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The document promotes the book 'Blockchain for Teens' by Brian Wu, which includes case studies and examples of blockchain technology across various industries. It provides links to download this and other related ebooks from ebookmass.com. The book covers various aspects of blockchain, including its technology, cryptocurrency, smart contracts, and NFTs.

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9 views

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The document promotes the book 'Blockchain for Teens' by Brian Wu, which includes case studies and examples of blockchain technology across various industries. It provides links to download this and other related ebooks from ebookmass.com. The book covers various aspects of blockchain, including its technology, cryptocurrency, smart contracts, and NFTs.

Uploaded by

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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Blockchain
for Teens
With Case Studies and Examples of
Blockchain Across Various Industries

Brian Wu
Bridget Wu
Blockchain for Teens
With Case Studies and
Examples of Blockchain Across
Various Industries

Brian Wu
Bridget Wu
Blockchain for Teens: With Case Studies and Examples of Blockchain
Across Various Industries

Brian Wu Bridget Wu
Livingston, NJ, USA Livingston, NJ, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8807-8 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8808-5


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8808-5

Copyright © 2023 by Brian Wu and Bridget Wu


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark
symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image we use the names, logos,
and images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no
intention of infringement of the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not
they are subject to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal
responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
Managing Director, Apress Media LLC: Welmoed Spahr
Acquisitions Editor: Aditee Mirashi
Development Editor: James Markham
Coordinating Editor: Aditee Mirashi
Cover image designed by eStudioCalamar
Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New York, 1
New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004-1562, USA. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201)
348-4505, e-mail [email protected], or visit www.springeronline.com. Apress Media,
LLC is a California LLC and the sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media
Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
For information on translations, please e-mail [email protected]; for reprint,
paperback, or audio rights, please e-mail [email protected].
Apress titles may be purchased in bulk for academic, corporate, or promotional use. eBook
versions and licenses are also available for most titles. For more information, reference our Print
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available to readers on GitHub via the book’s product page, located at www.apress.com/.
For more detailed information, please visit https://github.com/Apress/Blockchain-for-Teens.
Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Authors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

About the Technical Reviewer�����������������������������������������������������������xiii


Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv
Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii

Chapter 1: Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology�������������������������1


What Is Blockchain?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
How the Blockchain Works�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
Block Header�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
Block Body�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Consensus Algorithms����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19
Proof of Work (PoW)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Proof of Stake (PoS)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
The Evolution of Monetary System���������������������������������������������������������������������28
A Barter System��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
Commodity Money�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
Paper Money��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Plastic Money������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
Mobile Payments�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36

iii
Table of Contents

Understanding Cryptocurrency���������������������������������������������������������������������������39
Cryptocurrency Market����������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
What Is Crypto Volatility?�������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Difference Between Coin and Token��������������������������������������������������������������47
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49

Chapter 2: Cryptography: The Backbone of Blockchain Security�������51


The Basics of Cryptography��������������������������������������������������������������������������������52
Symmetric Key Cryptography������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Asymmetric Key Cryptography����������������������������������������������������������������������57
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75

Chapter 3: Bitcoin: The Future of Money��������������������������������������������77


Bitcoin History�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Early Attempts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
The Financial Crisis of 2008��������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Getting to Know Bitcoin������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Bitcoin Unit��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Bitcoin Halving���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
Bitcoin Wallet�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Bitcoin Network�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������114
Transactions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
The Transaction Data Structure�������������������������������������������������������������������118
Transaction Pool������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Transaction Fees�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
Lighting Network�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������126
How Lightning Network Works��������������������������������������������������������������������129
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������133

iv
Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Ethereum: A Gateway to Cryptocurrency������������������������135


The History of Ethereum�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������136
Whitepaper Released (November 2013)������������������������������������������������������136
Yellow Paper Released (April 2014)�������������������������������������������������������������137
The Birth of Ethereum (July 2014)���������������������������������������������������������������137
Launching the Ether Sale (July–September 2014)��������������������������������������137
Ethereum Released (June 2015)�����������������������������������������������������������������138
DAO Attack (July 2016)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Ethereum 2.0 (The Merge)���������������������������������������������������������������������������139
Getting to Know Ethereum��������������������������������������������������������������������������������142
Ether (Unit)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������142
Gas, Gas Price, and Gas Limit����������������������������������������������������������������������143
Ethereum Account���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������146
Smart Contract��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149
Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)�����������������������������������������������������������������151
Ethereum Nodes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156
Ethereum Clients�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158
Ethereum Network���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������169
How Ethereum Works����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
The Structure of a Transaction��������������������������������������������������������������������172
Transaction Receipt�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174
Block������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������181

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Smart Contracts and Dapps: From Theory


to Practice����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������183
Introducing Remix���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184
File Explorers�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������185
Solidity Compiler�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������186
Deploy and Run Transactions����������������������������������������������������������������������187
Other Modules���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Writing Your First Smart Contract���������������������������������������������������������������������190
Write a Contract�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������190
Compile a Contract��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������196
Deploy and Run a Contract��������������������������������������������������������������������������198
Taking Control of Your First Ethereum Wallet����������������������������������������������������201
Decentralized Applications (Dapps)������������������������������������������������������������������209
Getting Started��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������210
Connect to Metamask����������������������������������������������������������������������������������213
Tokens Standard�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������220
ERC-20���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������221
ERC-721�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������224
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������227

Chapter 6: NFT: Crypto As Collectibles���������������������������������������������229


What Is an NFT?������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������230
Fungible vs. Nonfungible����������������������������������������������������������������������������������230
A Brief History of NFTs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������233
Applications of NFTs�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
Images���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
Videos����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������236
GIFs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������236

vi
Table of Contents

Audio�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������238
Digital Real Estate���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������238
Trading Cards����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������239
Video Game Items����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������240
Fashion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������241
3D Models����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������241
Text��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������241
Domain Names��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������242
Examples of NFTs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������244
Selling Points of NFTs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������246
Scarcity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������246
Authenticity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������246
Easy to Use with Cryptocurrency�����������������������������������������������������������������246
Ownership���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������247
Permanence������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������247
Efficiency�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������247
Royalties������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������247
Cheap to Create�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������248
Creating Your Own NFT�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������248
NFT Market Place����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������253
OpenSea.io��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������255
Rarible���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������256
SuperRare����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������257
Foundation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������258
Nifty Gateway����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������259
Axie Marketplace�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������260
NBA Top Shot Marketplace��������������������������������������������������������������������������261

vii
Table of Contents

Mintable�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������262
Larva Labs/CryptoPunks������������������������������������������������������������������������������263
The Future of NFT���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������263
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������265

