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Solution Manual for Study guide for Single
Variable Calculus: Concepts and Contexts

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Stewart's CALCULUS: CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS, FOURTH EDITION offers
a streamlined approach to teaching calculus, focusing on major concepts
and supporting those with precise definitions, patient explanations, and
carefully graded problems. CALCULUS: CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS is
highly regarded because this text offers a balance of theory and conceptual
work to satisfy more progressive programs as well as those who are more
comfortable teaching in a more traditional fashion. Each title is just one
component in a comprehensive calculus course program that carefully
integrates and coordinates print, media, and technology products for
successful teaching and learning

• Chapter DT: Diagnostic Tests

o DT.A: Algebra (46)
o DT.B: Analytic Geometry (13)
o DT.C: Functions (20)
o DT.D: Trigonometry (14)

• Chapter QP: Quick Prep Topics

o QP.1: Definition and Representations of Functions (13)
o QP.2: Working with Representations of Functions (14)
o QP.3: Function Notation (13)
o QP.4: Domain and Range of a Function (12)
o QP.5: Solving Linear Equations (14)
o QP.6: Linear Functions (15)
o QP.7: Parabolas (13)
o QP.8: Factoring Quadratic Equations and Finding x-intercepts of a
Quadratic Function (12)
o QP.9: Polynomials (17)
o QP.10: More about Factoring Polynomials (12)
o QP.11: Finding Roots (14)
o QP.12: Dividing Polynomials (14)
o QP.13: Rational Functions (19)
o QP.14: Root Functions (15)
 o QP.15: Rationalizing the Numerator or Denominator (11)
o QP.16: Exponential Functions (13)
o QP.17: Logarithmic Functions (15)
o QP.18: Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle (15)
o QP.19: Graphs of Trigonometric Functions (15)
o QP.20: Trigonometric Identities (18)
o QP.21: Special Functions (12)
o QP.22: Algebraic Combinations of Functions (14)
o QP.23: Composition of Functions (13)
o QP.24: Transformations of Functions (12)
o QP.25: Inverse Functions (17)

• Chapter 1: Functions and Models

o 1.1: Four Ways to Represent a Function (87)
o 1.2: Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions (44)
o 1.3: New Functions from Old Functions (77)
o 1.4: Exponential Functions (61)
o 1.5: Inverse Functions and Logarithms (89)
o 1.6: Parametric Curves (47)
o 1: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 1: True-False Quiz (13)
o 1: Review Exercises (1)
o 1: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 1: Extra Problems
o 1: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 2: Limits and Derivatives

o 2.1: The Tangent and Velocity Problems (23)
o 2.2: The Limit of a Function (55)
o 2.3: Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws (86)
o 2.4: Continuity (74)
o 2.5: Limits Involving Infinity (83)
o 2.6: Derivatives and Rates of Change (85)
o 2.7: The Derivative as a Function (90)
o 2: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 2: True-False Quiz (25)
o 2: Review Exercises
o 2: Principles of Problem Solving (3)
o 2: Extra Problems
o 2: Just-in-Time Questions
• Chapter 3: Differentiation Rules
o 3.1: Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions (119)
o 3.2: The Product and Quotient Rules (98)
o 3.3: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions (74)
o 3.4: The Chain Rule (141)
o 3.5: Implicit Differentiation (105)
o 3.6: Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives (22)
o 3.7: Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (90)
o 3.8: Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences (56)
o 3.9: Linear Approximations and Differentials (54)
o 3: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 3: True-False Quiz (15)
o 3: Review Exercises (13)
o 3: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 3: Extra Problems
o 3: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 4: Applications of Differentiation

o 4.1: Related Rates (74)
o 4.2: Maximum and Minimum Values (114)
o 4.3: Derivatives and the Shapes of Curves (130)
o 4.4: Graphing with Calculus and Calculators (29)
o 4.5: Indeterminate Forms and l'Hospital's Rule (109)
o 4.6: Optimization Problems (105)
o 4.7: Newton's Method (68)
o 4.8: Antiderivatives (111)
o 4: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 4: True-False Quiz (21)
o 4: Review Exercises (1)
o 4: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 4: Extra Problems
o 4: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 5: Integrals
o 5.1: Areas and Distances (48)
o 5.2: The Definite Integral (116)
o 5.3: Evaluating Definite Integrals (119)
o 5.4: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (54)
o 5.5: The Substitution Rule (136)
o 5.6: Integration by Parts (91)
o 5.7: Additional Techniques of Integration (86)
 o 5.8: Integration Using Tables and Computer Algebra Systems (48)
o 5.9: Approximate Integration (54)
o 5.10: Improper Integrals (105)
o 5: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 5: True-False Quiz (27)
o 5: Review Exercises (2)
o 5: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 5: Extra Problems
o 5: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 6: Applications of Integration

