property, and copyright or

author rights. Industrial property can further be categorized into patents, trademarks, and
service marks.

So, what are the 4 types of intellectual property?

Patent

A patent grants the patent holder exclusive rights to utilize, exploit and capitalize on their
invention for a certain period of time, usually 20 years. The US Patent and Trademark Office
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describes a patentable invention as any technical process that is new and useful, or that
improves upon a previously established process or invention. It includes new manufacturing
and industrial processes, chemical engineering, and machine invention. Practically any
method for making a product could be patented. Once the patent expires, the invention
enters the public domain and can be utilized for further scientific advancement and
innovation.

There are three types of patents granted by the US Patent and Trademark Office: utility,
design, and plant patents. A utility patent encompasses new industrial processes, machine
invention, and manufacturing or chemical methods for creating a product. Most patent
applications that the USPTO receives are for utility patents. A design patent is issued for
ornamental design and is limited to the aesthetic characteristics of the patented object, rather
than the functional design. The appearance of the industrial design must be unique to the
article of manufacture in order to receive a design patent. A plant patent is granted for the
discovery or creation of a new plant variety. The applicant must demonstrate asexual
reproduction of the new variety in order to receive this patent.

Copyright

Copyright applies to any artistic creation or creative work that is produced in a given media,
such as film, writing, or sound recording, and includes graphic arts, technical drawings,
software, and computer programs. It provides the author exclusive rights to publish and
utilize the work for capital gain, which could be licensed or sold to another party. The author
also enjoys moral rights as the creator or inventor of the work. The rights extend from the
time the work is created until 50 years after the author's death. Performers and other artists
involved in the creation of the work are entitled to rights under copyright but do not receive

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the same rights as the primary creator or copyright holder. These are often referred to as
related rights.

Trademark

A trademark is a distinctive word, slogan, image, or artistic design that identifies a product,
service, or brand from its competitors. Trademarks are typically used for goods, while
service marks are used for services. Trademarks can also be used to identify an association
or certification standard. The US Patent and Trademark Office stipulates that trademarks
must distinguish the source of the goods or services to be registered. Appellations of origin,
a type of geographical indication, are similar to trademarks in that they identify the source
and producer of a given product as relative to a specific geographical region. Agriculture
products, such as wines, cheeses, and liquors, are often given an appellation of origin to
indicate the product's source, such as tequila from Mexico.

Trade Secrets

Trade secrets refer to specific, private information that is important to a business because it
gives the business a competitive advantage in its marketplace. If a trade secret is acquired
by another company, it could harm the original holder.

Examples of trade secrets include recipes for certain foods and beverages (like Mrs. Fields’
cookies or Sprite), new inventions, software, processes, and even different marketing
strategies.

When a person or business holds a trade secret protection, others cannot copy or steal the
idea. In order to establish information as a “trade secret,” and to incur the legal protections
associated with trade secrets, businesses must actively behave in a manner that demonstrates
their desire to protect the information.

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Trade secrets are protected without official registration; however, an owner of a trade secret
whose rights are breached–i.e. someone steals their trade secret–may ask a court to ask
against that individual and prevent them from using the trade secret.

2.7 Copyrights, Plagiarism, Its Rules/Laws and the Implication of Their Violation
Copyright infringement includes the unauthorized or unlicensed copying of a work
subject to copyright.
Plagiarism is using someone else's work or ideas without giving proper credit. In other
words, because you are not giving attribution to the owner of the original work or idea --
you are presenting the idea or thought as your own.
 Plagiarism is a violation of academic norms but not illegal; copyright violation is illegal
but quite common in academia.
 Plagiarism is an offense against the author; copyright violation is an offense against the
copyright holder. In traditional academic publishing, they are usually not the same person,
because copyright transfer agreements (CTAs) are so common.
 Plagiarism applies when ideas are copied; copyright violation occurs only when a specific
fixed expression (e.g., sequence of words, use of an image) is copied.
 Avoiding plagiarism is about properly apportioning intellectual credit; copyright is about
maintaining revenue streams.
Adapted from Sauropod Vertebra Picture of the Week by Mike Taylor, Matt Wedel,
Darren Naish is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
Examples of Plagiarism (from Jamie Dendy)
 Quoting someone's words from the Internet, a printed article, or an interview, without
acknowledging the author.
 Copying part of the content of a work into one's own paper without citing the source.
 Copying or buying a paper and handing it in as one's own.
 Falsely creating a citation that doesn't exist.

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 Failing to credit and cite someone else's thoughts or ideas when paraphrasing.
 Paraphrasing in a way that relies too heavily on another's language or syntax.

2.8 URL and identify its parts

URL is the short form for Uniform Resource Locator, a website URL is the location of a
specific website, page, or file on the Internet. Every URL is made up of multiple parts,
and the way yours are built will have a variety of effects on your site’s security and Search
Engine Optimization (SEO).

For example, if you enter https://themeisle.com/blog/what-is-a-website-url/ in your

address bar, your web browser will take you to this post. But if you just
enter https://themeisle.com/, you get taken to the Themeisle homepage.

Many people never think much about URLs, beyond memorizing the ones leading to their
favorite sites and typing them into their browser address bar. If you run your own website
or are planning to build one, however, it’s a good idea to understand what is a URL and
learn a little more about how URLs work under the hood.

To recap, these are the three basic elements of a website URL:

1. The protocol – HTTP or HTTPS.

2. The domain name (including the TLD) that identifies a site.
3. The path leading to a specific web page.

There is more to URLs that we didn’t cover in this post, like the existence of subdomains
– domains that are parts of other domains, for example en.wikipedia.org. The en indicates
that you are on the English version of Wikipedia.

Fun fact: the URL you see right now in the address bar may or may not contain www.,
which stands for world wide web, as you probably know. That’s because some web
browsers, Google Chrome among others, omit it when displaying the URL. It still directs
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you to the site you want to visit if you type the www. part in, but it just doesn’t display it
outright.

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Week 4 -5: Understand Social Media and Various Internet Communication Methods

3.1 How to use web-based email application eg mail, yahoo

The term Webmail (or Web-based email) is used to describe two things. One use of the
word is to describe a Webmail client: an email client implemented as a web application
accessed via a web browser.

The other use of the word is to describe a Web-based email service: an email service offered
through a web site (a webmail provider) such as Gmail, Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail and AOL
Mail. Practically every webmail provider offers email access using a webmail client, and
many of them also offer email access by a desktop email client using standard email
protocols, while many internet service providers provide a webmail client as part of the
email service included in their internet service package.

As with any web application, webmail’s main advantage over the use of a desktop email
client is the ability to send and receive email anywhere from a web browser. Its main
disadvantage is the need to be connected to the internet while using it (Gmail offers offline
use of its webmail client through the installation of Gears). There exist also other software
tools to integrate parts of the webmail functionality into the OS (e.g. creating messages
directly from third party applications via MAPI).

Rendering and compatibility

Email users may find the use of both a webmail client and a desktop client using the POP3
protocol a bit incompatible: email messages that are downloaded by the desktop client and
are removed from the server will no longer be available on the webmail client. The use of a
webmail client in this mode is limited to previewing messages using a web client before
they are downloaded by the desktop email client. On the other hand, the use of both a
webmail client and a desktop client using the IMAP4 protocol has no such incompatibility:
the contents of the mailbox will be consistently displayed in both the webmail and the
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desktop email client and any action the user performs on messages in one interface would
be reflected when email is accessed using the other interface. There are significant
differences in rendering capabilities for many popular webmail services such as Yahoo!
Mail, Gmail, and Windows Live Hotmail. Due to the various treatment of HTML tags, such
as <style> and <head>, as well as CSS rendering inconsistencies, email marketing
companies rely on older web development techniques to send cross-platform mail. This
usually means a greater reliance on tables and inline stylesheets.

Privacy concerns

Although every email service provider can read the email unless encrypted since it is stored
on their servers, concerns have been raised about webmail specifically. Most popular
webmail services tend to use what’s called targeting ads and online spam-filter(instead of a
client-based), these services searches through email for certain target words and even if the
service providers claim that no humans reads the emails some of them have been forced to
make it possible to opt this feature out. Because web browser is the expected way of viewing
the inbox webmail providers store emails longer than usual providers which often delete the
email from their servers after they have sent it to the email client.

Another concern is considering the fact that most webmail service providers are U.S.-based
and therefore are subject to the Patriot Act which means that U.S. authorities can demand
the company to handover what information they have about a user, without necessarily
letting the user know, no matter what citizenship you have or where the information is stored

Example Webmail usage

Webmail operations are same as that of e-mail with difference on web browser based access
instead of an e-mail client software and the various operations for an example webmail
account are discussed

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Reading and managing mails

When you first login, your inbox is automatically displayed. To view an email, simply click
on the subject. The selected email will be highlighted and the entire message will get loaded
on a new screen. Bold messages are new or unread. Messages you have already looked at
will be in un-bolded text. To view a different folder, just click on the name of the folder you
want to view. The options for each folder work the same as your inbox. Let’s go through
what each of the buttons will do:

1. Check Mail – This button will download any new messages received. This happens
automatically each time you log in, click on the inbox link or explicitly click on this
button.
2. Reply – This is the reply button. It will automatically set up the composition page
with the information necessary to reply to the sender of the selected message.
3. Reply All – This is just like the reply button, but it’s used when the selected email is
addressed to more the one person and you want to reply to everyone, not just the
person who sent the message.
4. Forward – This will forward the selected message, and direct you to the composition
page to enter your recipient.
5. Delete – No points for guessing. Clicking on this button will delete the
selected/current message and move it to the trash folder. If you wish to permanently
delete a message you will have to either Empty the trash folder or select the message
explicitly and delete it.
6. Compose – This is the button you would click on to compose, write, or send a new
email. When you click on this button, you will be sent to a new page to type out your
email, subject, senders etc.
7. Actions – This button will gives you the option to mark an email or multiple emails
as Read, Unread, Flagged or Unflagged.

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Note: You may return to the current folder anytime either by clicking on the Back button or
selecting that particular folder from the Email navigation page.

Mark messages as read/unread

Marking a particular email or a selected set of emails as read or unread is part of the
“Actions” button available with the webmail. Each action has its own significant impact on
the listed email. After you have selected emails upon which an action is to be performed,
you have the following list of actions to choose from:

1. Mark as read – Marks the selected email/s as read. The selected messages will be un-
bolded after performing this action.
2. Mark as unread – Marks the selected email/s as unread. The selected messages will
now appear in bold font indicating an unread message.
3. Mark as flagged – Marking a selected mail as flagged will illuminate a gold star at
the end of the message line. This option is usually selected by users who wish to keep
track or follow up on emails at a later time.
4. Mark as unflagged – Mails already marked as flagged will get unflagged upon
selecting this action.
Forward received emails
Forwarding an email form your inbox to another email id can be achieved by checking the
desired email and clicking ‘Forward’ button. This will forward the selected message, and
direct you to the email composition page to enter your recipient. The ‘Forward’ option is
also available when you are reading an email.