Chapter 7: Metaverse: The World Reimagined����������������������������������267


Introduction to Metaverse���������������������������������������������������������������������������������268
What Is the Metaverse?�������������������������������������������������������������������������������268
The Brief History of Metaverse��������������������������������������������������������������������269
Characteristics of the Metaverse�����������������������������������������������������������������272
AR, VR, MR, and XR�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������276
Augmented Reality (AR)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������276
Virtual Reality (VR)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������280
Mixed Reality (MR)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������284
Extended Reality (XR)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������285
Understanding Metaverse Layers���������������������������������������������������������������������286
Experience���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������287
Discovery�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������287
Creator Economy�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������289
Spatial Computing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������289
Decentralization�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������290
Human Interface������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������291
Infrastructure�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������292
Crypto NFTs Games in the Metaverse���������������������������������������������������������������293
Business Model in the Game Industry���������������������������������������������������������294
Example of Play-to-Earn NFT Games����������������������������������������������������������299
Virtual Real Estate in the Metaverse�����������������������������������������������������������������303
What Is Virtual Land?�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������304
Decentraland (A Case Study)�����������������������������������������������������������������������304

viii
Table of Contents

The Future of the Metaverse�����������������������������������������������������������������������������310


Metaverse Stages 1: Emerging (2021–2030)����������������������������������������������311
Metaverse Stages 2: Advanced (2030–2050)����������������������������������������������312
Metaverse Stages 3: Mature (After 2050)����������������������������������������������������312
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������312

Chapter 8: Decentralized Finance (DeFi): Reinventing


Financial Services����������������������������������������������������������������������������315
What Is Decentralized Finance (DeFi)?�������������������������������������������������������������317
The Structure of DeFi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������319
Layer 1: The Settlement Layer���������������������������������������������������������������������320
Layer 2: The Asset Layer������������������������������������������������������������������������������321
Layer 3: The Protocol Layer�������������������������������������������������������������������������322
Layer 4: The Application Layer���������������������������������������������������������������������323
Level 5: The Aggregation Layer�������������������������������������������������������������������323
Decentralized Stablecoin����������������������������������������������������������������������������������324
Stablecoin History���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������325
Types of Stablecoins������������������������������������������������������������������������������������325
A Deep Dive into Stablecoins—Maker (DAI)������������������������������������������������326
Decentralized Exchanges (DEXs)����������������������������������������������������������������������334
Type of Decentralized Exchanges����������������������������������������������������������������336
Automated Market Makers (AMMs)�������������������������������������������������������������337
AMM Basic Concepts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������338
Decentralized Exchange Aggregators����������������������������������������������������������351
A Deep Dive into the AMM DEXs—Uniswap������������������������������������������������352
Decentralized Lending and Borrowing��������������������������������������������������������������368
An Overview of the DeFi Lending Platform—Aave��������������������������������������368

ix
Table of Contents

Decentralized Insurance�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������379
Popular DeFi Insurance Platform�����������������������������������������������������������������381
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������383

Chapter 9: The Future of Blockchain������������������������������������������������385


The Evolution of the Internet�����������������������������������������������������������������������������386
Web 1.0 (1989–2004)—World Wide Web����������������������������������������������������387
Web 2.0 (2004–Present)—Participative Social Web�����������������������������������389
Web 3.0—Decentralization�������������������������������������������������������������������������390
Blockchain in Finance���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������392
Letters of Credit in Trade Finance���������������������������������������������������������������������395
Blockchain in a Supply Chain����������������������������������������������������������������������������401
Document Management������������������������������������������������������������������������������402
Integration of Various Centralized IT Software Systems������������������������������403
Lack of Transparency Regarding Data���������������������������������������������������������403
Blockchain in the Food Supply Chain Industry��������������������������������������������406
Other Sectors of Supply Chain Industries����������������������������������������������������410
Blockchain in Healthcare����������������������������������������������������������������������������������411
Health Data Accuracy����������������������������������������������������������������������������������411
Health Data Interoperability�������������������������������������������������������������������������412
Insurance Claims�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������413
Health Data Management����������������������������������������������������������������������������416
Disease Prevention��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������417
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������417

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������419

x
About the Authors
Brian Wu holds a master’s degree in computer
science and is an author and senior blockchain
architect. Brian has over 20 years of hands-
on experience across various technologies,
including blockchain, DeFi, big data, cloud, AI,
system, and infrastructure. He has worked on
more than 50 projects in his career.
He has written several books, published
by O’Reilly and Packt, on popular fields within
blockchain, including Learn Ethereum (first
edition), Hands-On Smart Contract Development with Hyperledger Fabric
V2, Hyperledger Cookbook, Blockchain Quick Start Guide, Security Tokens
and Stablecoins Quick Start Guide, Blockchain By Example, and Seven
NoSQL Databases in a Week.

Bridget Wu is a blockchain, AI, and Metaverse


enthusiast. She has had a passion to explore
NFTs and the Metaverse beginning in 2020
and is also a programmer and artist who
enjoys developing projects in her free time.
She has hands-on experience with HTML,
CSS, JavaScript, Java, Python, and writing
algorithms. Combined with over a decade of
practice in drawing, painting, and digital art,
her unique background in machine learning
and graphic design makes her eager to pioneer
the NFT, Metaverse.

xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Imran Bashir has an MSc in information
security from Royal Holloway, University of
London. He has a background in software
development, solution architecture,
infrastructure management, information
security, and IT service management. His
current focus is on the latest technologies, such
as blockchain, IoT, and quantum computing.
He is a member of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the
British Computer Society (BCS). He loves to write. His book on blockchain
technology, Mastering Blockchain, is a widely accepted standard text on
the subject. He is also the author of Blockchain Consensus, the first formal
book on the subject introducing classical, blockchain, and quantum
consensus protocols. He has worked in various senior technical roles
for different organizations around the world. Currently, he is living and
working in London, UK.

xiii
Acknowledgments
We thank everyone who made this book possible, including family and
friends who supported us, colleagues who encouraged us, and reviewers
and editors who polished our work.

xv
Introduction
Blockchain for Teens is a beginner-friendly guide for young people looking
to build a basic foundation in blockchain technologies. Similar to the
Internet in the 1990s, blockchain now promises to revolutionize the world
by reforming current business models. In this new era, economies will
become decentralized—a concept where every individual contributes
to and benefits from the network. Blockchain’s wide appeal comes from
its ability to ensure transparent, secure, and tamper-proof transactions
without the need for a central authority. With clear explanations covering
essential topics, including blockchain, cryptocurrency, cryptography,
Dapps, smart contract, NFTs, decentralized finance (DeFi), and the
Metaverse, Blockchain for Teens will help the reader develop various skills
to get them started on their Blockchain journey.
Chapter 1, “Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology,” will talk
about the basics of blockchain. First, we will discuss how the current
monetary system works and how blockchain technology impacts
money, business, and the modern world. Then we look into how a
blockchain works by going over each step in the transaction process and
the PoW and PoS consensus algorithms that form the backbone of the
blockchain. We continue with the evolution of monetary systems, from
barter to cryptocurrency. At the end of this chapter, we briefly introduce
cryptocurrency and some basic concepts of the crypto market.
Chapter 2, “Cryptography: The Backbone of Blockchain Security,” gives
a more thorough understanding of cryptography. This chapter will help
enrich your knowledge of symmetric key cryptography and asymmetric
key cryptography. You will also learn how digital signatures work.