o 6.1: More about Areas (75)
o 6.2: Volumes (94)
o 6.3: Volumes by Cylindrical Shells (71)
o 6.4: Arc Length (43)
o 6.5: Average Value of a Function (41)
o 6.6: Applications to Physics and Engineering (78)
o 6.7: Applications to Economics and Biology (31)
o 6.8: Probability (36)
o 6: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 6: True-False Quiz
o 6: Review Exercises
o 6: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 6: Extra Problems
o 6: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 7: Differential Equations

o 7.1: Modeling with Differential Equations (27)
o 7.2: Slope Fields and Euler's Method (40)
o 7.3: Separable Equations (66)
o 7.4: Exponential Growth and Decay (47)
o 7.5: The Logistic Equation (25)
o 7.6: Predator-Prey Systems (23)
o 7: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 7: True-False Quiz (10)
o 7: Review Exercises
o 7: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 7: Extra Problems
o 7: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 8: Infinite Sequences and Series

 o 8.1: Sequences (88)
o 8.2: Series (106)
o 8.3: The Integral and Comparison Tests; Estimating Sums (94)
o 8.4: Other Convergence Tests (87)
o 8.5: Power Series (65)
o 8.6: Representations of Functions as Power Series (50)
o 8.7: Taylor and Maclaurin Series (92)
o 8.8: Applications of Taylor Polynomials (46)
o 8: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 8: True-False Quiz (20)
o 8: Review Exercises
o 8: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 8: Extra Problems
o 8: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 9: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

o 9.1: Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems (48)
o 9.2: Vectors (50)
o 9.3: The Dot Product (56)
o 9.4: The Cross Product (49)
o 9.5: Equations of Lines and Planes (65)
o 9.6: Functions and Surfaces (30)
o 9.7: Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates (19)
o 9: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 9: True-False Quiz (18)
o 9: Review Exercises
o 9: Principles of Problem Solving (3)
o 9: Extra Problems
o 9: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 10: Vector Functions

o 10.1: Vector Functions and Space Curves (58)
o 10.2: Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions (67)
o 10.3: Arc Length and Curvature (70)
o 10.4: Motion in Space: Velocity and Acceleration (46)
o 10.5: Parametric Surfaces (42)
o 10: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 10: True-False Quiz (14)
o 10: Review Exercises
o 10: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 10: Extra Problems
 o 10: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 11: Partial Derivatives

o 11.1: Functions of Several Variables (55)
o 11.2: Limits and Continuity (50)
o 11.3: Partial Derivatives (96)
o 11.4: Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations (48)
o 11.5: The Chain Rule (68)
o 11.6: Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector (71)
o 11.7: Maximum and Minimum Values (71)
o 11.8: Lagrange Multipliers (55)
o 11: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 11: True-False Quiz (12)
o 11: Review Exercises
o 11: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 11: Extra Problems
o 11: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 12: Multiple Integrals

o 12.1: Double Integrals over Rectangles (24)
o 12.2: Iterated Integrals (52)
o 12.3: Double Integrals over General Regions (73)
o 12.4: Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates (49)
o 12.5: Applications of Double Integrals (41)
o 12.6: Surface Area (28)
o 12.7: Triple Integrals (64)
o 12.8: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates (67)
o 12.9: Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals (39)
o 12: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 12: True-False Quiz (9)
o 12: Review Exercises
o 12: Principles of Problem Solving (3)
o 12: Extra Problems
o 12: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter 13: Vector Calculus

o 13.1: Vector Fields (42)
o 13.2: Line Integrals (56)
o 13.3: The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals (46)
o 13.4: Green's Theorem (42)
o 13.5: Curl and Divergence (51)
 o 13.6: Surface Integrals (53)
o 13.7: Stokes' Theorem (29)
o 13.8: The Divergence Theorem (41)
o 13.9: Summary
o 13: Concepts and Vocabulary
o 13: True-False Quiz (13)
o 13: Review Exercises
o 13: Principles of Problem Solving (2)
o 13: Extra Problems
o 13: Just-in-Time Questions

• Chapter A: Appendixes
o A.A: Intervals, Inequalities, and Absolute Values (44)
o A.B: Coordinate Geometry (50)
o A.C: Trigonometry (40)
o A.D: Precise Definitions of Limits (28)
o A.E: A Few Proofs
o A.F: Sigma Notation (49)
o A.G: Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions (19)
o A.H: Polar Coordinates (77)
o A.I: Complex Numbers (49)
Exploring the Variety of Random
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95C, and 96C, Plate IX., represent a specimen in my collection. Of
these, some of the keys entered at the end of the tube; others are
put in at the side, as shown in fig. 97C, Plate IX. The key, which, like
the lock, is of brass, is placed in a handle, which shuts up like the
handle of a knife (as shown in fig. 96C, Plate IX.) for convenience of
transport. Another specimen from Japan (represented in figs. 98C
and 99C, Plate IX.) resembles exactly the Toomkoor specimen from
India, the springs being compressed by means of a revolving key.
This must certainly be regarded as the first stage of improvement
upon the original Roman lock, and its employment in Europe, India,
and Japan is noteworthy.