Reply to received emails

You may reply to an email from your inbox or any of the created folders. You need to first
select the email you wish to send a reply by checking the adjacent checkbox. This will
activate the

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Reply and Reply All buttons. Click on the ‘Reply’ button to automatically set up the
composition page with the information necessary to reply to the sender of the selected
message.

The ‘Reply All’ is just like the reply button, but it’s used when the selected email is
addressed to more the one person and you want to reply to everyone, not just the person
who sent the message. The ‘Reply’ and ‘Reply All’ options are also available when you are
reading an email.

Compose a new email

Click on the Compose button to go to the email composition page. This is the page you are
sent to any time you reply, forward, or compose a new message. To CC or BCC someone,
you need to click on the “Add CC” or “Add BCC” link. If you wish to have a Reply-To
address click on the “Add Reply-To” link.

1. Manage Attachments – With this webmail, you can compose your emails in
Rich/Plain text formats. You can also add attachments to your email on this page. To
do this, click the Add Attachment link given under the
Subject and click browse. Choose the file on your computer you wish to add, then
click upload. To add another attachment, click the Add Attachment again.
2. Spell Check – The webmail has a spell check feature that scans through your message
text and highlights any existing spelling errors. The Check spellinglink can be located
on the email composition page in the plain text editor
mode. Clicking on this link will scan through your composed message and highlight
spelling errors in it. When you click on a highlighted word in the spell check mode,
the tool generates and lists suggestions to replace the misspelled word. Similarly, in
the Rich Text editor mode the spell check tool

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can be toggled by clicking on Toggle spellchecker button located on the rich text
editor toolbar.
3. Switch between Plain-Rich Text editors – The two editor types available with .pw
webmail are Rich Formatting and Plain Text. The option to switch between the two
is available at the bottom right corner of the screen of an email composition
pageNote: Switching from Rich Text to plain text will result in loss of formatting.
4. Change fonts/formatting – Changing fonts is part of the standard list features
provided in the Rich Text editor on an email composition page. With this editor not
only can you change fonts but also:
1. Align Text
2. Insert Bullets and Numbering
3. Insert Smileys and Symbols
4. Insert and Edit images
5. Change text and background color
6. Perform Spell Checks
7. Roll back changes
When you are done and wish to send the message, just click on the Send now button at the
bottom of the page. The Cancel button will take you back to the Inbox.

Folder Management
Folder management is part of the webmail settings. Click on the Settings link given on the
top left side of the screen to enter the webmail settings page. Select the Folders tab to enter
the folder management tool. This page provides you the option to:

1.
1. Create a new folder – Enter a folder name in the given text box and click on
the Create button. To create a sub-folder under an already existing one, you
simply select it before creating a new folder.

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2. Rename an existing folder – You also have the option to rename an existing
folder by clicking on the rename icon
3. Delete an existing folder – Click on the trash icon to delete an existing folder.
Please note that emails within a folder will also be deleted upon deletion of
that folder

3.2 Digital Identity

A digital identity is the body of information about an individual, organization or electronic

device that exists online.

Unique identifiers and use patterns make it possible to detect individuals or their devices.
This information is often used by website owners and advertisers to identify and track users
for personalization and to serve them targeted content and advertising.

A digital identity arises organically from the use of personal information on the web and
from the shadow data created by the individual’s actions online. A digital identity may be
a Pseudonymous profile linked to the device’s IP address, for example, or a randomly-
generated unique ID. Digital identities are seen as contextual in nature since a user gives
selective information when providing authentication information.

Examples of data points that can help form a digital identity include:

 Username and password

 Purchasing behavior or history

 Date of birth

 Social security number

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 Online search activities, such as electronic transactions

 Medical history

Because a profile often includes aspects of a person’s actual identity, digital identities come
with privacy and security risks, including identity theft. Pseudonymous profiles can also
yield an individual’s identity through cross-site data analysis. While passports and licenses
identify users in real life, the inclusion of such personally identifying information (PII)
online may pose more risks than benefits for the user. Several authentication and
authorization systems have been explored, but there is still no standardized and verified
system to identify digital identities.

3.3 Social networks and how they are used (Facebook, LinkedIn etc.)

Social networks are websites and apps that allow users and organizations to connect,
communicate, share information and form relationships. People can connect with others in
the same area, families, friends, and those with the same interests. Social networks are one
of the most important uses of the internet today.

Popular social networking sites -- such as Facebook, Yelp, Twitter, Instagram and TikTok
-- enable individuals to maintain social connections, stay informed and access, as well as
share a wealth of information. These sites also enable marketers to reach their target
audiences.

Social networking sites have come a long way since the first social networking site,
SixDegrees.com, was launched in 1997. Today, the world is rapidly adopting newer social
networking platforms. According to DataReportal, a Kepios analysis from January 2022
indicated that there are more than 4.74 billion social network users worldwide.

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How does social networking work?

The term social networking entails having connections in both the real and the digital
worlds. Today, this term is mainly used to reference online social communications. The
internet has made it possible for people to find and connect with others who they may never
have met otherwise.

Online social networking is dependent on technology and internet connectivity. Users can
access social networking sites using their PCs, tablets or smartphones. Most social
networking sites run on a back end of searchable databases that use advanced programming
languages, such as Python, to organize, store and retrieve data in an easy-to-understand
format. For example, Tumblr uses such products and services in its daily operations
as Google Analytics, Google Workspace and WordPress.

What are social networks?

With the broad spectrum of websites, apps and services that exist online, there is no single
exact definition of a social network. Generally, though, social networks have a few common
attributes that set them apart.

 A social network will focus on user-generated content. Users primarily view and interact
with content made by other users. They are encouraged to post text, status updates or
pictures for viewing by others.
 Social networks allow the user or organization to create a profile. The profile contains
information about the person and a centralized page with the content posted by them.
Their profile may be associated with their real name.
 A social network has a way to form a lasting connection with other users. These
connections are commonly called friending or following the other user. They allow the
users to find other users and form webs of relationships. Often an algorithm will
recommend other users and organizations they may want to form a connection with.

Although often used interchangeably, social network is different than social media. A social
network focuses on the connections and relationships between individuals. Social media is

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more focused on an individual sharing with a large audience. In this case, media is used in
the same sense as in mass media. Most social networks can also be used as social media
sites.

What is the purpose of social networking?

Social networking fulfills the following four main objectives:

 Sharing. Friends or family members who are geographically dispersed can connect
remotely and share information, updates, photos and videos. Social networking also
enables individuals to meet other people with similar interests or to expand their current
social networks.
 Learning. Social networks serve as great learning platforms. Consumers can instantly
receive breaking news, get updates regarding friends and family, or learn about what's
happening in their community.
 Interacting. Social networking enhances user interactions by breaking the barriers of
time and distance. With cloud-based video communication technologies such as
WhatsApp or Instagram Live, people can talk face to face with anyone in the world.
 Marketing. Companies may tap into social networking services to enhance brand
awareness with the platform's users, improve customer retention and conversion rates,
and promote brand and voice identity.
What are the different types of social networking?
While there are various categories of social networking sites, the six most common types
are the following:

 Social connections. This is a type of social network where people stay in touch with
friends, family members, acquaintances or brands through online profiles and updates,
or find new friends through similar interests. Some examples are Facebook, Myspace
and Instagram.
 Professional connections. Geared toward professionals, these social networks are
designed for business relationships. These sites can be used to make new professional

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contacts, enhance existing business connections and explore job opportunities, for
example. They may include a general forum where professionals can connect with co-
workers or offer an exclusive platform based on specific occupations or interest levels.
Some examples are LinkedIn, Microsoft Yammer and Microsoft Viva.
 Sharing of multimedia. Various social networks provide video- and photography-
sharing services, including YouTube and Flickr.
 News or informational. This type of social networking allow users to post news stories,
informational or how-to content and can be general purpose or dedicated to a single
topic. These social networks include communities of people who are looking for answers
to everyday problems and they have much in common with web forums. Fostering a
sense of helping others, members provide answers to questions, conduct discussion
forums or teach others how to perform various tasks and projects. Popular examples
include Reddit, Stack Overflow or Digg.
 Communication. Here, social networks focus on allowing the user to communicate
directly with each other in one-on-one or group chats. They have less focus on posts or
updates and are like instant messaging apps. Some examples are WhatsApp, WeChat
and Snapchat.
 Educational. Educational social networks offer remote learning, enabling students and
teachers to collaborate on school projects, conduct research, and interact through blogs
and forums. Google Classroom, LinkedIn Learning and ePals are popular examples.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of social networking?
Social networking can be a double-edged sword. On one end, it provides unsurpassed social
benefits, yet it can also make people more vulnerable to the spread of misinformation, as
well as privacy and security threats.

Social networking offers the following benefits to consumers and businesses:

 Brand awareness. Social networking enables companies to reach out to new and
existing clients. This helps to make brands more relatable and promotes brand
awareness.

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 Instant reachability. By erasing the physical and spatial boundaries between people,
social networking websites can provide instant reachability.
 Builds a following. Organizations and businesses can use social networking to build a
following and expand their reach globally.
 Business success. Positive reviews and comments generated by customers on social
networking platforms can help improve business sales and profitability.
 Increased website traffic. Businesses can use social networking profiles to boost and
direct inbound traffic to their websites. They can achieve this, for example, by adding
inspiring visuals, using plugins and shareable social media buttons, or encouraging
inbound linking.

Social networking also has the following downsides:

 Rumors and misinformation. Incorrect information can slip through the cracks of
social networking platforms, causing havoc and uncertainty among consumers. Often,
people take anything posted on social networking sites at face value instead of verifying
the sources.
 Negative reviews and comments. A single negative review can adversely affect an
established business, especially if the comments are posted on a platform with a large
following. A tarnished business reputation can often cause irreparable damage.
 Data security and privacy concerns. Social networking sites can inadvertently put
consumer data at risk. For instance, if a social networking site experiences a data breach,
the users of that platform automatically fall under the radar as well. According to
Business Insider, a data breach in April 2021 leaked the personal data of more than 500
million Facebook users.
 Time-consuming process. Promoting a business on social media requires constant
upkeep and maintenance. Creating, updating, preparing and scheduling regular posts can
take a considerable amount of time. This can be especially cumbersome for small
businesses that may not have the extra staff and resources to dedicate to social media
marketing.
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Social networks in business

There are many ways a business or organization can use social networks. Globally, the
average person spends over two hours a day using social networks. This represents a great
opportunity and market.

Most social networks are run as for-profit companies. They make most of their revenue
from selling ads or promoted content. Facebook's parent company Meta has an almost $300
billion market cap.

Social networks can be used for customer research, engagement and marketing. They offer
a way to directly connect businesses and customers. Brands can build a community around
themselves. Social networks collect information about users' likes and dislikes, allowing for
extremely targeted advertising. Social media listening allows an organization to learn what
people are saying about their company.

Some businesses are implementing internal social networks. In very large organizations this
can increase employee engagement and satisfaction. Also, as teams become more
geographically diverse or have members working from home, private social networks can
promote collaboration and information sharing.

Some business are beginning to use social networks in their recruitment strategies.