xvii
Introduction

The chapter covers the hash algorithm, and we walk through elliptic curve
cryptography to understand how it works. At the end of this chapter, you
will learn how to generate an Ethereum address.
The main purpose of Chapter 3, “Bitcoin: The Future of Money,” is to
present a basic concept of the Bitcoin network. The chapter starts with a
discussion on the history of Bitcoin. Then we learn about the Bitcoin wallet
and Bitcoin network. Next, we also cover Bitcoin transactions to familiarize
you with the key concepts behind the Bitcoin blockchain. Lastly, we briefly
introduce Lighting Network.
Ethereum, the second-largest cryptocurrency after Bitcoin, is
considered a distributed Turing machine machine–you’ll learn more
about what this means in the book. In Chapter 4, “Ethereum: A Gateway
to Cryptocurrency,” you will learn about the history of Ethereum as well
as the key components behind Ethereum. The chapter also goes over
Ethereum nodes and Ethereum clients while providing examples. By
delving into the Ethereum architecture, you will understand how the
Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) works, how smart contract Opcode
is executed within the EVM, and the structure of the block, state, and
transactions in EVM.
The best way to understand how the Ethereum smart contract works
is to practice writing a smart contract and Dapps. Chapter 5, “Smart
Contracts and Dapps: From Theory to Practice,” will familiarize you with
smart contracts and Dapps through a hands-on learning experience. You
will write your first smart contract and deploy it to the public Ethereum
network. We also demonstrate the basics of Dapp and web3.js and
how Dapp interacts with smart contracts by connecting with the
Metamask wallet.
NFTs, or nonfungible tokens, represent the future of collectibles and
the expanding digital resource economy. NFTs will change not only art
but also business, finance, and culture as mainstream interest in NFTs
continues to grow. Chapter 6, “NFT: Crypto As Collectibles,” gives you a

xviii
Introduction

general introduction to what NFTs are. Along the way, you will learn the
applications of NFTs, the difference between fungible and nonfungible
items, and the selling points of NFTs. We also provide examples of NFTs
and cover the current NFT marketplace. By the end of this chapter, you will
create your own NFT in the OpenSea market.
Although the Metaverse is still in its early stages, it is rapidly gaining
more attention in recent years. The Metaverse will be a 3D Internet that
is based on new technologies including virtual reality (VR), mixed reality
(MR), augmented reality (AR), blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI),
and the Internet of Things (IoT). Chapter 7, “Metaverse: The World
Reimagined,” will help you understand the basics of the Metaverse. We
will also discuss immersive technology. By exploring the different layers
of the Metaverse, we will learn about different products or services in the
Metaverse landscape, including NFTs and cryptos. By entering a virtual
blockchain world, you will experience the current stage of virtual real
estate in the Metaverse. At the end of this chapter, we provide an overview
of the future of the Metaverse.
Decentralized finance (DeFi) represents an innovative way to reshape
the global financial industry. Chapter 8, “Decentralized Finance (DeFi):
Reinventing Financial Services,” will introduce you to DeFi’s core concepts
and structure, as well as provide an in-depth look at specific products in
DeFi. We will discuss the most popular decentralized stablecoin and deep
dive into the Maker stablecoin to understand how it works. Later, we also
explore the most popular DEX—Uniswap. Finally, we provide a complete
walkthrough on how to deploy your own ERC-20 token in the public
blockchain, create a liquidity pool, add liquidity, swap your custom token,
and get a staking reward in the Uniswap platform. In the decentralized
lending and borrowing platform, we demonstrate how to lend, withdraw,
swap, borrow, and repay crypto assets in the Aave platform. We also
discuss decentralized insurance.

xix
Introduction

At the end of the book, Chapter 9, “The Future of Blockchain,” we


will review topics from previous chapters in a discussion on the future
of blockchain. You will learn about the evolution of the Internet and
conclude with an overview of real-life examples of blockchain across
various industries.
It is assumed that you have little to no experience in a professional
blockchain environment. This book provides a general introduction to
critical aspects associated with blockchain. We will not provide too many
technical details, such as writing an advanced smart contract and setting
up a professional development environment. Instead, we will give you
practical information on the most important and latest concepts within
blockchain, which will give you a strong basis for entering the world of
blockchain.

xx
CHAPTER 1

Blockchain:
A Groundbreaking
Technology
In recent years, there has been a rising number of Americans who own
cryptocurrency. Even among those who don’t, most Americans have heard
of cryptocurrencies—does “Bitcoin” sound familiar? If you have heard
about blockchain, but you are unsure of how it works, then do not worry;
you are not alone! Although blockchain may seem like an intimidating
topic at first, we are here to help you become familiar with important
concepts of blockchain.
This chapter will begin with the basics of blockchain. Then, we will
discuss how the blockchain works and gain a solid understanding of
consensus algorithms. Next, we will learn about the evolution of the
monetary system and how blockchain technology impacts money,
business, and the modern world. Finally, at the end of the chapter, we will
provide an overview of cryptocurrency.
In this chapter, we cover the following specific topics on blockchain:

• What is blockchain?

• How the blockchain works

© Brian Wu and Bridget Wu 2023 1


B. Wu and B. Wu, Blockchain for Teens, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8808-5_1
Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

• Consensus algorithms

• The evolution of monetary system

• Understanding cryptocurrency

What Is Blockchain?
At the heart of all cryptocurrencies, we can find the revolutionary and
decentralized technology known as blockchain. It’s important to be clear
about what we mean by decentralization, as this concept is frequently used
in blockchain. Let’s start by looking at the opposite of decentralization:
centralization is when authority is held by a specific individual,
organization, or location.
Figure 1-1 shows an example of a centralized organization.

Figure 1-1. Centralization example

2
Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Think of a typical hierarchy within a company—the executives


make all the critical decisions. Then, executives pass decisions down
to managers, who are in charge of lower levels. They are expected to
perform whatever tasks are assigned to them by the executives. Going one
step further, the employees are expected to listen to their managers and
complete assigned work. While a centralized company can make achieving
objectives relatively quick and easy, employees often do not have visibility
and communication with other departments and higher levels. Lack of
such communication can cause issues and lead to failures, causing all
levels to feel the consequences. Often, a flaw in any part of the company
can compromise the goals, which is known as single point of failure.
Another example of centralization is online service providers, such
as Meta (Facebook), Amazon, Apple, and Google. These Internet services
follow a client-server architecture. The user uses a client machine (known
as remote processors—think web browser or mobile) to send remote
requests to a centralized server machine (known as a host system). The
user receives results for their service request from this single course of
complex service providers. On the bright side, billions of people use these
superb digital services for everyday tasks, such as online shopping, posting
photos, and calling family and friends, all without charge. But there is
an overlooked cost to these “free” services: these companies collect and
store large amounts of valuable data on user behavior in their centralized
servers. With big data analysis and machine learning algorithms, this
user data is converted into a product and sold to a third party. With this
data, companies can target the users in ads and services, increasing
opportunities to be exposed to security risks—this is all out of the user’s
control.
Now that we have looked at centralization, we can explore
decentralization, which refers to the distribution of equal power from a top
authority or location to every unit. Unlike the previous examples we looked
at, decision making is not concentrated in a central authority or power
in a decentralized organization. Rather than collectively relying on one

3
Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

authority, each member is independent and can decide on organizational


activity. With decentralization, all members are involved and working with
each other to reach a goal. Everyone can vote for decisions based on the
organization’s rules.