Amongst the specimens of these tubular spring locks, which appear

to show evidence of connection over wide areas, are those which are
constructed in the forms of animals. Figs. 100C and 101C, Plate IX.,
is a representation of a bronze padlock in the form of a fish, now in
the Louvre, at Paris, figured by M. Liger. It is there described,
though not without hesitation, as an Egyptian lock; if so, it is
probably of the Romano-Egyptian period: the springs enter at the
mouth of the fish, and are released by a key put in at the tail. Figs.
102C, 103C, 104C, Plate IX., represents a precisely similar fish-
shaped padlock of iron from India, and now in the India Museum.
Figs. 105C and 106C, Plate IX., is a Roman bronze lock in the form of
a lion or horse, in the possession of Dr. John Evans, F.R.S., and here
copied by his permission; a similar one is in the British Museum.
Figs. 107C, 108C, and 109C, Plate IX., is another, also in the form of
a lion, and about the same size, from China, in the collection of Mr.
Chubb, the well-known locksmith. In all these the springs enter at the
stern of the animal, and the other end of the bolt turns up and back
in the form of a tail, and enters the neck of the animal behind the
head. The key in the Chinese specimen has a peculiar secret
contrivance to prevent its being inserted in the hole for it by anyone
not acquainted with its construction. The head of the key will not
enter the keyhole unless the handle end is put in first and slipped
along the shank of the key, as represented in the drawing, fig. 109C,
Plate IX. Mr. Romilly Allen, whose work on Scotch wooden tumbler
locks I have already quoted, refers incidentally in his paper to spring
locks, and says that he has himself seen them used in Persia in the
forms of animals. We are thus led to infer that the practice of
making them in these forms may have existed, or may still exist,
continuously throughout the region referred to, and that, like the
mechanism itself, and like many other articles of commerce, they
may have passed by traffic from place to place, and been copied and
adopted in the localities in which they are found. Fig. 110C, Plate IX.,
is a padlock obtained by me at Cairo; similar ones are in common
use on out-houses at Naples, the long bar at the top denoting its
descent from the Roman padlock, although the construction of the
lock is different.

We now come to the principle of the revolving key in common use at

the present time. It has been already shown that in using the Roman
lock (figs. 15B to 20B, Plate III.) the part of the key containing the
pins had to be put in vertically, and then turned a quarter circle, so
as to bring the teeth horizontally beneath the tumblers previously to
lifting them. It is possible that this may have suggested the first idea
of employing the twist thus given to the key to the shooting of the
bolt. Fig. III, Plate IX., taken from M. Liger's work,[34] represents a
Roman key found in London; it has a plate furnished with teeth,
evidently intended to raise tumblers, and the stem of the key is
piped for the purpose of fitting into a broach or pin, so that the plate
with the teeth, when the key is turned round on its pivot, may fit
into its proper place beneath the bolt and raise up the tumblers. Fig.
112, Plate IX., is a drawing of another key similarly formed, having
two teeth and a piped stem; it was found in Lothbury, in London, 16
feet beneath the surface, and is figured in Mr. Syer Cuming's paper on
keys in the 'Journal of the Archæological Association.'[35] These keys
appear hardly to admit of any doubt as to their mode of use, and
may therefore be regarded as the earliest specimen of revolving
keys, although applied to a different purpose from the revolving key
of our own time. The most primitive kind of lock with a revolving key
that I have met with is one represented in figs. 113, 114, 115, 116,
Plate X. It is from India, and is in the India Museum. The key is
applied to a square vertical tumbler of the Scandinavian type with
two arms to fit into two notches in the bolt; the lower end of the
tumbler terminates behind the bolt, in a semicircular form; the key,
when turned upon its broach or pin, as the case may be, impinges
upon the sides of the semicircular portion and raises the tumbler out
of the notches on the top of the bolt, and afterwards the end of the
key-plate passes into one of a series of notches on the under side of
the bolt and moves it, whilst the tumbler is, at the same time, raised
clear of the bolt. The key being turned several times continues the
movement, pushing the key forward notch after notch, until the
tumbler again falls into other holes provided for it, and keeps the
bolt secure. All here is of wood, except the key, which is of metal,
and it is provided with slits to pass the wards, adjusted to them in
the revolution of the key-plate upon its pivot. It might be supposed
from this that it was a modern adaptation to an ancient system of
vertical tumblers, had not a very similar, but simpler, lock existed in
China. The drawing (figs. 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, Plate X.) of a
Chinese lock was kindly sent me by Mr. Romilly Allen. In this
specimen the bolt is shot in nearly the same manner as the last
specimen, but the tumblers are raised independently by means of a
T-shaped key (fig. 121, Plate X.), similar to that used with the
Scandinavian lock (fig. 3C, Plate IV.). The key from the outside is put
into the vertical slit between the tumblers, when it is turned a
quarter circle so as to bring the arms of the T in a horizontal plane.
It is then pressed back, when the returns of the T enter notches
provided for them in the tumblers. The tumblers are then raised, and
the key or handle, a, turned. From the inside the tumblers are raised
with the two fingers before shooting the bolt.
M. Liger supposes that the lifting key of the Roman lock was of
Asiatic origin, and that the revolving key came into use amongst the
Romans about the commencement[36] of our era, and many of the
keys from Pompeii are constructed on this principle having slits for
the passage of wards. Fig. 122, Plate X., is a Roman key of this kind
in my collection. The ward system came into general use afterwards
and was much relied upon to the exclusion of others in the Middle
Ages. The ward system may be defined as a system of lock in which
obstructions are placed to prevent any but the proper key from
entering to turn the bolt; as such it is distinct from the tumbler
system, in which security depends on obstruction introduced to
prevent the bolt from being drawn by the key. The tumbler is, in
fact, a bolt of a bolt. Reference to fig. 10B, Plate II., representing the
Egyptian lock, will show that besides the two pins with which the key
is provided for lifting the tumblers, there is a pin attached to the
under side of the lock opening, which enters a hole in the key. This
is of the nature of a ward, since none but a key with a hole in the
proper place could be raised up high enough to lift the tumblers
clear of the holes in the bolt. Mr. Romilly Allen also mentions that in
one of the Scotch locks from Snizort, a notch is placed in the key
and a corresponding pin in the lock, to prevent the lock from being
picked, and that the key-hole is divided by a thin iron plate which is
the only thing approaching a ward that appears in any of the
wooden locks of Scotland. The peculiar shape of the tumblers and
tumbler-holes in the bolts of the Roman lock, already described, with
teeth made especially to fit them, must be regarded as a kind of
ward, although applied to tumblers, since their object is to prevent
any but the proper form of key from entering.