Examples of social networking

Every established organization advertises on social networking these days. Here are four
examples of social networking websites:

 Yelp. Picking a restaurant, dentist, doctor or hair salon is not always easy, so social
networking sites like Yelp offer crowdsourced customer reviews of these types of
businesses or providers.
 Pinterest. Bookmarking sites like Pinterest enable users to share photos and organize
links to a variety of online resources and websites. Similar to a digital scrapbook,

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Pinterest enables users to save specific pins to pinboards, making it easier to search for
specific topics and share them with followers.
 Rover. A popular pet-sitter services portal, Rover enables pet owners to connect with
pet sitters, dog walkers and pet-boarding services.
 Airbnb. Airbnb helps travelers search for a place to stay based on their preferences,
including multishared spaces, shared spaces with private rooms and entire properties.
Places on Airbnb are mostly rented out by homeowners.

These 10 popular social networking websites share millions to billions of users.

What are the top 10 social networking sites?

Although there are numerous social networking websites, the following sites are the most
popular:

1. Facebook. Facebook users create profiles, share information, send messages and post
status updates on their walls. Ranked the most active social networking platform by
DataReportal, Facebook has more than 2.9 billion active users. In 2021, the company
was renamed Meta to reflect its business beyond just social media.

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2. YouTube. This popular video-sharing website enables users to share, upload and post
videos and vlogs. According to Global Media Insight, YouTube has more than 2 billion
monthly active users.
3. WhatsApp. This free instant messaging app lets users send text messages, make video
and voice calls, and share documents. According to WhatsApp, it has more than 2 billion
users worldwide.
4. Instagram. This free social media platform enables users to share long- and short-form
videos and photos. It is primarily designed for iOS and Android smartphone users, but a
desktop version is also available. However, sharing and uploading of content is only
available through the Instagram app. Also owned by Meta, Instagram has over 2 billion
monthly active users as of December 2021, according to CNBC.
5. TikTok. This app is used for sharing and making personalized short videos. TikTok
caters to a younger audience and is well known for being a lively and fun-to-use social
networking platform. According to the Business of Apps newsletter, TikTok has more
than 1.2 billion users as of the end of 2021.
6. Tumblr. This microblogging site enables users to publish multimedia and other content
types inside short blog posts. Users can also follow other users and make their blogs
private. According to FinancesOnline, as of February 2021, Tumblr has more than 518
million user accounts.
7. Twitter. Launched in 2006, this social media platform enables users to share their
thoughts and opinions with a broad audience by posting messages known as tweets that
contain up to 280 characters. According to DataReportal, as of January 2022, Twitter
has more than 436 million users.
8. Pinterest. The Pinterest bookmarking site enables users to save and organize links to
favorite online resources and destinations through tagging. According to Pinterest Inc.,
the platform has 431 million global monthly active users as of December 2021 -- a 6%
decrease over the previous year.
9. Reddit. Founded in 2005, Reddit provides a diverse collection of forums and subforums
-- also known as subreddits -- on a variety of topics, including sports, breaking news and

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technology. Here, users can comment on each other's posts, as well as share news and
content. According to Reddit, it has more than 50 million daily active users. This
translates into 430 million monthly users as of 2019, according to The Small Business
Blog.
10.Snapchat. This multimedia app can be used on smartphones running Android or iOS.
Founded in 2011, Snapchat enables users to send pictures or videos called snaps to
friends. These snaps vanish after they have been viewed. According to Snap Inc.,
Snapchat has 319 million daily active users as of the end of 2021.

Controversies in social networks

Social networks are used daily by much of the world's population. There are therefore many
controversies that surround their use and management.

Social media addiction is becoming common. People can begin to feel a sense of anxiety if
they don't check their social media accounts, or they may compulsively refresh them. Social
networking posts are also highly curated, people only post the good things that happen to
them. This can cause a warped view of reality where the viewer thinks that others have
better lives than they do. This leads to a fear of missing out (FOMO) on social events.

Cyberbullying is when someone makes social media posts with the intention to harm
someone else. This can take the form of publicly posting the private information of someone
or sending abusive messages. Tragically, cyberbullying has led to the suicide of some
individuals. It is now a major concern in public schools. Doxing is when someone publicly
posts the personally identifiable information, such as an address or phone number, of
someone else.

As mentioned in disadvantages, privacy is a major concern for many social network users.
Anything that is posted can be used by the site to sell advertisements. This can include
location information, embarrassing details or private data. This information could also be
requested by law enforcement officials. Additionally, some social networks have confusing

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privacy settings, causing people to accidentally make information public. Since they store a
lot of personal information, social networks are also susceptible to data breaches.

Censorship is a hot-button issue for many social networks. Social networks are private
companies, so the content posted by individuals isn't necessarily protected by governmental
free speech laws, but instead is at the discretion of the site's terms of service (ToS) or
administrators. This can put the site into the position of arbitrating what is or is not allowed
on the site. This can be particularly divisive when it comes to political issues, hate speech
and calls to violence that may be posted by public figures. Some say that the sites have a
moral responsibility to take a hard stand against all negative speech, while others say that
all speech should be allowed by the platforms and any content removal is censorship.

Misinformation can be easily spread on social networks. Users are encouraged to share the
latest news or discuss new topics. This can cause rumors or hearsay to be shared as truth.
Others share their opinions as fact. It has also been reported that users, organizations and
even governments may intentionally share false information, sometimes while pretending
to be someone else. This has caused some social networks to begin adding fact checking
alerts to some posts that may contain misinformation.

3.4 Internal (school/business) and open media sites

An internal media site is a network that is close to the general public. For example,
Yammer, which is open to Office 365 members, and Slack, which is a network for
enterprises where teams of coworkers can communicate in real-time and work together on
projects, share links, videos, and photos with one another. Many businesses and schools
have internal social networks for the individuals who work or attend school in these places.

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Open media sites, such as the current version of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr,
and Reddit, are open to anyone with a valid email address. You do not need an invitation to
join any of these networks.

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3.5 Blogs, Wikis and Forums

Blogs, wikis and forums were not designed as educational tools, but they can be very useful
in a teaching and learning context for supporting dialogue between students, providing a
space for collaboration and chronicling student reflections. To determine which is best for
your needs, keep your learning outcomes in mind as you look at the characteristics of
each. It's important to keep in mind that each of these tools preferences native English
speakers and students who are comfortable expressing themselves in written English (Kumi-
Yeboah, 2020; Habib et al., 2014), and that flexibility in using them can help reduce
inequity.

Comparison of blogs, wikis and forums

Function Blog Wiki Forum

An easily edited set of one

An online journal, diary or A noticeboard or
or more linked web pages
news column with posts in message board where
that readers can add to or
Definition reverse-chronological order people can start new
modify. Facilitates
(latest first) and options for topics or discussions and
collaborative content
readers to comment respond to existing ones.
creation.

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Serving as a help
Peer editing of a document facility; hosting online
Publishing and reflecting such as a report, essay or asynchronous tutorials;
on work; seeking external paper; creating a glossary presenting and seeking
opinions and comments; of terms or collection of comments on analytical
Uses
analytical writing; resources; brainstorming writing and reflection;
discussion with experts; for a project; creating a soliciting student
networking. shared knowledge base on feedback on a course;
a topic. exploring views/opinions
on a topic or idea.

Updated when the author Anyone can update in real Asynchronous – users
Updating
desires. time. can post at any time.

Owned by
Multiple authors: owned administrator/s who may
Owned by an individual. It and edited by a group. A moderate content.
Ownership, authors can have a single author or wiki is updated by many Multiple authors
multiple contributors. people, from a local group contribute to their own
or remote locations. or others' discussion
threads.

Forum posts can be

The chronological order of
In a wiki, an article's presented in
blog posts and comments is
publication date matters chronological order of
important for following an
less, because articles are posting to the forum, or
Timeline emerging narrative or
updated as new information chronologically within a
keeping posts in the context
becomes available. It is thread, which makes it
of changing circumstances
always a work in progress. easier to follow a
(such as current events).
conversation.

Usually posts containing

the author's opinion or User-generated content
reportage, followed Articles that represent initiated and facilitated
Content optionally by readers' consensus; can have an by the instructor;
comments. Tends towards associated discussion page. exchange of ideas and
the sharing of news, views.
knowledge or expertise.

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Can contain links to other Links are important,

blog posts or comments, helping build connections Posts can contain links
Links
and to other online to other wiki pages and to to online resources.
resources. other online resources.

Continually growing and Users shape the

Ongoing recording or
Development developing, sometimes discussion according to
reporting.
quite quickly. their interests.

One-to-many
communication (posts), Many-to-many Many-to-many
Communication
many-to-one responses communication. communication.
(comments).

Posts are in reverse The most up-to-date Threaded discussions

chronological order, each content displays, but the flow chronologically
Structure
followed by threaded page's history can be from the original topic
comments. viewed and reverted to. post.

Text-driven. Not usually

possible to embed
Usually text, but can Usually text, but can media. Some forums
Media contain images, video, and contain images, video, and allow the use of avatars
sound files. sound files. to make the
conversations more
personable.

Different levels of access

can be set:

 Private – only
Different levels of access selected members Normally limited to
can be set, but the initial can view and edit. members of a designated
Levels of access
post can only be edited by  Public – anyone
group.
the blog owner. can view and edit.
 Semi – anyone can
view but only
selected members
can edit.

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The blog owner can set up

the blog using their own
name or a pseudonym.
Attribution is a key
Comments can be attributed Editing can be anonymous,
feature, as posts often
Attribution of contributors to individuals, but many as the product, not the
lead to direct
blog platforms allow contributor, is the focus.
conversations.
anonymous or
pseudonymous posting at
the blog owner's discretion.

1. Scholars who are

rigorous in their
analysis, critique 1. Scholars who
and reflection: are able to
Students can 1. Leaders who are apply their
demonstrate that enterprising, knowledge and
they have innovative and skills to solving
integrated and creative: Students problems:
synthesised their can apply their Students answer
learning by creative, critical specific
commenting on a thinking as they questions or
post, or by creating work contribute to a
a new post that collaboratively to topic that
reflects or critiques create a wiki. requires them to
Associated Graduate
a particular 2. Leaders who are adapt to a novel
Capabilities with examples position, view or collaborative and situation.
and learning outcomes assumption. effective team 2. Scholars who
2. Leaders who are workers/Global are capable of
collaborative and Citizens who act effective
effective team in socially communication:
workers: Students just/responsible Students respond
can demonstrate ways: In groups, to discussion
discernment and students create topics
sound interpersonal wiki content appropriately,
skills when that their peers can conveying
responding to their use for learning. knowledge and
peers' views
reflections/views in effectively.
either a blog post or
comments.

Discussion
Group Work
Assessing with Blogs Assessing by
Relevant pedagogical pages Assessing with Wikis
Discussion Board

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Create a wiki activity in Set up a forum in

Relevant LMS support pages Blogging in Moodle
Moodle Moodle

3.6 Cyber bullying and inappropriate behaviors on the internet

Cyberbullying or cyberharassment is a form
of bullying or harassment using electronic means. Cyberbullying and cyberharassment are
also known as online bullying. It has become increasingly common, especially among
teenagers and adolescents, due to the communication technology advancements and young
people's increased use of such technologies. Cyberbullying is when someone, typically a
teenager, bullies or harasses others on the internet and other digital spaces, particularly
on social media sites.