Figure 1-2. Decentralization example

In contrast to the centralized online service providers, the


decentralized world offers users total control over their transactions and
data. Every member has equal power when making their decisions. The
system will receive the decisions sent from individual participants and
utilizes cryptographic consensus methods (we will take a look at this later)
to make a decision. There is no single authority to receive and respond
to requests; the system still functions even if some individuals do not
participate in decision making.
Table 1-1 provides a comparison of centralization and
­decentralization.

4
Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Table 1-1. Comparing centralization and decentralization


Centralization Decentralization

Single Yes No The blockchain network is peer-­


point to-­peer, and each node possesses
failure a complete copy of the blockchain
data. Therefore, when a failure
occurs, data will never be lost.
Who is in Centralized User There is no centralized authority to
control? authority control the blockchain network.

Now we understand the difference between centralization and


decentralization. Still, what on earth is blockchain?
On an ancient island called Shell Island, people frequently traded
with each other to get the resources they needed or wanted. In the
beginning, the islanders trusted each other and only traded shells and
food; this works well for some time. After a while, the islanders traded
more elaborate goods, such as jewelry, clothes, and tools. As the trades
became more frequent and complex, it became harder to trace them. For
example, someone trades with 20 people every day, but trades different
items with each person. To address this, the leaders of the island hired
a trusted “middle man” to record all the transactions to keep things fair
and auditable; this also works well for some time. However, the “middle
man” started charging extra fees for his work and even began to accept
bribes. With much unfair trade happening, corruption spread throughout
the island, and no one trusts the “middle man” anymore. Business slowed
down as a result of fewer trades. To help the people trade fairly again, the
leaders of the island dismissed the “middle man” and agreed to replace
him with a more efficient solution. In the center of the island is a giant
rock, which could clearly be seen by everyone on the island. The leaders
propose that the islanders can permanently mark every trade information

5
Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

sequentially on the rock after the traders complete and prove the trade,
which makes the system verifiable. This rock is accessible to everyone, so
anyone on the island can view and verify these transactions, which means
the system is transparent. If any records are mismatched, the islanders can
vote to verify the record, which gives everyone equal participating power.
The islanders also do not need to trust each other for this system to work;
they only need to visit the rock to look at the records instead of relying on
the “middle man,” which makes the system trustless. The islanders agree to
follow these rules that the leaders proposed, and from then on, there was a
happy ending for everyone, where fair trade was possible for all.
Similar to the Shell Island trading system, blockchain is a decentralized
peer-to-peer network. In the blockchain network, participants can submit
and confirm transactions without a need for centralized authority. Once
the transaction data is saved in the network, it will be immutable, or
unable to be altered. Members or network nodes can directly interact with
one another on the network without a central authority or middleman to
interfere with the transaction process.
Blockchain is also called distributed ledger technology (DLT). DLT
allows all data to be shared across computer networks distributed across
multiple entities or locations, referred to as nodes. Each node keeps a copy
of the same data of the blockchain ledger.
Blockchain has the following key characteristics:

1. Decentralization

As we learned, blockchain decentralization means


distributing the central power to all participating
users in the blockchain network, which eliminates
the single point of failure. It generally exists in a
peer-to-peer network.

6
Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

2. Consensus protocol

Distributed consensus is a crucial component of any


blockchain network. All network participants must
reach a common agreement to add a transaction
record to the blockchain. This will enable a
blockchain to present a single version of the
transactions. There are many consensus protocols,
including:

• Proof of Work (PoW)

• Proof of Stake (PoS)

• Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT)

• Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS)

• Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET)

• Proof of Authority (PoA)

• And more…

We will discuss some of these consensus protocols


in a later section.
3. Immutability

Blockchain immutability means that once data has


been recorded in the blockchain, it is impossible
to manipulate, alter, or delete data. The blockchain
data will stay there forever.

4. Transparency

All blockchain transactions are publicly viewable by


any party or individual, which creates transparency.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

5. Security

Since blockchain’s immutability and


decentralization features eliminate the single point
of failure, the records in the blockchain cannot
be tampered with. This makes blockchain data
extremely secure. When users transfer funds from
blockchain wallets, they are cryptographically
signed by their wallet’s private key. We will explain
this in Chapter 2.

Figure 1-3 shows blockchain key characteristics.

Figure 1-3. Blockchain key characteristics

Now that we have a fair understanding of the concept of blockchain,


we’re going to take a look at how blockchain works.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

How the Blockchain Works


A blockchain is made up of an ordered chain of blocks. When a new
block is generated, it connects to the previous block through a hashing
mechanism. This way, the most recent data can be always added at the top
of the chain.
Imagine there is a daily wall calendar that covers a full year. The
calendar initially starts on January 1. After the day is over, the owner of
the calendar flips to the next page, which will be January 2. Because the
numbers of the days follow a linear sequence, it is easy to tell if any page is
missing or modified.

Figure 1-4. Block diagram of blockchain

It is also important to know that a bit is a binary digit (either 0 or 1) and


is the smallest unit of data that is stored on a computer. 8 bits make 1 byte.
A hash is a unique identifier that uses a mathematical function to
generate a fixed-length character string from the input text or data records.
(We will explain the hash and encryption functions in more detail in
Chapter 2.) The cryptographic hash function is designed to protect data
against any alterations.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

The blockchain hashing algorithm SHA-256, or Secure Hashing


Algorithm 256, generates a hash code of size 256 bits or 32 bytes. SHA-256 is
a one-way hash function, meaning that it is easy to compute but impractical
to reverse the hash to find what the initial input was. Even the slightest
change to the input message typically makes the output hash completely
different. To crack hash results, the best way is through a brute-force
strategy, which means to test every possible combination one by one. The
approach is to guess what was the original value being hashed by applying
the same hash function to see if the result matches. We need to process 2256
variants of 256-bit string, which results in a total amount of 3.2 * 1079 possible
combinations. The total calculation time would be more than a billion years.
SHA-256 hash is also deterministic, meaning that given same input (or
file), the output will always deliver the same hash value.
Table 1-2 shows examples of SHA-256 hashing.