The further development of the ward-system in the Roman tumbler-

locks, though it certainly existed, is involved in uncertainty, since
none of the wards appear to have been preserved, but the fact of
some kind of ward having been used is evident from the slits in the
keys represented in fig. 122, Plate X., which are of common
occurrence. The cross-shaped wards beneath the Indian spring
padlock already described in connection with figs. 53C, 54C, and 55C,
Plate VI., must certainly be considered to be wards, although open
to view, and not concealed beneath the lock-plate. There are also
found in association with Roman remains, keys of which fig. 123,
Plate X., from Chalons, fig. 124, Plate X., from the Museum at
Saumur, and fig. 125, Plate X., from the Museum at Saint Germain,
are examples.[37] These keys so greatly resemble the Asiatic keys
used with the spring padlock, that it is difficult to believe they were
not employed in the same way, but as they also resemble the Roman
perforated plates of the tumbler-lock keys that are provided with
teeth, it is probable they may have been intended for raising
tumblers in some way not yet explained. No tubular spring lock
adapted to be opened with a key inserted underneath, and opened
with a lateral movement like the Indian and Egyptian ones, has to
my knowledge been found amongst Roman remains. Fig. 126, Plate
X., is a modern English latch-key of similar form, furnished with a
ward-plate and used for raising a common latch: they are now
generally disused, from being unsafe. With the revolving keys
resembling the modern form, found at Pompeii and elsewhere, slits
for fixed wards are common, and show that the Roman keys of the
commencement of the present era resembled our own. During the
Middle Ages reliance was placed almost entirely on the ward system,
and many complicated contrivances were introduced, of which fig.
127, Plate X., is a specimen, until the close of the last century, when
their insecurity led to the re-introduction of tumbler-locks.