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Week 6 -7: Understand Online Conferencing and Streaming

4.1 Describe internet communication technologies. Eg emails, sms, Instant Message

(IM), Voice over IP (VOIP), internet phone calls, web ex, webconferencing etc.
Internet communication technologies refer to the various tools and platforms that enable
people to communicate over the internet in real time or asynchronously. These
technologies have transformed how we connect, collaborate, and share information. Here's
an overview of some key internet communication technologies:

1. Emails
Email (electronic mail) is one of the oldest and most widely used forms of communication
on the internet. It allows users to send and receive written messages, files, and other
attachments. Primarily used for professional communication, personal messages, and
business correspondence.

 Key Features:
o Supports multimedia attachments (images, videos, documents).
o Can be formal or informal.
o Asynchronous (doesn't require both parties to be online at the same time).

2. SMS (Short Message Service)

SMS is a text messaging service that allows users to send short text messages (up to 160
characters) over cellular networks.

Used for quick, short communication, often for notifications or casual messages.

 Key Features:
o Short-form communication.
o Delivered to mobile phones.

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o Limited to text (no multimedia content unless MMS is used).

3. Instant Messaging (IM)

Instant messaging allows users to send text messages in real time. Unlike SMS, IM
typically requires an internet connection and can support more features such as file
sharing, voice notes, and video calls.

Popular for casual conversations, professional collaboration, and group chats.

 Key Features:
o Real-time communication.
o Can support multimedia messages (images, videos, voice notes).
o Includes platforms like WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and Slack.

4. Voice over IP (VoIP)

VoIP is a technology that allows users to make voice calls over the internet rather than
through traditional telephone lines.

Used for making voice calls, either person-to-person or through conference calls.
Common in businesses and personal use.

 Key Features:
o Requires an internet connection.
o Often more affordable than traditional telephone calls, especially for long-
distance.
o Includes platforms like Skype, Zoom, and Google Voice.

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5. Internet Phone Calls

Similar to VoIP, internet phone calls refer to voice communication over the internet.
Services like WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger allow users to call each other using the
internet instead of cellular networks. Used for both personal and professional
communication.

 Key Features:
o Internet-based voice calls.
o May offer video call functionality as well.
o Cost-effective for international calls.

6. WebEx

WebEx is a web conferencing platform that enables virtual meetings, webinars, and online
collaboration. It allows users to communicate via video, voice, and chat. Often used in
professional settings for meetings, team collaboration, and training sessions.

 Key Features:
o Video conferencing with screen sharing.
o Document and file sharing.
o Supports webinars, team collaboration, and customer support.

7. Web Conferencing

Web conferencing involves the use of online platforms to conduct virtual meetings, often
with video and audio communication, as well as interactive features like screen sharing,
chat, and file sharing.

Used for meetings, workshops, educational purposes, and remote work.

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 Key Features:
o Real-time communication.
o Collaboration tools like screen sharing, file transfer, and whiteboarding.
o Includes platforms like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet.

8. Social Media Platforms (Messaging and Communication)

Social media platforms offer various forms of communication, including direct messaging
(DMs), public posts, and video/voice calls.

Social interactions, professional networking, and customer support.

 Key Features:
o Social communication, often asynchronous.
o Can include public or private messages, video, and voice calls.
o Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn.

9. Video Calls (Video Conferencing)

Video calling allows users to communicate face-to-face over the internet using a camera
and microphone. Used in personal and professional settings, especially for meetings and
remote work.

 Key Features:
o High-quality video and audio.
o Often includes screen-sharing and group call functionality.
o Examples include Zoom, Google Meet, and Skype.

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10. File Sharing and Collaborative Tools

Technologies that enable users to share files and work collaboratively in real time. Google
Drive, Dropbox, and Microsoft OneDrive are examples of platforms that support both file
sharing and communication. Sharing documents, collaborating on projects, and real-time
editing.

 Key Features:
o Cloud storage.
o Real-time editing (e.g., Google Docs, Microsoft Office 365).
o Allows access to shared documents and collaborative work environments.

These internet communication technologies enable a diverse range of ways to connect,

collaborate, and share information, whether for personal use or professional purposes.
They have reshaped how people work, communicate, and manage relationships across the
globe. Each technology offers its unique set of features and advantages, allowing users to
choose the most suitable platform based on their needs (e.g., real-time communication vs.
asynchronous messages).

4.2 The advantages of the various internet communication technologies

The various internet communication technologies offer several advantages, depending on
the type of communication needed (real-time, asynchronous, multimedia, etc.). Here's an
overview of the key advantages for each:

1. Emails

 Advantages:

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o Asynchronous: Emails don't require both parties to be online at the same time,
making it convenient for users in different time zones.
o Formal and Professional: Email is widely accepted in professional settings,
allowing for clear, well-documented communication.
o Attachments: Users can send documents, images, spreadsheets, and other
types of files, making it suitable for professional and personal use.
o Record Keeping: Emails provide a permanent record of communication,
making it easier to refer back to important information.
o Cost-effective: Sending an email is free and doesn't incur the costs of phone
calls or postage.

2. SMS (Short Message Service)

 Advantages:
o Quick and Simple: SMS messages are short and easy to send, making it a
convenient way to convey quick updates or reminders.
o Universal: Nearly all mobile phones support SMS, so it’s accessible regardless
of the device or platform.
o Wide Reach: No need for an internet connection—SMS works on basic
phones, which makes it useful for reaching people who may not have a
smartphone.
o High Open Rates: SMS messages tend to be read quickly (often within
minutes), making it a reliable form of communication for urgent or time-
sensitive messages.

3. Instant Messaging (IM)

 Advantages:

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o Real-time Communication: IM allows for immediate, back-and-forth

conversation, making it ideal for casual chats or urgent discussions.
o Multimedia Support: In addition to text, many IM platforms support
multimedia features such as sending photos, voice notes, videos, and files.
o Presence Indicators: IM often shows when users are online, offline, or
"away," which helps people understand the availability of others.
o Group Chats: Many IM platforms support group chats, allowing multiple
people to communicate simultaneously.
o Cost-effective: IM is free and uses an internet connection, which is cheaper
than traditional phone calls or SMS for international communication.

4. Voice over IP (VoIP)

 Advantages:
o Cost Savings: VoIP is usually much cheaper than traditional telephone calls,
especially for long-distance or international calls.
o Flexibility: VoIP allows users to make calls from any device with an internet
connection (e.g., smartphones, laptops, tablets), making it highly flexible.
o High-Quality Calls: With good internet connection, VoIP calls can have clear
audio quality.
o Additional Features: Many VoIP services come with extra features like
voicemail, call forwarding, and call recording, often at no extra cost.
o Scalability: VoIP systems, especially for businesses, can scale easily without
the need for expensive hardware.

5. Internet Phone Calls

 Advantages:

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o Affordable International Communication: Similar to VoIP, internet phone

calls allow users to make free or low-cost calls internationally.
o Multi-Device Compatibility: Users can place calls from multiple devices
(smartphones, computers, etc.), making it convenient for remote
communication.
o Quality and Reliability: With a stable internet connection, internet phone
calls provide high-quality audio and reliability, often surpassing traditional
landline calls.

6. WebEx

 Advantages:
o Professional Video and Audio Conferencing: WebEx is designed for
professional environments, offering robust features for video, audio, and web
conferencing.
o Screen Sharing and Collaboration: It supports real-time collaboration with
screen sharing, whiteboarding, and document sharing.
o Cross-Platform Support: WebEx works on various devices (PCs,
smartphones, tablets), enabling seamless communication across platforms.
o Large Meeting Capacity: It supports large-scale webinars and meetings,
making it ideal for corporate training, events, and conferences.
o Security Features: WebEx provides advanced security options to protect
sensitive information during virtual meetings.

7. Web Conferencing

 Advantages:

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o Real-Time Interaction: Web conferencing facilitates live, interactive

communication with video, voice, and screen-sharing, making it ideal for
meetings, presentations, and collaborative work.
o Global Accessibility: It removes geographical barriers, allowing people from
different locations to meet virtually.
o Recording Features: Many web conferencing tools offer the ability to record
meetings, allowing participants to refer back to the content later.
o Cost-effective: Eliminates the need for travel and physical meetings, which
can be expensive and time-consuming.
o Collaboration Tools: Many platforms offer additional features such as file
sharing, chat, and interactive whiteboards for team collaboration.

8. Social Media Platforms (Messaging and Communication)

 Advantages:
o Easy Communication: Social media platforms make it easy to stay connected
with family, friends, and colleagues, using a mix of private messaging and
public posts.
o Real-Time Engagement: Social media enables immediate feedback and
engagement, whether through comments, likes, or direct messages.
o Multimedia Content: Users can share photos, videos, and links, making
communication more dynamic and engaging.
o Global Reach: Social media connects users across the globe, facilitating
international communication and networking.
o Brand Interaction: Businesses can use social media platforms to engage with
customers, respond to queries, and promote services.

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9. Video Calls (Video Conferencing)

 Advantages:
o Face-to-Face Communication: Video calls provide the next best thing to in-
person meetings, allowing people to see each other’s expressions and body
language, which improves communication quality.
o Group Meetings: Many platforms allow multiple people to join a video call,
making it suitable for team meetings, interviews, and family gatherings.
o Screen Sharing: Users can share their screen during video calls, making it
easier to present information, collaborate on documents, or conduct
demonstrations.
o Remote Work: Video calls enable remote workers to stay connected with their
teams and clients, enhancing productivity and collaboration.
o Cost-effective: Video calls reduce the need for travel and associated expenses,
while still facilitating effective communication.

10. File Sharing and Collaborative Tools

 Advantages:
o Real-time Collaboration: Tools like Google Docs and Microsoft Office 365
allow multiple users to edit the same document simultaneously, improving
teamwork.
o Centralized Storage: Cloud-based file-sharing platforms store files in one
central location, making them accessible from anywhere and reducing the risk
of losing data.
o Version Control: Many platforms track changes and maintain version history,
making it easy to collaborate and revert to earlier versions if needed.

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o Cross-Device Access: Files can be accessed from multiple devices (PC,

mobile, tablet), allowing for flexibility in working on projects.
o Security: Cloud platforms typically offer security features such as encryption,
access control, and backup, ensuring data safety.

The advantages of internet communication technologies are vast and cater to various needs,
whether it’s for personal use or professional collaboration. These tools allow for faster, more
cost-effective, and more efficient communication, breaking down geographic barriers and
providing a wide range of options for different communication scenarios. Each technology
has its specific strengths, and the right choice depends on factors like the type of
communication (real-time vs. asynchronous), the need for multimedia, security concerns,
and scalability.

4.3 Explain the use of chat platforms and its advantages in teaching and learning.
Chat platforms are online tools that allow real-time text communication between users. In
the context of teaching and learning, these platforms have become valuable tools for both
instructors and students to enhance the educational experience. Some popular chat platforms
include Slack, Microsoft Teams, Google Chat, and Discord.