Table 1-2. SHA-256 hash examples


SHA-256 (Input) Output

Hello 185f8db32271fe25f561a6fc938b2e264306ec304eda518007
d1764826381969
hello 2cf24dba5fb0a30e26e83b2ac5b9e29e1b161e5c1fa7425e7
3043362938b9824
blockchain for teens ae398c6f1d78e76d472c26e091869b9913f7624abea82901
c00893a0015ccd50
Blockchain hash f067428fdeb5984a6eeff5dbbe39a60cdb9dbffecdb80f18830
eeb1e91d3dde5

You can see that the length of the input data does not affect output
length—the output will always be 64-character text. Because of this, it is
nearly impossible to guess the input from the output. Blockchain uses this
SHA-256 hash function to hash transaction data and ensure transactions

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

cannot easily be altered. If someone wanted to tamper with a transaction,


they would need to rehash it, which would completely change the output.
So, when we say a hash, we are referring to the 64-character text output of
a hashing algorithm.
The structure of each block is separated into a block header and body,
as shown in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5. Blockchain block structure

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Block Header
The Block Header is made up of a few components of block version,
previous block hash, timestamp, nBits, nonce, and Merkle root:
Block version – The version number of the blockchain.
Previous block hash – The current block must refer to the previous
block hash, known as the parent block, to ensure the new block is added
to the chain in the correct order. It enables the user to know previous
transactions from the current block. By tracing back hashes that link each
block to its parent, we can traverse back to the first block, the genesis block.
Timestamp – The time and date when the block was added.
nBits – The difficulty of current consensus algorithm that was used to
create this block. (We will cover this in the next section.)
Nonce – Known as number used once, a random value that a block
creator is allowed to change in order to produce a block hash which is less
than the target hash.
Merkle root – A Merkle tree is a hash-based data structure, also known
as Binary hash tree. A Merkle root is the root node of a Merkle tree.
In computer science, a tree is a data structure with a collection
of nodes.
A tree has the following properties:
• Each node has only one parent.

• Each node can have up to two children.

• The tree has one node without a parent called the root
node (or root). The tree starts from the root node.

• Nodes are connected via an edge.

• Each node has a data element inside.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Figure 1-6 is an example of binary tree. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H are


all nodes. A is the root node, and B and C are children of A; they are
connected by edge. E and F are children of B. G and H are children of C.

Figure 1-6. Tree data structure

Since a Merkle tree is classified as a binary hash tree, it will share the
same tree structure. Each leaf node is a hash of a block of data. Each node
contains blockchain transactions data, meaning that the children’s hash is
contained in the parent node.
In our previous tree example, the leaf nodes will be E, F, G, and H since
these nodes don’t have children. B, C, and A are parent nodes, A is the
root node.
If we assume node E has a transaction value, the block data is hashed
using hash function HASH (E), which will be similar for other leaf nodes:
HASH (E), HASH (F), HASH (G), HASH (H). When we reach the parent
node, each pair of child nodes is rehashed recursively (repeatedly, based
on a rule) until we reach the root node.
Parent node B is the hash of their child nodes E, F – HASH (HASH (E) +
HASH (F)).

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Parent node C is the hash of their child nodes G, H – HASH (HASH (G) +
HASH (H)).
And root node A is the Merkle root; it contains the hash of the tree
nodes following it: HASH (HASH(B) + HASH (C)).
Figure 1-7 illustrates how to calculate the Merkle root hash value from
the leaf-node hashes up to the root.

Figure 1-7. Merkle tree hash calculation

Why we do need Merkle root hash?


In the earlier example, H (B) = H (E) + H(F).
Assume E is 1, F is 2. We will use the SHA-256 hash function.
SHA-256(1) = 6b86b273ff34fce19d6b804eff5a3f5747ada4eaa22f1d4
9c01e52ddb7875b4b
SHA-256(2) = d4735e3a265e16eee03f59718b9b5d03019c07d8b6c5
1f90da3a666eec13ab35
For simplicity, let’s concatenate(combine) both hash values together
into a long string (H (1) + H(2)), so we get the following value:
­33b675636da5dcc86ec847b38c08fa49ff1cace9749931e0a5d4dfdb
dedd808a

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

But if we modify it by changing the order to concatenating (H(2) + H(1)),


we get 9704a05c9afffc927899ad21907866ec72b166fd58250b57bca6a184e
462d554
You can see that even the slightest change will lead to completely
different results. Considering that each block data needs to include
transaction data, time stamps, and many other types of data, changing any
of these values will cause the Merkle root hash to be completely different.
In the earlier example, we can calculate the Merkle root hash as follows:

Merkle root hash = H (B) + H(C) = H (E) + H(F) + H (G) + H(H).

Root node hash represents the fingerprint for the entire node data. To
verify the node data’s integrity, you don’t need to download the data of the
entire block and transverse the entire Merkle tree; you just need to check
whether the data is consistent with the Merkle root hash. If a copy of the
block in the blockchain networks has the same hash value of Merkle root
to another, then the transactions in that block are the same. Through this
way, the transaction data can be proved very quickly.
In the blockchain, each block has a Merkle root stored in the block
header. The Merkle tree allows every node on the network to verify
individual transaction without having to download and validate the entire
block. If a copy of the block in the blockchain networks has the same
Merkle root as another, then the transactions in that block are the same.
Even a bit of incorrect data would lead to vastly different Merkle roots
because of the properties of the hash. Therefore, it is not necessary to
verify the amount of required information.
All blocks are connected through their previous block hash as a pointer
in the blockchain and form a block list. Since the block header contains the
Merkle root hash, we can verify whether the block header and transactions
data have been tampered with by executing the Hash operation. Any tiny
modification of transaction data will cause an entire chain change of all the
block hash pointers.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

So now the blockchain is linked by a continuous sequence of blocks. It


will look like Figure 1-8.

Figure 1-8. The sequence of blocks with Merkle tree and previous
block hash

Block Body
The block body consists of a transaction counter and transactions.

Transaction Counter
A transaction number represents the number of transactions that is stored
in the block. Transaction Counter is 1 to 9 bytes. It is typically used to
measure blockchain daily transaction count or “tps”—transactions per
second. The following diagram (from https://studio.glassnode.com/)
shows daily transaction counts for Bitcoin:

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Transactions
A transaction refers to a single logical group of actions that need to
be treated as a single action. The transaction request can be executed
successfully or fail. The process will ensure data integrity in the system.
In a blockchain, a transaction is a fundamental element to build block.
Transaction data can include the asset, price, timestamp, and user account
address.
Now that we have learned the components in a block structure, let’s
take a look at how blockchain process a transaction request submitted
by a user. Alice wants to send Bob five Bitcoins (BTC) to the blockchain
network; in order to join this network, Alice and Bob both need to have
an account address. When Alice sends five BTC to Bob, the transaction
request will be processed on a blockchain:
1. Alice sends five Bitcoin from her address to
Bob’s Bitcoin address. A transaction request was
created and authenticated (signed by Alice wallet’s
private key).