It is not known exactly when this took place, but probably at some
time during the 18th century, and possibly earlier. This time, the
tumblers instead of being vertical (as was the case during what may
be called the early tumbler period) were horizontal, resting on a
pivot above the bolt and kept down by a spring. Figs. 128, 129, and
130, Plate X., is a tumbler lock in the possession of Mr. Chubb, found
whilst repairing an old house at Funtley, Hants, said to be 200 years
old. If so it must be regarded as the earliest specimen of the second
tumbler period. The tumbler moves on a pivot, and is kept down by
a spring, the revolving key raises the tumbler by pressing up the
curved bar attached to it, which raises the stud of the tumbler out of
the notch provided for it on the upper side of the bolt, thereby
freeing the bolt, so that by further turning the key it is enabled to
shoot the bolt. The tumbler, it will be seen, cannot be raised too
high. If the plate of the key is long enough to raise the stud of the
tumbler out of the notch, a key with a longer plate will answer the
same purpose. To remedy this defect and necessitate the
employment of a key of exactly the proper size, Mr. Barron, about
the year 1778, introduced an improvement known by his name,
represented in fig. 131, Plate X., in which the bolt is provided with a
slit along the middle just wide enough to allow the stud to pass; the
slit has notches both above and below, so that if the stud is raised
too high by a key with too long a plate it is forced into the upper
notch and the bolt continues immovable. He also introduced two
tumblers requiring to be raised to different heights in order to
coincide with the slit in the bolt by means of different projections on
the edge of the key plate, so that the bolt could only be shot by
means of a key with a plate expressly constructed to fit the lock, and
having two projections of the requisite length. This principle of
employing two or more tumblers is the one on which nearly all
subsequent improvements have been effected. Those who desire to
prosecute the subject further will find a variety of modern tumbler
locks in my collection introduced during the latter half of the last and
commencement of the present century. They are all, in the main,
varieties of one principle, terminating in the Chubb and Hobbs locks of
the present time. As this paper relates only to primitive locks I do
propose to describe them here. The continuity which pervades all
the ramifications of the modern lock is not less complete than in the
earlier forms, and would well bear treating in the same manner as
those which I have described. The Bramah lock, though in external
appearance differing from the others, is no less based upon the
earlier forms, and may be described as a union between the ward
and the tumbler systems. It is a ward system, because the
obstructions introduced into the mechanism are intended to prevent
the turning of the key to shoot the bolt by any but a key of the
proper construction. It is a tumbler system because the impediments
so placed upon the turning of the key are in fact tumblers packed
round the cylinder of the key (retained by springs), and allowing the
passage of the key-plate only when pressed down to the various
depths to which each separate tumbler is adapted in order to
provide an open passage for the key-plate all round. This union of
ideas developed separately in different branches of the same trade,
device or industry, corresponds to the crossing of individuals and
breeds in nature, which is so necessary to reproduction. The
analogy, as I have already intimated elsewhere, might be carried
even further and closer if space permitted. It is a necessary
condition of the absence of creative power in nature, and applies
equally to all the processes of evolution whether of species or of
ideas, but the subject requires broader treatment than can be given
to it here. My object in writing this paper being to trace the
development of particular forms rather than to generalise, I must
leave the philosophy of the subject for separate treatment.

From the foregoing description of the various kinds of primitive locks

in use in different countries it will, I think, have been made evident
that some of them most certainly have been derived from a common
centre. The wooden key-drawn pin-locks have spread over the
region extending from Egypt to Yarkand. The Scandinavian wooden
locks of the same kind, though differing in the details of their
construction, we have seen are common to Norway and Scotland,
and by some means have been carried to the West Indies and British
Guiana, whilst the tubular spring padlock of the Roman age in
Europe is the same that is found throughout the whole region
extending from Italy to China and Japan on the east, northward into
England and Scandinavia, southward into Abyssinia, and westward
into West Africa and Algeria, Spain, and on as far as the West Indies.

It is sometimes thought when simple contrivances such as weapons

of stone and bronze, some of the simpler kinds of ornaments, and of
tools obviously adapted to primeval life are found to extend over
wide areas, and in places very remote from one another, that the
few ideas necessary for the construction and use of them might
easily have suggested themselves independently in different places.
To the student of primitive culture who has become impressed with
the persistency of art forms, this independent origin of such things
does not appear so certain even in the case of the most simple
contrivances. But when we come to a complex piece of mechanism,
such as a spring padlock having several parts—the spring, the case,
the parallel bar, and the key, in all of which the resemblance is
maintained in distant countries, and which, with slight modification
and continuously progressive improvements, are put together in the
same manner in all parts of the world—such a supposition cannot be
admitted, the necessity for a common origin is apparent, and the
study of the periods and the circumstances connected with the
distribution of it cannot be set aside as superfluous.

Assuming that the tumbler pin-lock and the spring padlock cannot be
traced back earlier in Europe than the commencement of our era, it
is by no means certain that they may not have existed earlier
elsewhere. The commerce carried on with the East in early times
was of a nature to render it very probable that any contrivance for
securing goods should have spread from place to place with the
merchandise exported and imported between China, India, and
Europe. A brief survey of the trade relations between different
countries will be sufficient to show this.

