IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF SOLUTION

1. Mass percentage (W/W):

It is the amount of solute in gram dissolved per 100 g of solution.

Mass % of a component = mass of component inthe solution x100

Total mass of solution

2. Parts per million (ppm):

When a solute is present in trace quantities, it is convenient to express
concentration in parts per million (PPM). It is defined as amount of a
component present in 106 (1 million) part of solution.

Number of part of thecomponent x 106

Parts per million(PPM) =
Total number of parts of all components of solution

3. Molarity :
It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in a litre of
solution.
WB x1000
M
M B xVol.of solution(mL)

Unit =MolL—1 or Molar or M

4. Molality:
It is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved per kg of solvent.

WB x1000
M
M B xWA ( g )
Unit =Molkg—1 or Molal or m
5. Mole fraction (X):
It is defined as the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to
the total number of moles of all the components presents in solution.
 In a binary solution, if nA & nB are the number of moles of component
and component B respectively then
mole of fraction of A will be : nA
XA 
nA  nB
X B  nA
and that of component B will be: nA  nB

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6. Henry’s law:
Henry’s law states that,
―At a certain temperature, the mass of a gas which dissolves in a definite
volume of a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium
with the solution.‖
If p is the pressure of gas over the solution, m is the mass of the gas
dissolved in one unit volume of the liquid. Then according to the Henry‘s
law
mP
m = kP
Where k is the proportionality constant.
ALTERNATIVE HENRY’S LAW
Solubility of a gas in a liquid can also be expressed in terms of its mole
fraction in the solution. So,
Henry‘s law can also be described as follows:
The partial pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the mole fraction
of the gas in solution. Thus,
PX
P = KH X
where KH is the Henry‘s laws constant for the gas liquid pair.
 Applications of Henry’s Law
(i) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the
bottle is sealed under high pressure.
(ii) To minimize the painful effects accompanying the decompression of
deep sea divers, oxygen diluted with less soluble helium gas is used as
breathing gas.
(iii) At high altituted, lower concentration in blood makes the climbers
weak and unable to think. This condition is known as ‘Anoxia’.
ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASSES
Whenever a solute in a particular solvent undergoes dissociation or
association colligative properties ( Tf , Tb , P ,  ) increases or decreases
respectively. In such cases abnormal molecular masses are obtained.

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7. Raoult’s law:
For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
This is known as Raoult‘s law for solvent of volatile liquids.
Mathematically, For a binary solution:
PA  XA and PB  XB

Or PA = P0A XA and PB = P0B XB

where
PA & PB are vapour pressures of component A (solvent) & B
(solute)respectively.
P0A & P0B are vapour pressure pure component A (solvent) & B
(solute)respectively.
XA & XB are mole fraction of component A (solvent)& B
(solute)respectively.
The total pressure for such a solution (according to Dalton‘s law of partial
pressure) is given by
PTotal = PA + PB
8. Ideal Solution:
An ideal solution is one which obeys Raoult‘s law over entire range of
concentration and at all temperatures and for which there is no change in
the enthalpy and volume on mixing the two liquids.
Conditions for ideal solution:
(i) It should obey Raoult‘s law i.e.
PA = P0A . XA and PB = P0B . XB
P = P0A + P0B .

(ii) mixing H = 0 i.e. there is no heat evolved

or absorbed on mixing
(iii) mixingV = 0 i.e. total volume of solution
should be the algebric sum of individual volume of liquid
components.
(iv) A-A interaction and B-B interaction is equal to A-B interaction

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 Examples of ideal solutions:
(i) n- hexane + n – heptanes (ii) Benzene and toluene
(iii) Methanol and ethanol (iv)Bromoethane and Chloroethane
9. Non-ideal solution:
When a solution does not obey Raoult‘s law over entire range
concentration and whose preparation by mixing of two liquids involve
enthalpy change and volume change, is called a non-ideal solution. Thus
for a non ideal solution :
(i) PA  P0A . XA and PB  P0B . XB
(ii) mixing H  0

(iii) mixingV  0

(iv) A-A interaction and B-B interaction is equal to A-B interaction

[

10. Non ideal solution with Positive Deviation from Raoult’s law:
Condition for positive deviation:

1. The partial vapour pressure of each

component or total vapour pressure
of solution is higher than that
expected from Raoult‘s law
PA  P0A . XA

PB  P0B . XB

2. H  0 [H= +ve]
3. V  0 [V= +ve]
4. A-A or B-B molecular interaction forces A-B interaction
The process of preparing solution with +ve deviation is endothermic &
accompanies by increase in volume. E.g: Ethanol & cyclohexane

Other Examples of non ideal solutions with positive deviation:

(i) Ethanol and water (ii) Phenol & aniline (iii) Ethanol and acetone

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11. Non ideal solution with Negative Deviation from Raoult’s law:
In this type of deviations, the partial vapour
pressure of each component (say A & B) of
solution is less than the vapour pressure as
expected from Raoult’s law.

Condition for negative deviation: The partial

vapour pressure of each component or total
vapour pressure of solution is lower than that
expected from Raoult‘s law

1. PA  P0A . XA
PB  P0B . XB

2. H  0 [H= - ve]
3. V  0 [V= - ve]
4. A-A or B-B molecular interaction forces  A-B interaction
E.g: CHCl3 + (CH3)2CO [ Acetone and Chloroform]
Examples of solution showing negative deviation from Raoult‘s law:

(i) CH3COOH + C5H5N (ii) CHCl3 + C6H6 (iii) H2O + HCl

(iv) H2O + HNO3 (v) CHCl3 + C2H5-O-C2H5

12. Azeotropic mixture or Azeotropes :

Azeotropes or Azeotropic mixtures are defined as the mixture of liquids
which boil at constant temperature like a pure liquid and posses same
composition of components in liquid as well as in vapour phase.
Azeotropes are also called constant boiling mixtures.
13. Minimum boiling azeotrope:
The solutions which show large positive deviation from Raoult‘s law for
minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
E.g. a mixture of 95% ethanol (351.3K) by volume and water (bpt.=373)
form minimum boiling azeotrope.
Such azeotropes have boiling point lower than either of the components
that is at 351.1K.
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14. Maximum boiling azeotrope:
The solutions which show large negative deviation from Raoult‘s law
form maximum boiling azeotropes at a specific composition. Such
azeotropes have boiling point higher than either of the components.