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

2. A new block is created including this new


transaction.

3. The new block is broadcast to every node in the


network.

4. Each node verifies and approves new block


transaction data. A node that received the
transaction will verify the transaction data using
blockchain consensus.

5. The new block is permanently added to the end of


the existing blockchain.

6. All nodes update and include this new block.

7. The transaction is now complete.

Figure 1-9 depicts each step in the transaction process.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Figure 1-9. Block transaction process

Consensus Algorithms
Consensus algorithms form the backbone of blockchain by helping all the
nodes in the network reach the necessary agreement on the global state in
the chain. The consensus validates transactions or data, then broadcasts it
across the network. All the other nodes will receive a copy of the data and
add it to the new block by verifying using the same rule.
These are some important properties of the distributed consensus
protocol:

Fault tolerance – Consensus protocol will ensure


that the network continues operating smoothly,
regardless of any failures.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Unified agreement – Since blockchain is


decentralized in nature, every transaction data in
the network needs to be validated and verified by
the consensus rule. Consensus protocol requires
reaching a unified agreement between network
participants, ensuring that all processed data is
valid and that the distributed ledger is up-to-date.
This way, the network can be reliable and users can
operate in a decentralized manner.

Ensure fairness and equity – The protocol will not


perpetuate bias or discrimination in a decentralized
network. Anyone will be able to access and join the
network and attend consensus protocol, and each
and every vote will be equal.

Prevent double spending – Only publicly verified


and validated transactions can be added to the
blockchain ledger. All nodes will agree on a single
source of truth. This guarantees the different nodes
have the same final result in the network.

Each consensus algorithm possesses different features and properties


to achieve the desired outcome. With the basics of blockchain consensus
properties we just covered, let’s dive deeper into popular blockchain
consensus algorithms in the current market.

Proof of Work (PoW)


Proof of work, also referred to as PoW, is one of the most common
consensus algorithms used by blockchain and cryptocurrencies such as
Bitcoin, Ethereum, Bitcoin Cash, ZCash, Litecoin, and others.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

The concept was first published by Cynthia Dwork and Moni Naor in
1993. The term “Proof of Work” or POW was used by Markus Jakobsson
and Ari Juels in a 1999 paper. The first cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, was created
by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. It was the first time that proof of work
protocols were used as consensus in the blockchain.
Proof of work describes a mechanism where computers in the network,
called miners, race each other to be the first to solve complex math
puzzles. When miners solve this “puzzle,” they are allowed to add a new
block to the blockchain and receive rewards.
In “How the Blockchain Works” section, we discussed that all blocks
are connected through a previous block hash to form a block list. The
miner needs to solve exceptionally difficult math problems to add a new
block. To find a solution, miners have to guess a random number (aka
nonce) using the brute-force approach till they find the solution. The
nonce is a 32-­bit (4-byte) field. Each block hash value was generated by
SHA-256 (previous block hash), Merkel root, timestamp, nonce and the
predefined value of the difficulty target. The difficulty target is shown by
the leading zeros before the hash. More leading zeros before the hash value
will make the whole process take more time and resources to compute.
With computers’ power growing, miners can solve these puzzles faster,
and so the difficulty target of the blockchain will increase accordingly.
Figure 1-10 describes how to calculate a block hash in the proof of work.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Figure 1-10. Hash in proof of work

Here is an example of recent Bitcoin difficulty (there are 19 leading 0s):


0000000000000000000469f80aeb7bac1b440652a9ef729658c1010d2
3962a1cdi
It will take a powerful mining machine around ten minutes to mine
each Bitcoin block. A solo miner will be rewarded around 1 BTC after
successful mining.
As we learned before, SHA-256 hash function is a one-way function,
which means there is no way to revert to the original value. The fastest
solution that we know is brute force. Miners need to try different
nonce numbers to calculate hashes as fast as possible until they find a
matching hash.
Here is the process of proof of work:

1. New transactions are broadcasted to all nodes.

2. Each node collects the transactions into a


candidate block.

3. Miner verifies the transactions and proposes a


new block.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

4. Miner competes to solve a difficult puzzle to find a


solution of proof of work for its block.

5. When a miner finds a solution, the PoW is solved


and broadcast across the block to all nodes.

6. Nodes verify that the transactions in the new block


are valid and accept adding the new block.

7. Miner gets the reward.

Figure 1-11 visualizes the process of proof of work:

Figure 1-11. The process of proof of work

Energy Consumption
In 2008, you could easily mine one Bitcoin using your personal machine.
Today, you’d need around 149.2PH/s to mine a Bitcoin. PH is one
peta hash:
1 PH/s = 1,000,000,000,000,000 (one quadrillion) hashes per second

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

The process typically needs a room full of mining machines, which


usually cost thousands of dollars, specially designed to improve hash rate
ratings and optimize power consumption. A large amount of electricity
is required to operate these mining nodes continuously. In 2022, global
Bitcoin mining accounted for 0.12% (188 TW/h, Terawatt/hour) of the
world’s energy production—which exceeds the energy consumption
of Norway.

The 51% Problem


To add a block to the network, proof of work requires enough
computational power to solve a puzzle. For a hacker to reverse a
transaction’s hash, they need to control at least 51% of the mining power
(hash rate) processing transactions on the blockchain. This is very costly,
so it is impossible that a network can be hacked by a person.
Table 1-3 shows the cost of PoW 51% attack for Bitcoin and Ethereum:

Table 1-3. Cost of PoW 51% attack


Name Hash rate 1 hour attack cost

Bitcoin 33,511 PH/s $583K


Ethereum 216 PH/s $364K

However, if a group of powerful miners collaborate with each other and


control this majority, they then ultimately can control the entire network
and decide which transactions can be added to network. This is known as
a 51% attack.
Due to these disadvantages, many other new consensus mechanisms
have been proposed and implemented over these years. The most popular
one of these is proof of stake (PoS).

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Proof of Stake (PoS)


Proof of work is a validation competition approach where miners verify
transactions and get rewards by solving cryptographic puzzles. The
process consumes lots of energy on proof-of-work computations. Miners
exchange energy for profit. Think of it like “one cpu, one vote.”
The proof-of-stake (PoS) mechanism seeks to reduce the scalability
and environmental sustainability concerns by substituting staking for
computational power. Scalability here refers to blockchain network
which is able to handle the increased requests in terms of more users and
applications. Staking is similar to the mining function in proof of work. The
miner stakes their cryptocurrency as collateral for the chance to validate
blocks. These miners become “validators.” The PoS algorithm selects
validators to validate new transactions and add them to the blockchain,
and validators reward some crypto in exchange. The more cryptocurrency
miners stake, the better chance there is for the node to be chosen to
participate in network validation.
In order to solve the block transaction validation, the calculation only
depends on the staked amount of cryptocurrency owned by the node. We
may simplify it as “one coin, one vote.”
The network will randomly select some validators and ask them to
provide the “correct” transactions.
An unverified transaction in the validator node as the input satisfies
the following conditions:

Hash(s, c) ≤ Ncoin∗ Tcoin

Ncoin is current staked coins amount in the nodes


Tcoin is the time accumulation for the coin
Ncoin* Tcoin represents the coin age of the node, and a larger coin age
means more chance to satisfy the conditions at the same difficulty level.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

PoS was first mentioned back on July 11, 2011, when


QuantumMechanic presented the concept on the BitcoinTalk online
forum. Sunny King and Scott Nadal published a paper on this for the first
time in 2012.
Here is the process of proof of stake:

1. Miner as “validators” lock up set amounts of


cryptocurrency or crypto tokens.