The expedition of Alexander gave rise to intercourse which was kept

up by the Greek kingdom of Bactria, and recent Indian discoveries
both of coins and sculptures prove more and more the great
influence which Greek art exercised in India up to the
commencement of our era. Strabo says that, about B.C. 22, Nicolaus
Damascenus fell in with three Indian ambassadors at Antioch
Epidaphne on their way to the Court of Augustus, and that their
credentials were in the Greek language. Diodorus quoting Iambulus
speaks of King Palibothra in the early part of the 1st century as a
lover of the Greeks. Dio Chrysostom mentions that the poems of
Homer were sung by the Indians, and Ælian says that not only the
Indians but the kings of Persia translated and sang them. If the
travels of Apollonius and Damis are to be credited, the Greek
language was spoken in the Punjaub in the first half-century of our
era, and frequent intercourse appears to have taken place between
that country and Egypt.[38] Pliny in the 1st century A.D. says, on the
authority of Varro, that under the direction of Pompey it was
ascertained that it took seven days to go from India to the River
Icarus, believed to be the modern Roscha, in the country of the
Bactri, which discharges itself into the Oxus, and that the
merchandise of India being conveyed from it through the Caspian
Sea into the Cyrus, might be brought by land to Phasis in Pontus in
five days at most.[39] The best steel used in Rome was imported
from China.[40] Arrian, in the 2nd century A.D., speaks of a
frequented way, λεωϕóρος, extending in the direction of India
through Bactria; after which four embassies from the East are
noticed by ancient writers, one to Trajan, A.D. 107; another to
Antoninus Pius, A.D. 138-161; a third to Julian, A.D. 361; and the
fourth to Justinian, A.D. 530. These are but scant memorials of an
intercourse which must have been frequent between India and
Rome, and which reached its highest development during the reigns
of Severus and Caracalla, in the commencement of the 3rd century
A.D.

Turning now to the southern route of communication with India,

Pliny describes Taprobane (Ceylon), and mentions an embassy sent
from thence to the Emperor Claudius. The discovery of the monsoons
during the 1st century was the means of creating a great trade
between India and Alexandria. Strabo says that in the time of the
Ptolemies some 20 ships only ventured upon the Indian seas, but that
this traffic had so greatly increased that he himself saw at Myos
Hormos, on the Arabian Gulf, 120 ships destined for India. Pliny
gives in detail the route from Alexandria to India in his time, and
says that it was well worthy of notice because in each year India
drained the empire of at least 550 sestertii, estimated at £1,400,000
of English money, giving back in exchange her own wares, which
were sold at fully one hundred times their original cost, and he says
that the voyage was made every year by the following route:—Two
miles distant from Alexandria was the town of Juliopolis, supposed to
be Nicopolis. The distance from thence to Coptos up the Nile was
308 miles, and the voyage was performed with a favourable wind in
12 days. From Coptos the journey was made on camels to Berenice,
a seaport on the southern frontier of Egypt, 257 miles, in another 12
days. Here the passengers generally set sail at midsummer, and in
about 30 days arrived at Ocelis, in Arabia, now called Gehla, or at
Cane, supposed to be Cava Canim Bay. From hence, if the wind
called hippaulus happened to be blowing, it was possible to arrive at
Muzitis, the modern Mangalore, which was the nearest point in
India, in 40 days. This, however, was not a convenient port for
disembarking, and Barace was therefore preferred. To this place
pepper was carried down in dug-out canoes made out of a single
trunk from Cottonara, supposed to be Cochin or Travancore. The
return voyage was usually made in January, taking advantage of the
south-east monsoon, by which means they were able to go and
return the same year. But when Pliny wrote, the trade with India was
only in its infancy, afterwards Greek factories were probably
established at the Indian seaboards, which accounts for the Greek
names for some of the towns on that coast.

But the people of Alexandria having become insolent in their

prosperity, Hadrian was led to encourage the route through Palmyra,
which was the most direct road to India. Even in the 2nd century
A.D. the trade between Rome and India through Palmyra must have
been considerable, for it drew the attention of the Chinese. Their
annals speak of it as carried on principally by sea; they mention
Roman merchants in relations of commerce with and visiting
Burmah, Tonquin, and Cochin China, and they have preserved the
memory of an embassy from the Roman emperor, which in the year
A.D. 166 was received by the Chinese sovereign. Arab or native
vessels appear to have brought the produce of India up the Persian
Gulf to the mouth of the Euphrates. At Teredon they discharged their
cargoes, and the merchandise was then carried to Vologesia by
camels; at this place the merchants of Palmyra took it up and it was
here exchanged for the produce of Europe. Even as late as the 5th
century, ships from India and China are mentioned lying at Hira on
the Euphrates, a little to the south of Babylon. Through the influence
of this trade Palmyra grew rapidly into wealth and power until the
widow of Galberius threw off her allegiance to Rome. This led to the
destruction of the city by Aurelian, A.D. 275, which put an end to the
Roman trade with India through the Persian Gulf. The Alexandrian
trade with India fell off about the same time, and the barbarians
occupied Coptos, the port of embarkation for India, about A.D. 279.