Use of Chat Platforms in Teaching and Learning

1. Student-Teacher Communication: Teachers can use chat platforms to interact with

students directly, answer questions, provide feedback, and clarify doubts.
2. Group Discussions and Collaboration: Students can collaborate on assignments,
share resources, and engage in group discussions in a virtual environment, helping
them work together on projects and tasks.

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3. Q&A Sessions: Students can ask questions in a less formal setting, and teachers can
provide quick answers. This encourages more participation, especially from shy or
introverted students.
4. Class Announcements: Teachers can send important announcements and reminders
to the entire class instantly, ensuring all students stay updated.
5. Real-Time Feedback: Teachers can give feedback on assignments, projects, or ideas
in real-time, fostering an interactive and dynamic learning process.

Advantages in Teaching and Learning

1. Enhanced Communication: Chat platforms allow for faster, more efficient

communication compared to traditional methods (e.g., email), enabling both students
and teachers to resolve issues quickly.
2. Collaboration: These platforms enable students to collaborate effortlessly, even
remotely, on group projects and assignments. Real-time collaboration improves
teamwork and critical thinking.
3. Increased Engagement: Chat platforms often allow for informal, interactive
discussions that encourage students to actively participate and engage with the
material and peers.
4. Accessibility: Chat platforms are available on various devices (phones, tablets,
computers), making it easier for students and teachers to communicate from
anywhere, whether in class or at home.
5. Time Management: Teachers can use chat platforms to manage office hours more
effectively, answering questions or providing additional help outside of class hours.
6. Inclusivity: Students with different learning styles can benefit from chat platforms,
as they can interact in a text-based environment, which might feel more comfortable
than speaking in class.

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7. Building Community: Regular interaction on chat platforms can help build a sense
of community and peer support among students, fostering collaboration and
connection beyond just academics.

Overall, chat platforms support a flexible, dynamic, and interactive learning environment
that enhances communication and collaboration, both of which are essential for successful
teaching and learning.

4.4 The concept of e-learning (distant learning technologies) and its advantages
E-learning (electronic learning) refers to the use of digital tools, resources, and
technologies to deliver education and training remotely, enabling students to learn outside
traditional classroom settings. This form of learning takes place over the internet or through
electronic devices, making it accessible to learners from anywhere with an internet
connection. E-learning encompasses various formats, including online courses, webinars,
virtual classrooms, and multimedia-based learning tools.

Key Components of E-learning (Distance Learning Technologies):

 Learning Management Systems (LMS): Platforms like Moodle, Blackboard, and

Canvas help organize courses, track progress, and provide a central hub for content
delivery and communication between instructors and students.
 Virtual Classrooms: Real-time video conferencing tools like Zoom, Google Meet,
and Microsoft Teams facilitate live interactions between teachers and students,
mimicking traditional classroom settings.
 Online Course Content: This includes video lectures, reading materials, quizzes,
and assignments that students can access at their own pace.
 Multimedia Tools: E-learning often incorporates videos, interactive simulations, and
digital resources to enhance the learning experience.
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 Discussion Forums and Chat Platforms: Tools like discussion boards and group
chats encourage peer-to-peer interaction and collaboration, as well as providing an
avenue for teachers to engage with students outside live sessions.

Advantages of E-learning (Distance Learning Technologies):

1. Flexibility:
o Self-paced Learning: Learners can access content and complete tasks on their
own schedule, making e-learning ideal for those with other commitments such
as work or family.
o Access Anytime, Anywhere: E-learning allows students to learn from
anywhere in the world, as long as they have an internet connection. This
provides the ability to study at home, at work, or on the go.
2. Cost-effectiveness:
o Reduced Costs: E-learning eliminates the need for physical infrastructure,
travel, printed materials, and other traditional educational costs, making it
more affordable for both learners and educational institutions.
o Access to Free or Low-Cost Resources: Many online courses and resources
are free or offered at a lower price, democratizing access to education.
3. Personalized Learning:
o Customized Learning Paths: E-learning platforms often allow students to
progress through material at their own pace, tailoring the learning experience
to individual needs and abilities.
o Adaptive Learning Tools: Some e-learning platforms use AI to adjust content
difficulty or recommend specific learning resources based on a learner's
performance.
4. Diverse Learning Formats:

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o Multimedia Content: E-learning integrates various formats such as videos,

animations, podcasts, and interactive quizzes, catering to different learning
styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic).
o Interactive Elements: Features like simulations, gamified learning, and
hands-on virtual activities make learning more engaging and effective.
5. Global Reach and Accessibility:
o Inclusive Learning: E-learning can be accessed by anyone, regardless of
geographical location, providing educational opportunities to remote or
underserved communities.
o Support for Different Languages and Disabilities: Many e-learning
platforms offer multilingual options and accessibility features (such as screen
readers) to accommodate diverse learners.
6. Convenience and Time-saving:
o No Commuting: Learners do not need to travel to a physical location, saving
time and money.
o Time Flexibility: Students can learn at their own convenience, allowing them
to balance their education with work or personal life.
7. Progress Tracking and Immediate Feedback:
o Real-time Assessments: E-learning tools provide immediate feedback on
quizzes and assignments, enabling students to track their progress and
understand areas that need improvement.
o Data Analytics: Teachers can monitor learner progress through built-in
analytics, which helps identify struggling students and provide timely support.
8. Scalability:
o Reach More Students: E-learning can accommodate large numbers of
students, making it scalable for institutions and organizations to offer
education to a broad audience.
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o Global Collaboration: Students can collaborate with peers from different

countries and cultures, broadening their perspectives and learning experiences.
9. Sustainability:
o Environmentally Friendly: E-learning reduces the need for physical
materials, such as paper textbooks, and minimizes the carbon footprint
associated with commuting and maintaining physical classrooms.

E-learning and distance learning technologies have revolutionized the way education is
delivered, making it more flexible, accessible, and affordable. These technologies support
a wide variety of learners, from those pursuing formal education to professionals seeking
continued development. E-learning promotes personalized, engaging learning experiences,
while offering significant benefits in terms of convenience, cost-efficiency, and global
accessibility.

4.5 List some distant learning technologies.

Some common distance learning technologies that are widely used in online education:

1. Learning Management Systems (LMS)

 Moodle: An open-source platform that allows educators to create and manage online
courses, track student progress, and facilitate learning activities.
 Blackboard: A widely used LMS in higher education that offers tools for course
management, content delivery, assessments, and communication.
 Canvas: A user-friendly LMS that provides features like assignments, quizzes,
discussions, and grading, supporting both synchronous and asynchronous learning.

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2. Video Conferencing and Virtual Classrooms

 Zoom: A popular video conferencing platform used for live lectures, meetings, and
webinars, with features like screen sharing, breakout rooms, and chat.
 Google Meet: A video conferencing tool that integrates with Google Workspace
(Docs, Drive, etc.), offering live sessions for remote classrooms.
 Microsoft Teams: A collaborative platform for communication, file sharing, and live
video classes. Teams also integrates with other Microsoft tools like Word and
PowerPoint.
 BigBlueButton: An open-source video conferencing system designed for online
learning, offering features like video, audio, and screen sharing, along with
whiteboards and polling tools.

3. Content Delivery Platforms

 YouTube: A widely used platform for uploading and sharing pre-recorded video
lectures, tutorials, and educational content.
 Vimeo: A video hosting platform similar to YouTube, often used for higher-quality,
ad-free educational content.
 Khan Academy: A platform that offers free, high-quality video lessons on various
subjects, along with exercises and quizzes for self-paced learning.

4. Online Collaboration Tools

 Google Docs/Google Drive: A cloud-based suite for document creation, file sharing,
and collaborative work in real time.
 Microsoft OneDrive and Office 365: A cloud storage solution with collaborative
tools (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) for group work, content creation, and sharing.

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 Slack: A team communication platform that allows students and instructors to

communicate in real time through channels, direct messages, and file sharing.
 Trello: A project management tool often used by students for organizing tasks,
assignments, and group projects in a collaborative manner.

5. Assessment and Quiz Tools

 Quizlet: A platform that allows teachers and students to create and study digital
flashcards, quizzes, and learning games.
 Kahoot!: A game-based learning platform that lets educators create fun quizzes and
challenges for students to engage with.
 Socrative: A tool for creating real-time quizzes, polls, and assessments with instant
feedback, ideal for formative assessments.

6. Virtual Labs and Simulations

 Labster: Provides virtual labs and simulations for science students, offering hands-
on learning experiences in a digital environment.
 PhET: A project from the University of Colorado offering interactive simulations in
physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics.
 Tinkercad: A platform that allows students to learn 3D design and create virtual
models, particularly useful for engineering and design students.

7. eBooks and Digital Textbooks

 Google Books: Provides access to a vast library of digital textbooks and resources
for various subjects.
 Amazon Kindle: Offers a collection of eBooks and digital resources for students,
with options for highlighting, taking notes, and syncing across devices.

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 VitalSource: A platform for distributing and accessing digital textbooks with tools
for annotation, highlighting, and offline reading.

8. Discussion Forums and Social Learning Platforms

 Edmodo: A platform that combines classroom management, communication, and

social learning tools, allowing students and teachers to interact in a secure online
environment.
 Discourse: A forum-based tool that supports community discussions and
collaborative learning, often used for class discussions and peer feedback.
 Reddit: While not strictly an educational tool, many subreddits serve as spaces for
collaborative learning and discussion, particularly for niche academic topics.

9. eLearning Authoring Tools

 Articulate 360: A suite of tools for creating interactive online courses, including
content creation, assessment, and multimedia integration.
 Adobe Captivate: An authoring tool for creating responsive eLearning content,
simulations, and assessments.
 iSpring Suite: A tool that allows instructors to convert PowerPoint presentations into
interactive eLearning courses, complete with quizzes and assessments.

10. Mobile Learning Apps

 Duolingo: A mobile app for learning languages through interactive lessons and
practice exercises.
 Khan Academy Kids: A mobile app offering educational content and interactive
learning tools for younger children.

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 Quizlet: Also available as a mobile app, Quizlet allows students to study and create
flashcards on the go.

11. Podcasting and Audio Learning

 Audible: Offers audiobooks and educational podcasts, allowing students to learn

while on the move.
 Podbean: A podcast hosting platform that educators can use to create audio-based
lessons or discussions for students to listen to on-demand.

12. Gamification Tools

 Classcraft: A platform that integrates gamification with classroom management,

turning learning into an interactive role-playing game.
 Minecraft Education Edition: A popular game-based platform used for teaching
subjects like math, science, and history in an immersive virtual environment.

These distance learning technologies help provide a wide range of interactive,

collaborative, and flexible learning experiences for students and educators alike,
transforming how education is delivered in a remote or hybrid setting.

4.6 Describe and identify various platforms for web and video conferencing.
Web and video conferencing platforms allow individuals or groups to communicate and
collaborate remotely through audio, video, and text-based communication. These platforms
are crucial in enabling virtual meetings, webinars, and online education. Below are some
popular web and video conferencing platforms along with their key features:

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1. Zoom

One of the most widely used video conferencing platforms, Zoom supports video calls,
webinars, virtual meetings, and team collaboration.