2. The network runs protocol formula f(x) to select a


validator.

3. Selected miner verifies the transactions and


proposes a new block.

4. Miner broadcasts the new block to all nodes.

5. Nodes attest the new block:

a. If block is valid, the new block is added to


network. Miner gets reward.

b. If block is invalid, nodes vote again the new


block. Miner loses staked coins.

Figure 1-12 visualizes the process of proof of stake.

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Chapter 1 Blockchain: A Groundbreaking Technology

Figure 1-12. The process of proof of stake

As one of the most common consensus mechanisms, PoS is adopted


by many cryptocurrencies. Here is a list of popular cryptocurrencies that
supported proof-of-stake coins.

1. ETH 2.0

Ethereum 2.0 switched the current PoW-based


Ethereum blockchain 1.0 to PoS. In addition, the
Beacon Chain bring PoS to Ethereum 2.0.

2. Cardano

Cardano, created in 2017, runs on the proof-of-stake


Ouroboros consensus protocol. The cryptocurrency
token in Cardano is called ADA.

3. Avalanche

Avalanche is one of the fastest smart contracts


platform based on PoS.

Avalanche is a blockchain platform with the native


token AVAX.

27
Other documents randomly have
different content
The east room is known as the Naos or temple proper. It is ninety-
eight feet long, sixty-three feet wide, and has a ceiling height of
forty-three feet. The most striking feature of the Naos is the double
row of Doric columns, twenty-three below and twenty-three above,
with an architrave between. These form a colonnade surrounding the
main floor on three sides. The lower units of the colonnade are three
and three-quarter feet in diameter at the base and twenty-one feet
high. Those of the upper tier are two and one-quarter feet in
diameter and sixteen feet high. The columns on the long side of the
colonnade form with the interior cella walls beautiful and impressive
corridors. Another interesting feature is that the floor of the corridors
is raised an inch and a half above the main floor of the Naos.

In the west end of the Naos, twenty feet from the end columns and
facing the eastern doors, stood the Chryselephantine Statue of
Athena, the beautiful shrine of the temple, if historians of that day
are to be believed. The statue was forty feet high and reached within
three feet of the ceiling. It was made, as its name indicates, of gold
and ivory. The fleshy parts were carved ivory and the remainder were
plates of gold suspended on a framework of cedarwood. It was the
masterpiece of Phidias and was worth a king’s ransom.

When Theodosius II changed the Parthenon into a Christian church in


the fifth century he moved the statue of Athena to Byzantium, capital
of the Roman Empire, as it would have been incongruous to 7
leave it in the Parthenon after the change in religions. After the
removal of the Chryselephantine Statue its fate is shrouded in
mystery. No part of it and no authentic sketch, drawing, or model of
it has ever been found.
Interior of Naos or East Room of Parthenon at Nashville
Showing the Ceiling and Plaster Casts of Elgin Marbles

The Greeks entered the eastern doors at the hour of temple worship,
always in the early morning, bearing gifts of gold and silver and other
valuable articles. There they were met by the priests, who received
the gifts. While the worshipers paid their devotions to the goddess at
her shrine, the priests took the gifts through the great doors, thence
along the exterior corridors, through the western doors, and into the
west room where the gifts were deposited. This room is called the
Maiden’s Chamber or Treasury.

The west room is forty-four feet long and sixty-three feet wide. As in
the east room, its most striking feature is the columns. There are four
of these arranged in a rectangle sixteen by twenty-three feet in the
center of the room. The columns are Ionic in design and, unlike those
of the east room, are monoliths. They are forty-one feet high, six feet
in diameter at the base, and three and one-half feet in diameter at
the top. The decorations of the room are Ionic also, in contrast with
those of the east room.

The decorations of the Parthenon are all authenticated. Fragments of


them are preserved in the British Museum and in the Louvre, and
some of the colors still show, though dimly, on the protected parts of
the ruin at Athens. The decorations at the top of both the interior and
exterior architrave, above and between the capitals of the Doric
columns are technically known as guttae. The color decorations are
principally in shades of blue and red with some yellows. In the
interior the colors are found in the fret along the top of the architrave
in the east room and in the moldings around the ceilings of both
rooms. The colors of the exterior occur in the frets around the top of
the cella walls, in the ceiling of the corridors and porticos, and in the
decorations of the cornice.

The Greeks lighted the old temple almost wholly through the 8
great doors in each end of the building; at Nashville the lighting
comes from above, and this is one of the most prominent of the
modern innovations incorporated in the reproduction of the
Parthenon. The Greek ceiling was exactly like that at Nashville with
this exception: In the Greek temple, between the great cedar beams
that span the ceiling and support the roof was an open grillwork of
cedarwood, while at Nashville the open spaces have been filled with
frosted panes of glass, etched to resemble the rays of the sun. The
Greeks might have had glass, as the manufacture of plate glass by
the Phoenicians antedated the period of Pericles by some five
hundred years. As we have seen, however, they had no incentive to
use it, for they obtained their light from below. The incentive at
Nashville is to conceal the two hundred and seventy-two high-
powered electric lights which give to the interior its beautiful
simulation of sunlight, accentuating its beauty and, to a great extent,
eliminating the shadows.
The roof at Nashville is like the one at Athens except as to the
material used in its construction. The antefixes along the eaves
served the purpose of covering the joints between the marble slabs
and are of carved ornamental design. At each corner of the roof is a
lion’s head, thought to be intended originally as a waterspout. Also at
each corner of the roof is a stone block upon which is surmounted a
Gryphon monster, standing guard over the temple day and night. The
highest points on the Parthenon are the carved ornaments, known as
the Acroteria, at each end of the building above the pediments.

It is difficult for anyone to describe the Parthenon and do it justice.


Suffice it to say that “it is a thing of beauty and a joy forever.”

The Naos or East Room Showing Symmetry of Columns, the


Depressed Floor and Some of the Elgin Marbles
The Architecture of the Parthenon

The architecture of Greece was essentially Doric. The Ionic was an


exotic in Athens and the Corinthian was more Roman than Grecian
and found no place in the Parthenon. There is a total of one hundred
and eight columns in the building, and of these all on the exterior
and all in the east room, one hundred and four in number, are Doric,
while the four in the west room are Ionic.