After the fall of Palmyra the Indian trade was transferred to Batne,
near the Euphrates, but it lasted only a short time, and in the 4th
and 5th centuries may be regarded as having become extinct in so
far as Roman merchants were concerned. The trade, however, was
still kept up by the Arabs. Epiphanius, about A.D. 375, gives an
account of trade carried on through Berenice, by which the
merchants of India imported their goods into the Roman territory,
and there is also Chinese authority for believing that a great trade
between Rome and India existed in the 6th century. Ma-Touan-Lin,
A.D. 1317, in his researches into antiquity, affirms that in A.D. 500-
516 India carried on a considerable commerce by sea with Ta-Tsin,
the Roman Empire, and with the Ansi the Syrians,[41] but Arab and
not Roman vessels were employed. Masoudi says that in the early
part of the 7th century the Indian and Chinese trade with Babylon
was principally in the hands of the Indians and Chinese. The usual
passage after rounding the Point de Galle was to creep up the
Madras coast during the S.W. monsoon and take a point of departure
from Masulapatam towards the leading opening of the Ganges.[42]
Meanwhile the overland trade between Europe and India in the 3rd
and 4th centuries was carried on by the Sassanidæ, who in the 4th
century entered into commercial relations with China, to which
country they sent frequent embassies in the 6th century, and
through this route silk was imported into Europe. In A.D. 712 Sind
was conquered by the Arabs, and in addition to the kingdom of
Mansurah and Multan, other independent Muslim governments were
established at Bania and Kasdar.[43] There is also the evidence of the
merchant Sulamin and the researches of Mr. Edward Thomas into the
coins of the Balhara to prove the continuance of Arab intercourse
with India during the 9th century.

During all this time the relations between Scandinavia and Rome
appear to have been scarcely less extensive. Although the Romans
never succeeded in penetrating Scandinavia, the discovery of coins,
vases in bronze and glass, and other objects of art, is sufficient to
prove that Scandinavian art was greatly influenced by intercourse
with Rome during the first part of the 2nd century of our era. In the
early stages of society, communication by sea offered greater
facilities for traffic than land journeys, and for this reason the Island
of Gotland, now so isolated and rarely visited except by antiquaries,
appears to have served as a portal for the entry of Roman and
Oriental goods and civilization into Scandinavia.[44] After the fall of
the Roman empire, Scandinavia was left to its own resources, aided
by occasional intercourse with Byzantium, until in the later iron age,
extending from the 8th century to the middle of the 11th century,
another line of communication was established with the East, still
entering Scandinavia mainly through the Island of Gotland. Mr.
Hildebrand records the discovery of 20,000 Arab coins in Sweden and
Gotland, and traces the channel of their transmission by Russian
finds from the states near the Caspian, through Russia to the shores
of the Baltic, and thence, thanks to the commerce established by the
inhabitants of Gotland, over to that island. From Gotland, and
probably also by direct intercourse with Russia, the Mahomedan
coins were spread over Scandinavia, being more common in the
eastern provinces of Sweden than in the west or in Norway. The
greater part of these coins appear to have come into Sweden
between the years 880 and 955, but the latest belongs to the year
1010. On the line of communication here indicated, iron keys of the
kind adapted both to the tumbler lock and the spring padlock have
been discovered in the governments of Vladimir and Jaroslav, in the
graves of the Neriens,[45] dating about the 8th century A.D., showing
that in all probability it was by this line that the use of these locks
were imported into Sweden. The key of the padlock found here was
of the form of the Roman key, (fig. 21C, Plate V.), the Indian one
(fig. 46C, Plate VI.), and the modern one from Cairo (fig. 47C, Plate
VI.). It also resembles that of the Swedish lock (fig. 26C, Plate V.),
and belongs to the most primitive form of the mechanism.

Whilst this traffic was being carried on between Scandinavia and the
East, the intercourse of the Vikings was kept up with Britain, Ireland,
and the coasts of the English Channel, commencing in 787 and
continuing to the 11th century. These Western relations, like those
with the East, appear to have taken place chiefly through Gotland;
and the number of Anglo-Saxon coins found in that Island and the
East of Sweden greatly exceed those discovered in Norway and the
West.

The foregoing summary of the evidence of commercial relations

between Southern Europe and the East and North during the early
part of the Christian Era is sufficient to show that ample facilities
existed for the spread of early forms of locks and keys. The padlock,
more especially—which, as I have said when referring to the
etymology of the word "pad," was the class of lock associated with
portable merchandise—must have been carried into all those parts of
the world between which commercial relations had been established.