 Key Features:
o High-quality video and audio
o Screen sharing and whiteboarding
o Breakout rooms for smaller group discussions
o Webinar hosting and live streaming
o Chat and file sharing
o Virtual backgrounds
o Integration with various calendar apps and third-party tools
 Use Cases: Virtual meetings, webinars, online education, team collaboration.

2. Microsoft Teams

A collaboration platform that combines workplace chat, file sharing, video meetings, and
task management, deeply integrated with Microsoft Office 365.

 Key Features:
o Text chat, audio, and video calls
o Screen sharing and collaboration on documents in real-time
o Integrated with Microsoft Office tools (Word, Excel, PowerPoint)
o Meeting scheduling and calendar integration
o File storage and sharing via OneDrive
o Virtual backgrounds and live captions
 Use Cases: Business meetings, remote work collaboration, project management, and
online education.

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3. Google Meet

A video conferencing platform from Google, part of Google Workspace (formerly G Suite),
designed for seamless integration with other Google services like Gmail, Google Calendar,
and Google Drive.

 Key Features:
o High-definition video calls with up to 250 participants
o Screen sharing and real-time captioning
o Integration with Google Workspace (Docs, Sheets, Slides)
o Virtual backgrounds and noise cancellation
o Secure encryption and data protection
 Use Cases: Business meetings, online learning, virtual collaboration with Google
tools.

4. Cisco WebEx

A video conferencing solution offering a suite of tools for online meetings, webinars, video
calls, and team collaboration, mainly targeted at businesses.

 Key Features:
o HD video and audio quality
o Screen sharing, whiteboarding, and file sharing
o Webinar hosting for up to 100,000 attendees
o Breakout sessions and team collaboration tools
o End-to-end encryption and secure meeting rooms
o Cloud recording and automatic transcription
 Use Cases: Business meetings, webinars, remote team collaboration, virtual
conferences.

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5. Skype

A well-known communication tool that offers free video calls, voice calls, and messaging.
Skype is commonly used for personal communication, but it also supports group video calls
and business meetings.

 Key Features:
o Video and voice calls, instant messaging
o Screen sharing and file sharing
o Call recording
o Live subtitles and translation features
o Supports international calling with affordable rates
 Use Cases: Personal and business video calls, small-team collaboration, customer
support.

6. GoToMeeting

A web and video conferencing platform designed for businesses, offering solutions for
meetings, webinars, and collaboration with a focus on simplicity and usability.

 Key Features:
o HD video and audio conferencing
o Screen sharing, whiteboarding, and file sharing
o Meeting recording and transcription
o Breakout rooms for smaller discussions
o Customizable branding and integrations with calendar apps
 Use Cases: Online meetings, team collaboration, webinars, customer presentations.

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7. Slack

Primarily a messaging platform for teams, Slack also offers video and voice calling
capabilities, making it a powerful tool for team communication and collaboration.

 Key Features:
o Instant messaging with threaded conversations
o Audio and video calls (one-on-one or in groups)
o Screen sharing during calls
o File sharing and integration with cloud storage services
o Integration with numerous third-party tools (Google Drive, Trello, etc.)
 Use Cases: Team collaboration, remote work, daily communication, and virtual team
meetings.

8. BlueJeans

A video conferencing platform known for its high-quality video and audio capabilities,
offering business-focused features for virtual meetings and events.

 Key Features:
o HD video and audio quality with Dolby Voice
o Screen sharing, recording, and meeting transcription
o Virtual meeting rooms and collaboration tools
o Integration with Microsoft Teams, Slack, and other productivity tools
o Event hosting and webinar capabilities
 Use Cases: Corporate meetings, webinars, virtual conferences, online collaboration.

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9. Adobe Connect

A web conferencing platform with rich features for webinars, virtual classrooms, and online
collaboration, primarily used by businesses and educational institutions.

 Key Features:
o Customizable meeting rooms with interactive tools
o Breakout rooms and screen sharing
o Real-time chat and file sharing
o Recording and playback options
o Polling, quizzes, and engagement features
 Use Cases: Virtual classrooms, corporate training, webinars, eLearning.

10. Jitsi Meet

An open-source, free video conferencing platform that offers secure, simple, and scalable
video meetings without needing an account or installation.

 Key Features:
o No sign-in required, and it’s open-source
o Supports HD video and audio calls
o Screen sharing and real-time chat
o Virtual backgrounds and integration with Google Meet
o End-to-end encryption for privacy
 Use Cases: Informal video meetings, personal communication, open-source
collaboration.

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11. Whereby

A simple video conferencing tool designed for ease of use, where meetings can be started
instantly with no downloads or sign-ups.

 Key Features:
o Video conferencing with up to 50 participants
o No need to download an app—browser-based
o Screen sharing, virtual rooms, and integrations
o Customizable meeting rooms with branding options
 Use Cases: Small team meetings, casual video calls, business collaboration.

12. VSee

A telemedicine-focused video conferencing tool that’s known for secure, HIPAA-compliant

video meetings and telehealth solutions.

 Key Features:
o HD video and audio calls with screen sharing
o Chat and file sharing
o Secure, HIPAA-compliant communication
o Virtual waiting rooms and medical record sharing
 Use Cases: Telemedicine, healthcare consultations, remote support.

4.7 Explain streaming and how it works.

Streaming is a way to watch or listen to media (videos, music, or live events) over the
internet without having to download it first. Instead of saving the entire file to your device
(downloading), it’s delivered to you in small chunks (streams) as you’re watching or
listening.
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Eg, Netflix, where you watch a movie or series without downloading the entire thing.
YouTube also works in the same way.

And, in audio streaming Spotify, where you can listen to a song or podcast without saving
the whole file to your phone.

How Does Streaming Work

Now let’s address the elephant in the room. How does streaming work?

Streaming works by sending data (like video or audio) from a server to your device over the
internet in real time. Instead of downloading the entire file first, your device gets the data in
small pieces, which are played as they arrive.

Here’s how it works step-by-step:

1. Requesting Content

When you hit “play” on a video or music track, your device (phone, computer, or smart TV)
sends a request to the server where that content is stored. This server could be part of a
streaming platform like Netflix, YouTube, or Spotify. The server holds the media file and
is ready to send it to you as soon as it gets your request.

2. Chunking the Data

Instead of sending the entire video or song file at once (which would take a lot of time and
storage), the server breaks it down into small pieces of data called “packets.” Each of these
packets represents a small part of the video or audio, typically just a few seconds worth.
This makes the process faster and easier to manage, especially over the internet.

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3. Data Transmission Over the Internet

Once the server has chunked the data, it begins sending these packets to your device. These
packets travel through the internet using various networks and protocols, such as TCP/IP,
ensuring that the packets arrive at your device in the correct order.

4. Buffering

As the first packets arrive, your device doesn’t immediately start playing the content.
Instead, it temporarily stores a few seconds’ worth of data in something called a buffer. This
buffer acts as a safety net, allowing playback to continue even if there are brief delays in
the internet connection. If the connection slows or loses momentum for a moment, the
device can keep playing from the buffer until new data arrives.

5. Decoding and Playback

Once there’s enough data in the buffer, the media player (YouTube app or your web
browser) begins decoding the packets. These packets contain compressed data, and your
device uses video encoding codec (like H.264 for video or AAC for audio) to decompress
it back into the original format. The decoded content is then displayed as video or played as
audio, and the media starts playing smoothly on your screen or through your speakers.

6. Continuous Data Flow

While you’re watching or listening, your device keeps requesting more data packets from
the server. The server sends these packets one by one, and your device continually adds
them to the buffer. As long as the buffer stays full, the content will play without
interruptions.

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If your internet connection is fast and stable, the stream will stay smooth. If it slows down,
the media player might lower the quality to keep the stream going without stopping (this is
called adaptive bitrate streaming).

7. Adaptive Bitrate Streaming

If your internet connection fluctuates (slows down or speeds up), the streaming platform
adjusts the quality of the stream to match your bandwidth. For instance, if you start losing
connection strength, the video bitrate quality might drop from HD to a lower resolution like
480p. This is done to prevent buffering or freezing, ensuring that the stream continues
uninterrupted. Conversely, if your connection improves, the stream will switch back to a
higher quality automatically.

8. Content Delivery Networks (CDNs)

To make the streaming process faster and more efficient, platforms use Content Delivery
Networks (CDNs). These are servers located in different parts of the world, closer to the
user. When you stream something, the data doesn’t always come from the main server of
the streaming platform. Instead, it comes from the nearest video CDN server, reducing the
distance the data has to travel, making the streaming faster and reducing buffering.

9. Streaming End

When you finish watching or listening to the media, the stream stops, and the server no
longer sends data packets to your device. Any remaining packets in your buffer might be
stored temporarily in the device’s cache but will usually be deleted over time. If you decide
to watch the same content again, the process will repeat from the start, but it might be faster
since some data could already be cached.

4.8 Differentiate between streaming and downloading.

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What is Streaming?
Streaming refers to the viewing of the content held within the remote machine (server)
instead of the shopper machine. Now, however, will this streaming work? within the
streaming of the media and applications, the media bitstream is split into tiny chunks or
blocks that area unit transferred severally. With this, the receiver is capable of coding and
playing the portion of the bitstream that’s received by the end-user at a specific time. So,
this can be however the transmitter systematically sends the packets of multimedia system
knowledge whereas the receiver accepts, decodes, and examines the received parts of the
bitstreams concomitantly.

What is Downloading?
Downloading is totally different from streaming; it involves the storage of the content at
the client’s machine from the server before viewing the content. It are often explained by
taking the instance of the FTP protocol, within which the file is downloaded first before
overwhelming it. Downloading could be a strong technique of delivering the content to
the end-user. It eliminates the buffering of the content because it happens at the time of
streaming.

4.9 Define live audio

Live audio refers to the real-time transmission of sound or audio content over the internet
or through other broadcasting mediums, where the audience can listen to the audio as it is
being produced or transmitted, without any delay or pre-recording.
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Key Characteristics of Live Audio:

 Real-time Transmission: Live audio is broadcast or streamed in real-time, meaning

that listeners hear the sound as it is being captured or transmitted.
 No Pre-recording: Unlike podcasts or recorded radio shows, live audio is not edited
or prepared ahead of time. It’s happening "live," meaning there is little to no delay
from the point of production to when it reaches the audience.
 Live Events: It is commonly used in contexts like live radio shows, live music
performances, podcasts, sports broadcasts, and news reporting.
 Interactive: In many cases, live audio may allow for listener interaction, such as live
call-ins, real-time feedback, or audience participation (e.g., live Q&A sessions).

Examples of Live Audio:

1. Live Radio Broadcasts: Traditional radio stations or internet-based radio platforms

broadcast live music, news, interviews, and talk shows.
2. Live Podcasts: Some podcasters stream live audio, where listeners can join the
stream and interact with the hosts in real-time.
3. Live Music Streaming: Concerts or musical performances streamed live on
platforms like YouTube Live, Instagram Live, or specialized music streaming
services.
4. Live Sports Commentary: Sports events are often accompanied by live audio
commentary, either through traditional broadcast or streaming services.
5. Live Webinars or Conferences: Events like virtual conferences or webinars often
feature live audio presentations or discussions.