For example, A mixture of Nitric acid (68%)[bpt.356K] and water

(32%)[bpt. 373K] by mass form azeotrope with boiling point 393.5 K.

15. Colligative properties:

Colligative properties may be defined as properties of dilute solutions of
non-volatile solutes (molecules or ions) whose values depend upon the
concentration of solute particles in the solution but not on the individual
identity of solute.
Examples of Colligative properties are:
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent (ii) Depression of
freezing point of the solvent (iii) Elevation of boiling point of the solvent
(iv) Osmotic pressure of the solution
16. Molal Elevation Constant (Kb):

 Tb = Kb. m
For 1molal solution: m = 1   Tb = Kb.
Thus Kb may be defined as the elevation of boiling point observed when
1 mole of solute dissolved in 1 Kg of solvent i.e. for 1 molal solution. The
value of Kb depends the nature of solvent.
Unit of Kb is K Kg mol-1
17. Molal Depression Constant (Kf) :

 Tf = Kf x m
for 1 molal solution, m = 1 mol Kg-1

 Tf = Kf x 1 = Kf
Thus, Kf may be defined as the depression of freezing point observed
when 1 mole of solute is dissolved in 1000 gm or 1 Kg of solvent.
The unit of Kf is K Kg mol-1

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18. Osmotic pressure :
It may also be defined as the excess pressure that must be applied to the
solution side to prevent the passage of solvent into it through a semi-
permeable membrane.
19. Reverse Osmosis:
If the pressure applied on the solution side is greater than the osmotic
pressure, then solvent starts passing from solution into solvent. This is
called reverse osmosis.
The phenomenon of reverse osmosis is generally used for purification of sea
water (i.e. desalination of sea water).
20. Van’t Hoff factor ( i ):
In order to account for the extent of dissociation or association of a solute
in a solvent, Van‘t Hoff introduce a correction factor ‗ i ' known as Van‘t
Hoff factor, which is defined as:

Normal molecular mass

i=
observed molecular mass

observed colligative property (exp erimental Colligative Pr operty)

or i=
calculated (or theoretical ) Colligative Pr operty

21.Difference between ideal and non-ideal solution

IDEAL SOLUTION NON-IDEAL SOLUTION

An ideal solution is one which obeys When a solution does not obey Raoult‘s
Raoult‘s law over entire range of law over entire range concentration
concentration and at all temperatures
Solution for which there is no change in Preparation by mixing of two liquids
the enthalpy and volume on mixing the involve enthalpy change and volume
two liquids. change,
(i) PA = P0A . XA and PB = P0B . XB (i) PA  P0A . XA and PB  P0B . XB
P = P0A + P0B .
(ii) mixing H  0
(ii) mixing H = 0
(iii) mixingV  0
(iii) mixingV = 0
(iv)A-A interaction and B-B interaction is
(iv) A-A interaction and B-B interaction is equal
to A-B interaction equal to A-B interaction
Eg: 1) Acetone+Chloroform
Eg: Benzene + Toluene
2) Cyclohexane + ethanol

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22. Difference between Osmosis and Diffusion:
Osmosis Diffusion

1. In osmosis the movement of molecules 1. In diffusion there is no role of semi-

takes place through a semi-permeable permeable membrane.
membrane.
2. It involves movement of only solvent 2. It involves passage of solvent as well as
molecules from one side to the other. solute molecules from one region to the
other.
3. Osmosis is limited to solutions only. 3. Diffusion can take place in liquids,
gases and solutions.
4. Osmosis can be stopped or reversed by 4. Diffusion can neither be stopped nor
applying additional pressure on the solution reversed.
side.

23. Difference between Molarity and Molality:

Molarity Molality

1. It is defined as the number of moles of 1. It is defined as number of moles of

solute dissolved in a litre of solution. solute dissolved per kg of solvent.

2. WB x1000 2. WB x1000
M m
M B xVol.of solution(mL) M B xWA ( g )
Unit =MolL—1 or Molar or M Unit =Molkg—1 or Molal or m
3. It depends on temperature as volume 3. It is independent of temperature as
depends on temperature. mass does not change with temperature.
It decreases with increase in temperature.

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 IMPORTANT SHORTCUT FORMULA FOR NEET/JEE

Relationship between Molarity, density & mass of solution

Molarity of a solution can be calculated if mass percentage or mass of

solution and density is given:

W2 x1000 x density W2 = mass of solute

Molarity (M) =
M 2 x mass of solution in gram M2 = Molar mass of
solution
To find molarity when % & density is given

% x 10 x density
Molarity (M) = M2
when mass % is given

Relationship between molarity (M) and mole fraction of solute

M xMA 1000 X B
XB =
M ( M A  M B ) 1000 d M = X M X M
A A B B

Relationship between Mole fraction of solute (XB) and Molality (m):

m 1000 x X B
Xsolute =
1000 m =
m XA xMA
M solvent

Relationship between Molarity(M) and Molality:

Molarity x1000
Molality (m) =
(1000 x d  Molarity x M solute )

Where d = density of solution

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