At what time and through what particular channels the various kinds
of locks were distributed can only be determined after more
extended inquiry into the archæology of padlocks. Some points may,
however, I think be considered to be more or less established by the
evidence I have adduced. The particular form of padlock represented
in fig. 44C, Plate VI., from India, and fig. 21C, Plate V., from the
Roman period of Europe, must in all probability have been
communicated in Roman times, as I am not aware that this precise
form of padlock was in use in Europe later than the Roman age,
having been superseded by the more modern improvements which
have been described in this paper. The use of padlocks in the forms
of animals in Egypt, Persia, and China, must also very probably
belong to the same period. The Chinese and Japanese padlocks
appear to belong to a more advanced stage of the development of
the mechanism, and correspond to the form used in Europe in the
Middle Ages; whilst the use of the revolving key in Europe, India,
and Japan, to compress the springs, as shown in figs. 39C, Plate VI.,
90C, Plate VIII., and 98C, Plate XI., must date from a still later phase
in the art; and unless they are to be regarded as improvements
introduced independently in those countries, the idea must have
spread by means of Arab traders, if not still more recently. In like
manner, the adoption of the screw principle with these locks must
either have been conveyed by traders, or applied independently in
different countries to the form of padlock already in use. The hinge
of the staple, as seen in figs. 26C and 31C, Plate V., though derived
from the earlier form of the parallel bar, which has a wide
distribution, has not been universally adopted, but is used chiefly in
Sweden and Europe, and is an improvement introduced, no doubt, in
modern times. Further information is needed to enable us to trace
the distribution of all these different varieties more continuously,
before any satisfactory judgment can be formed as to the date of
connection. In Scandinavia we find the padlock in use in Gotland, in
Björkö, and in Sweden; and Hans Hildebrand, in his work on 'The
Industrial Arts of Scandinavia,'[46] published by the South Kensington
Museum, says that they were already known in that region in Pagan
times. It is to be hoped that this announcement may be only a
prelude to some more detailed publication of his researches into a
subject to which the present paper can only be regarded as a first
introduction—not previously attempted, that I am aware of, in its
ethnological and commercial bearings. Local archæologists must
work out the rest. Enough has, I trust, been said to show that a
large field lies open to the student of the archæology of locks and
keys, and that whenever the history of this mechanism is traced in
Scandinavia, Persia, India, and China, in the same way that I have
endeavoured to trace it in Europe, much light will thereby be thrown
on the ramifications of trade and the commercial relations of distant
countries in non-historic times.
 PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Japanese book fastening derived from the common pin.

Figs. 2 and 3. Common wooden bolt used at Gastein, in Austria, at

the present time.

Fig. 2. Front view.

Fig. 3. Transverse section on A B.

a. Handle. b. Bolt. c c. Slit for handle, a.

Figs. 4 and 5. Wooden bolt with pin fastening (supposed form).

Fig. 4. Front view.

Fig. 5. Transverse section on A B.

Figs. 6 to 8. Wooden single tumbler bolt (supposed form).

Fig. 6. Front view (open).

Fig. 7. Front view (closed).

Fig. 8. Transverse section on A B.

Figs. 9A to 11A. Wooden double tumbler lock from the Faroe Islands.

Fig. 9A. Front view.

Fig. 10A. Longitudinal section.

Fig. 11A. Transverse section.

a. Bolt. b b. Teeth of key, c. d d. Tumblers. e e e. Block. f

f. Holes in bolt.
Figs. 12A to 17A. Old Scottish wooden tumbler lock (Patent
Museum).

Fig. 12A. Front view.

Fig. 13A. Side view.

Fig. 14A. Longitudinal section.

Fig. 15A. Transverse section.

Fig. 16A. Section through A B.

Fig. 17A. Section through C D.

Wyman & Sons, Printers, Gt. Queen St. London, W.C.
 PLATE II.

Figs. 18A to 22A. Old Scottish treble wooden tumbler lock (Patent
Museum).

Fig. 18A. Front view.

Fig. 19A. Side view.

Fig. 20A. Longitudinal section.

Fig. 21A. Transverse section.

Fig.22 A. Section through A B (fig. 21A).

Figs. 23A to 25A. Wooden tumbler lock from Norway (Hazilius

Museum, Stockholm).

Fig. 23A. Front view.

Fig. 24A. Longitudinal section.

Fig. 25A. Transverse section on A B.

Figs. 26A to 28A. Wooden tumbler lock made by negroes of Jamaica

(Museum, Kew Gardens).

Fig. 26A. Front view.

Fig. 27A. Longitudinal section.

Fig. 28A. Transverse section on A B.

Figs. 29A to 31A. Wooden tumbler lock from British Guiana (Christy
Collection).

Fig. 29A. Front view.

 Fig. 30A. Longitudinal section.

Fig. 31A. Transverse section.

Fig. 9B. Probable use of fig. 29B, Plate III., as a key for a single
tumbler lock.

Figs. 10B to 12B. Modern Egyptian wooden tumbler or pin-lock in use

at the present time.

Fig. 10B. Longitudinal section showing pegs raised by key A

preparatory to withdrawing the bolt B.

Fig. 11B. Key A.

Fig. 12B. Longitudinal section showing pegs down and bolt

locked.
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