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Live audio allows audiences to experience real-time sound transmission from events,
performances, or broadcasts, often with interactive elements, without having to wait for
recordings to be released.

4.10 Explain how to stream the video of a live recording.

Streaming a live video recording typically involves capturing video from a source (like a
camera), encoding it, and then sending it to a streaming platform for viewers to watch in
real-time. Below are step-by-step explanation of the process:

1. Capture the Video Source

 Camera: Use a webcam, digital camera, or professional camera to capture the video
feed. Some people also use smartphones.
 Screen Capture (optional): For streaming content from your computer, you might
use screen capture software (like OBS Studio or XSplit) to stream a live recording of
what's on your screen (e.g., gaming, presentations).

2. Choose a Streaming Platform

 Decide where you want to stream the video. Some popular platforms include:
o YouTube Live
o Twitch
o Facebook Live
o Instagram Live (for mobile)
o Vimeo
 Each platform has its own requirements and settings (e.g., stream keys, resolutions,
bitrates), which you’ll need to configure.

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3. Set Up Streaming Software

To send the video to the platform, you’ll need software that can encode and stream the
video. Some common options are:

 OBS Studio (Open Broadcaster Software): Free and open-source software used for
live streaming and video recording. It works with most streaming platforms.
 Streamlabs OBS: A more user-friendly version of OBS with additional features,
primarily aimed at streamers.
 Wirecast, vMix, XSplit: Professional paid software for more advanced streaming
setups.

4. Configure Streaming Software

 Input: In the streaming software, add the video source (like your camera or screen
capture). Make sure to configure the resolution (1080p, 720p, etc.) and frame rate
(30fps, 60fps).
 Audio Input: Select the microphone or audio source to capture sound.
 Encoder Settings: Choose the video encoder (x264 or hardware encoders like
NVENC for better performance), and set the bitrate (the higher the bitrate, the better
the quality, but it requires better internet speed).
 Streaming Settings: In OBS, for instance, you'll need to enter a stream key provided
by the streaming platform.

5. Set Up the Streaming Platform

 Log into your chosen platform and access the live streaming settings.
 You'll be given a stream key or RTMP URL, which you'll need to input into your
streaming software (e.g., OBS).

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 Configure the title, description, privacy settings (public or private), and other options
as needed.

6. Test the Stream

 Before going live, it’s a good idea to do a test stream to ensure that your video and
audio are functioning properly, and the quality meets your expectations.
 You can usually stream privately or unlisted to make sure everything works.

7. Start Streaming

 Once everything is set up, hit the Start Streaming button in your streaming software,
and the video will be sent to the platform.
 Viewers will be able to access the stream on the platform’s website or app.

8. Monitor the Stream

 Keep an eye on the stream's health (video/audio quality, buffering, etc.). Most
platforms will show you stats on viewers, bitrate, and any errors.
 Engage with your audience (if applicable), responding to chat or comments as
needed.

9. End the Stream

 When you’re finished, hit the Stop Streaming button on your software. The platform
will automatically save your broadcast, depending on its settings (e.g., YouTube
saves the live stream as a video).

Helpful Tools:

 Streamlabs: Provides overlays, alerts, and tools to enhance the stream.

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 Twitch Studio: Twitch’s native software with easy setup and integration.
 Restream.io: Allows you to stream to multiple platforms simultaneously.

Week 8-9: Understand Digital Principles, Ethics, Skills and Citizenship

5.1 Explain the importance of ethical behavior in online presence.

Ethical behavior in your online presence is crucial for several reasons. Some key points that
explain why it matters:

1. Building Trust and Credibility

 Honesty and transparency are foundational in establishing trust with your audience.
Whether you're a content creator, a business, or an individual, people are more likely
to engage with and support someone they believe is truthful and authentic.
 Ethical behavior involves being truthful in your interactions, ensuring that the
information you provide is accurate, and being transparent about any potential biases
or motives (such as sponsored content).

2. Respecting Others' Privacy

 Respecting privacy means not sharing others’ personal information without

permission, not engaging in doxxing, and being mindful of what you post about others
online. This helps protect individuals from potential harm, including harassment,
identity theft, or unwanted exposure.
 Confidentiality is another key ethical aspect, especially if you're handling sensitive
data or private conversations.

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3. Preventing Harmful Behavior

 Cyberbullying, trolling, and other negative online behaviors can cause significant
harm to others. Engaging in these harmful actions not only affects individuals but can
also damage your own reputation.
 Ethical behavior means using your platform to promote positivity, understanding, and
inclusivity, rather than contributing to online toxicity.

4. Upholding Integrity in Communication

 In the online world, misleading information (e.g., fake news, clickbait, or

exaggerating facts) can spread quickly, leading to confusion, misinformed decisions,
and even societal harm.
 Ethical online behavior includes responsible communication, where you make an
effort to verify information before sharing it, avoid sensationalism, and clarify any
misunderstandings as they arise.

5. Respecting Intellectual Property

 Plagiarism—using others’ work without proper credit—is unethical and illegal. It’s
important to always attribute content, respect copyright laws, and avoid using others’
intellectual property (images, music, videos, etc.) without permission.
 By respecting intellectual property, you're also setting a standard for others to follow,
creating a culture of fairness and respect online.

6. Avoiding Manipulation

 Ethical behavior involves avoiding manipulative tactics. For example, in marketing

or content creation, don’t trick people into clicking on something misleading or use
underhanded methods to increase views or engagement.
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 Instead, focus on creating content that adds value and fosters genuine connections.

7. Promoting a Positive Online Environment

 When you act ethically online, you contribute to building an online environment that
is supportive, respectful, and inclusive.
 This is important because, in today’s interconnected world, online spaces can
significantly impact mental health, community dynamics, and social discourse.
Ethical behavior can help reduce harmful practices like online harassment and
discrimination.

8. Legal and Professional Repercussions

 Ethical online behavior often intersects with legal guidelines. For instance, false
advertising, spreading harmful content, or violating copyright laws can lead to
lawsuits or fines.
 In a professional context, unethical behavior (like spreading rumors, misrepresenting
qualifications, or engaging in conflict of interest) can harm your career and
reputation, possibly even resulting in job loss or legal consequences.

9. Setting a Good Example

 Whether you realize it or not, your actions set an example for others, especially for
younger or less experienced internet users. By acting ethically, you're modeling
positive behavior and influencing others to do the same.
 This is particularly important on platforms like social media, where influencers,
public figures, and even everyday users have a significant impact on the collective
online culture.

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10. Long-Term Success

 Ethical behavior is linked to sustainable growth and success. Short-term gains from
unethical actions (like clickbait, misleading ads, or exploiting followers) might bring
quick results, but they often lead to a damaged reputation and a loss of audience trust
over time.
 By focusing on ethical practices, you build a loyal and engaged audience that
supports your work in the long term.

Maintaining ethical behavior online is not just about following the rules; it's about creating
an online presence that is built on integrity, respect, and responsibility. Whether you’re
interacting with others, sharing content, or representing a brand, being mindful of your
actions online can help foster a safer, more inclusive, and trustworthy digital world. It’s
about respecting both your audience and the broader online community, and ensuring that
your impact is positive.

5.2 Explain Digital Wellness basics as it affects screen time and ergonomic best
practice.
Digital wellness is all about maintaining a healthy balance between our use of digital devices
and our overall well-being. It involves making conscious choices about how we engage with
technology in a way that supports our mental, physical, and emotional health. When it
comes to screen time and ergonomics, digital wellness focuses on reducing the negative
effects of excessive screen use while promoting practices that support comfort and health.

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1. Screen Time: Managing and Reducing It

Excessive screen time can have various negative impacts on our physical and mental health,
including eye strain, poor posture, reduced sleep quality, and increased stress. Here's how
to manage screen time effectively:

a. Recognize the Risks of Too Much Screen Time

 Eye Strain (Digital Eye Strain or "Computer Vision Syndrome"): Prolonged

screen time can lead to symptoms like dry eyes, headaches, blurred vision, and neck
pain.
 Sleep Disruption: Blue light emitted by screens can interfere with melatonin
production, making it harder to fall asleep, especially when used late at night.
 Mental Fatigue: Constant engagement with digital devices can lead to cognitive
overload, which can negatively impact focus, attention, and overall mental well-
being.
 Physical Inactivity: Excessive screen time, especially when sitting for long periods,
can contribute to a sedentary lifestyle, which is linked to various health problems like
obesity, heart disease, and poor posture.

b. The 20-20-20 Rule

 To minimize eye strain, follow the 20-20-20 rule: Every 20 minutes, take a 20-second
break and look at something 20 feet away from you. This helps relax the eye muscles
and reduces strain.

c. Limit Screen Time for Better Balance

 Set daily screen time limits for recreational activities (social media, videos, etc.) and
stick to them. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggests no more than

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2 hours of recreational screen time per day for children, and the same idea can be
applied to adults.
 Consider using apps or built-in smartphone features to track or limit screen time, like
Screen Time on iOS or Digital Wellbeing on Android.

d. Digital Detox and Breaks

 Schedule regular breaks away from screens, especially if you're working for long
periods. Consider a digital detox, where you take a break from screens (e.g., social
media) for a set period (like an hour or a full day).
 Engage in offline activities such as reading, exercising, spending time with loved
ones, or enjoying nature to restore your mental health.

2. Ergonomics: Best Practices for Comfort and Health

Poor ergonomic practices while using screens can lead to physical discomfort, repetitive
strain injuries, and long-term health problems. Here are some essential ergonomic practices
to keep in mind:

a. Proper Sitting Posture

 Sit Upright: Ensure that your back is supported by your chair, and keep your
shoulders relaxed. Avoid slouching, as it puts unnecessary strain on your spine.
 Feet Flat on the Floor: Your feet should be flat on the ground, or you can use a
footrest if necessary. This helps maintain proper posture and reduces strain on your
legs and lower back.

b. Screen Position

 Monitor Height: The top of your monitor should be at or slightly below eye level.
You should be able to look straight ahead without tilting your head up or down. If

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you're using a laptop, consider using an external keyboard and mouse and elevating
the laptop to the correct height.
 Distance: The screen should be about an arm's length away from you. This helps
reduce eye strain and makes it easier to read without leaning in.
 Tilt: The screen should be tilted slightly backward (10 to 20 degrees) to prevent neck
strain.

c. Keyboard and Mouse Setup

 Keyboard Position: Keep your keyboard at a height where your elbows are at a 90-
degree angle or slightly more open. Your forearms should be parallel to the ground.
Consider using an ergonomic keyboard if you type for long hours.
 Mouse Placement: Your mouse should be positioned close to your keyboard so you
don’t have to stretch your arm to reach it. Your wrist should stay straight and relaxed
while using the mouse.
 Wrist Support: Use a wrist rest or pad for support if needed, but avoid keeping your
wrists in an unnatural position for long periods.

d. Take Regular Breaks and Move

 Movement: To prevent stiffness and strain from prolonged sitting, take breaks every
30 to 60 minutes. Stand up, stretch, or walk around for a few minutes.
 Stretching: Perform simple stretches for your neck, shoulders, and wrists to relieve
tension and prevent muscle fatigue.

e. Lighting

 Avoid Glare: Position your screen to avoid glare from windows or overhead lights.
Glare can cause eye strain and discomfort.

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 Ambient Lighting: Ensure that the room is well-lit. It’s best to use soft, indirect light
to reduce strain on your eyes while reading or working.

f. Device Adjustments

 Adjust Brightness and Contrast: Set your screen brightness to match the
surrounding lighting. If the screen is too bright or too dim, it can strain your eyes.
Some devices also offer blue light filters to reduce strain during evening hours.
 Text Size: Adjust text size and contrast to make reading more comfortable without
needing to squint or strain your eyes.

Conclusion: The Balance of Digital Wellness

Digital wellness is about creating a mindful relationship with technology. It's important to
balance the benefits of digital devices with the physical and mental effects they can have on
our health. By following screen time guidelines, incorporating regular breaks, and practicing
ergonomic best practices, we can significantly reduce the potential harm of excessive screen
use while improving overall comfort and productivity. Taking care of your digital wellness
not only enhances your well-being but also helps foster a healthier, more sustainable use of
technology.

5.3 Explain online identity management, branding, Digital footprint.

Online Identity Management, Branding, and Digital Footprint are all interconnected
concepts that relate to how individuals and businesses present themselves on the internet,
and how their presence is perceived and managed.

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1. Online Identity Management

Online identity management is the practice of managing and protecting your personal or
business identity on the internet. This includes controlling the information that is shared,
maintaining privacy, and safeguarding against identity theft or misuse.

Key elements of online identity management:

 Personal Information Protection: Ensuring your sensitive information (name,

contact details, social security numbers, etc.) is not exposed to unauthorized
individuals or organizations.
 Account Security: Using strong passwords, two-factor authentication, and other
security measures to protect your online accounts.
 Social Media Profiles: Curating what is shared and visible on platforms like
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc., to control your online image.
 Digital Reputation: Managing how you are perceived online, including both positive
and negative aspects.

2. Branding
Branding refers to how an individual or business creates a unique identity or image in the
minds of their audience. This involves the strategic creation of visual, verbal, and emotional
elements that differentiate someone or a company from others in the market.

Key components of online branding:

 Logo and Visual Elements: The use of design (logos, color schemes, fonts) to
convey a consistent identity.
 Messaging: The tone, voice, and messaging used in content (e.g., blog posts, social
media updates, videos).

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 Consistency Across Platforms: Maintaining a cohesive brand identity across all

online channels such as websites, social media, and advertisements.
 Audience Engagement: Building relationships with your audience through
interaction, storytelling, and delivering value.
 Brand Values and Mission: The guiding principles behind the brand that resonate
with the target audience and define its purpose.

3. Digital Footprint
A digital footprint is the record of your online activity, both active and passive, which can
include anything you create or share online, as well as data that’s collected about you by
websites, apps, and social media.

There are two types of digital footprints:

 Active Digital Footprint: The information you intentionally share, such as posts,
comments, photos, and videos on social media, blogs, or websites.
 Passive Digital Footprint: The data collected about you without your direct
knowledge, such as tracking cookies, IP addresses, browsing history, or the data
companies collect for advertising purposes.

Managing Your Digital Footprint is crucial because:

 Privacy: Information such as your location, browsing history, and personal

preferences can be tracked and used by advertisers or even malicious actors.
 Reputation: Your online footprint influences how you're perceived professionally
and socially. Employers, potential partners, and even future clients may look up your
digital footprint before making decisions.
 Security Risks: Sharing too much personal information or engaging in risky online
behavior can expose you to identity theft, scams, or cyber-attacks.

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How They All Connect:

 Identity Management is a strategy for protecting and curating your digital footprint
while also building and maintaining a consistent brand online.
 Branding is part of identity management. When you manage your online identity,
you're essentially controlling your brand and reputation on the internet.
 Your digital footprint is the result of all of the content, actions, and behaviors you
engage in online. It can either positively or negatively affect your personal or
professional brand.

By effectively managing your online identity, maintaining a positive digital footprint, and
consistently aligning your branding with your values and mission, you can create a strong,
secure, and impactful online presence.

5.4 Explain how to create an online identity and its importance to prospective
employers.
Creating an online identity is an essential step for establishing your personal brand and
showcasing your skills, values, and expertise to prospective employers. Your online
presence is often one of the first things a hiring manager or recruiter will look at when
considering you for a position, so how you curate and present yourself online can have a
major impact on your career prospects. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to create a strong
online identity, along with its importance to employers.

1. Understand Your Personal Brand

Before diving into the practical steps of creating an online identity, it’s important to define
your personal brand. Your personal brand is how you present yourself online—your
values, strengths, skills, and the unique qualities that make you stand out. It’s the way you
want the world (and potential employers) to see you.
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 Self-Reflection: Think about your core skills, passions, and values. What are you
known for? What makes you unique in your field? This will help you form a
consistent narrative for your online identity.
 Career Goals: Consider the career or industry you’re targeting. Tailor your online
presence to appeal to those sectors by highlighting relevant skills, accomplishments,
and experiences.

2. Build a Professional Online Presence

Now that you know your personal brand, it’s time to create and maintain professional online
profiles. Here’s where to focus your energy:

a. LinkedIn Profile

 Why It’s Important: LinkedIn is a vital platform for professionals. Employers and
recruiters use it to search for talent, check qualifications, and assess cultural fit.
 Key Components:
o Headline: This is a short phrase that summarizes your professional identity. It
should be more than just a job title—include keywords related to your expertise
(e.g., "Digital Marketing Strategist | Content Creator | SEO Expert").
o About Section: Write a clear and engaging summary of your experience,
skills, and career goals. Make it easy to read while showcasing your
personality.
o Experience & Education: List relevant work experience, internships, and
academic credentials. Be sure to use bullet points to highlight achievements,
and where possible, quantify your impact (e.g., "Increased sales by 20%").
o Skills & Endorsements: Add key skills related to your career. You can request
endorsements from colleagues or past supervisors to enhance credibility.

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o Recommendations: Ask for recommendations from coworkers, managers, or

clients. Positive testimonials provide social proof of your abilities.
o Custom URL: Customize your LinkedIn profile URL to make it easier to share
(e.g., linkedin.com/in/johndoe).

b. Personal Website or Portfolio

 Why It’s Important: A personal website acts as your digital portfolio, especially
useful if you work in fields like design, writing, or tech. It can showcase your work
in a more organized and visually appealing way.
 What to Include:
o About Me: A brief section about your professional background, what you do,
and what drives you.
o Portfolio: Include examples of your work (projects, writing samples, designs,
code, etc.) with descriptions and explanations of your role in each.
o Contact Information: Make it easy for employers to reach out. Include a
professional email address and links to your social media profiles.
o Blog (Optional): If relevant, consider writing about industry trends,
professional experiences, or insights. It demonstrates thought leadership and
engagement in your field.

c. Social Media Profiles

 Why It’s Important: Many employers will look at your social media profiles to
assess whether you align with their company’s values and culture.
 What to Do:

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o Twitter: Use Twitter to share industry insights, join relevant conversations,

and engage with professionals in your field. A clean and professional feed can
help reinforce your personal brand.
o Instagram: If you’re in a creative field (e.g., design, photography, fashion),
Instagram is an excellent place to showcase your work visually. Make sure
your feed aligns with your professional image.
o Facebook: While Facebook tends to be more personal, ensure your profile is
private and professional if you’re using it for networking or job searching.
o Other Niche Platforms: Depending on your industry, consider platforms like
GitHub (for developers), Behance (for designers), or Dribbble (for creatives).

d. Content Creation (Blogging, Videos, Podcasts)

 Why It’s Important: Creating content allows you to showcase your expertise and
build a reputation as a thought leader in your field. It gives potential employers an
idea of your communication skills and your ability to stay informed.
 What to Create:
o Blog Posts: Write about industry topics, trends, or case studies. Consistent
blogging can help you rank higher in search engines and attract potential
employers.
o Videos/Podcasts: Create videos or podcasts related to your industry. These
formats can help you connect with employers in a more personal way.
o Guest Posts: Contribute guest articles to industry-related websites or blogs.
This boosts your credibility and exposes you to a wider audience.

3. Maintain Consistency and Professionalism

Consistency is key to a strong online identity. All your online profiles should reflect the
same professional persona. This includes:

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 Profile Picture: Use a high-quality, professional-looking photo for your profile

pictures across platforms.
 Tone of Voice: Whether writing or speaking, maintain a professional, approachable,
and consistent tone across all content.
 Brand Colors/Logo (Optional): If you have a personal brand, you can incorporate
consistent colors, fonts, or logos across your website, LinkedIn, and other profiles for
a cohesive look.

4. Engage with Your Network

Building an online identity isn’t just about creating profiles—it’s also about actively
engaging with your professional community. Here’s how:

 Network: Connect with peers, colleagues, alumni, and industry leaders. Attend
virtual events, webinars, or conferences, and engage with others on social platforms
like LinkedIn and Twitter.
 Share and Comment: Share industry-related articles, and comment on others’ posts
to show your knowledge and willingness to engage in conversations.
 Join Groups: Participate in professional groups or communities (e.g., LinkedIn
Groups, Slack channels, or Facebook Groups) related to your industry. These can
help you stay up to date with trends and connect with potential employers.

5. Monitor Your Online Presence

Regularly check your online identity to ensure that all your profiles are up-to-date, your
content is relevant, and you’re maintaining a professional image. Search for your name
online and see what potential employers might find. If there’s anything negative or
unprofessional, work to clean it up.

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Importance of Online Identity to Prospective Employers

 First Impressions: In many cases, your online presence will be the first interaction
a recruiter or hiring manager has with you. A well-curated, professional online
identity helps make a strong first impression.
 Demonstrates Professionalism: A cohesive and polished online presence shows you
take your career seriously and are proactive in managing your personal brand.
 Shows Expertise: By sharing insights, creating content, or showcasing your work,
you position yourself as an expert in your field, which can make you more attractive
to employers.
 Assessing Fit: Employers often use your online profiles to gauge whether you'd be a
cultural and professional fit for their company. A well-aligned online presence can
help demonstrate your values, work ethic, and personality.
 Networking Opportunities: A strong online identity allows you to network with
industry peers, recruiters, and potential employers, leading to job opportunities you
may not find otherwise.

Creating a strong online identity is crucial for standing out to prospective employers. By
carefully curating your online profiles, sharing your expertise, and engaging with your
professional network, you can create a positive and impactful digital presence that
highlights your skills, professionalism, and career aspirations. With the increasing reliance
on digital platforms for recruitment, your online identity can be a powerful tool in landing
your next job.

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SEE HANDOUT 2

Week 10 – 12: Understand creation and customizing in HTML

Week 13 – 14: Understand Dynamic Hypertext mark-up language (DHTML).

Week 15: Understand the operation and usage of XML and graphic packages

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