Taste varies in the beauty of architecture as well as in art generally.


Some admire the Gothic cathedrals of Europe, others admire the Taj
Mahal in India, and still others prefer the temples of Japan; but to
those who admire the architecture of the Greeks and the Romans,
the Parthenon is the most beautiful building in the world. Regardless,
however, of what may be thought of the beauty of its architecture, it
is the most perfect.

The age of Pericles has been known through the centuries as the
“Golden Age of Greece,” but the judgment of time has forced us to
the conclusion that it was also the golden age of the world as far as
the beauty of architecture and sculptural art is concerned.

There is no more intriguing part of the whole narrative of the


Parthenon than this story of the subtlety of the Greeks in overcoming
optical illusions and neutralizing differences in distance.

Perhaps the most important, certainly the most prominent, of the


refinements of the Parthenon is the curvature of the horizontal lines.
It is not true, as some textbooks have it, that there is no straight line
in the Parthenon. There are a number of them, but all of these
straight lines are vertical. What should be said is that there are no
straight horizontal lines in the Parthenon.
Another refinement used by the Greeks in adding to the beauty of
the Parthenon relates to the columns. The visitor is certain to 10
be impressed by the softness of the Doric columns. This is
especially true of those of the Naos where their proximity to each
other emphasizes their beauty as they are caught banked against
each other. When thus seen all other columns fail by comparison and
seem as stiff as pokers. This quality of softness is given them by the
fact that all columns, both in the Naos and on the exterior of the
building, are different in diameter from those beside them and all are
also spaced differently.

Still another refinement pertaining to the columns is technically


known as entasis, which is that quality which gives to them their
beautiful symmetry.

In discussing the columns in relation to their softness it was


suggested that they be seen banked against each other. In the
discovery of their symmetrical beauty, however, they should be seen
singly. The column apparently rises from the floor at its largest
diameter and gradually diminishes in a beautifully fluted shaft, having
the very breath of symmetry in every line to the top. That is the way
it appears; but, as a matter of fact, if the column had been
constructed as it actually looks, then, instead of seeming beautifully
symmetrical, because of an optical illusion, it would have appeared
concave at a point just below the center of the column. Knowing this
from experience, the Greeks filled in just enough to correct the
results of the optical illusion and the column in reality is bulged near
the center.

It has been noted that the first sight of the Parthenon usually inspires
the visitor with a sense of its strength and stability. This effect is
produced by another of the subtleties of the Greeks in approaching
perfection in the Parthenon. Only one with technical knowledge
would ever suspect that its columns and walls are other than
perpendicular; yet, with the exception of the transverse wall which
divides the cella into its two rooms, all of them are inclined toward
the center. If all were projected on their axes, they would meet in a
cluster five thousand, eight hundred and fifty-six feet above the base
of the temple.

One of the major problems that confronted the builders of the


Parthenon at Nashville related to the arrangement of the columns of
the Naos. Prior to the research work in connection with the Nashville
reproduction, the preponderance of authority favored the theory that
the Doric columns of the Naos were monoliths. This matter was
settled definitely by the work done by Mr. William Bell Dinsmoor, of
New York, who represented the builders in the archaeological end of
the work.

As has been said, nothing remained of the interior of the original


Parthenon after the explosion of 1687 except the floor and fragments
of the walls. One of these fragments happened to be in the end of
the building in the southeast corner of the Naos. Sticking in it, Mr.
Dinsmoor discovered a small piece of the architrave and a
discoloration of the wall revealing where the remainder had been.
This discovery fixed the fact of an architrave and, following very
closely, the further fact that there were columns superimposed on
each other with an architrave between.

The architecture of the Parthenon will always carry with it elements


of the mystical and the mysterious to modern minds, accustomed as
they are to the solution of engineering problems by rule. The more
the Parthenon is considered, the more interesting it seems.

11
Floor of Treasury or West Room Showing Arrangement of
Ionic Columns and Figures from Elgin Marbles of Iris and
Heracles
The Sculptures of the Parthenon

The sculptures of the Parthenon occur in four groups: the Ionic or


inner frieze, the Doric or outer frieze, the east pediment, and the
west pediment.

As the subtlety of the builders of the Parthenon emphasized their


intellect, so the sculptures emphasized their religion. The Greeks
were not idolaters in the sense that they bowed down to gold and
ivory. They loved to chisel in marble the beautiful forms that
represented to them their gods who dwelt on Mount Olympus. A
characteristic of the Greeks of this period was that, in their art, they
always presented their goddesses fully clothed and, almost always,
their gods in the nude.

While the origin of the Parthenon has the most of its roots firmly
fixed in Egypt, many of the sculptures were derived from the
Assyrians. Particularly is this true of the smaller figures, winged
mythical creatures, as well as lions and horses, typical of the Assyrian
bas-reliefs. The heavier figures, notably those of the pediments, are
essentially Greek.

In the life and times of Phidias, a love for the beautiful was so
general that it was comparable to the air which they breathed. It was
not difficult, therefore, for him to find men, almost as accomplished
as himself, upon whose shoulders he could lay the greater part of the
work.

It is a matter of keen regret that so few of the sculptures of the


Parthenon have been preserved. For this reason, the most difficult
problem in the task of the reproduction of the Parthenon at Nashville
was the reproduction of the sculptures.
When the Parthenon was destroyed in 1687 the sculptures were
blown off the temple and, to a great extent, broken up by the
explosion. As already noted, only two of the pedimental groups
remain on the ruin, one on each pediment. Plaster casts of these are
now in the British Museum. A much larger proportion of the figures of
the friezes remain on the ruin but they are so badly damaged that
identification is practically impossible; this is especially true of the
Doric frieze.

12
Interior Corridor, South Side, Showing Elgin Marbles
In 1801, after the fragments of the sculptures had lain in the debris
around the temple for approximately one hundred and fifteen years,
Lord Elgin, Minister to Turkey from England, persuaded the Turks,
who had again conquered the Greeks, to let him go to Athens and dig
up all the sculptures that he could find around the ruins. He sold
these fragments to the British government, and they are now the
most highly prized possessions of the British Museum, known as the
Elgin Marbles.

It is popular in some quarters to criticize Lord Elgin for his action in


taking the fragments from the Parthenon to England. Some have
gone so far as to say that he actually robbed the temple of its
sculptures. Unquestionably, the correct view of the matter is that
Lord Elgin did the world a great service in salvaging the fragments
from the earth in which they had deteriorated for many years and,
but for him, might have suffered greater injury.

In the west room of the Parthenon at Nashville and along the


corridors of the east room may be seen casts which form the only
complete set of the pedimental sculptures outside of the British
Museum. Many isolated groups of these may be found in America and
in Europe, but all of them may be seen only at Nashville. Here they
are mounted on wooden bases forming a most interesting exhibit and
were obtained through the courtesy of the British Museum.

In the east room of the Parthenon at the west end of the south
corridor is the head of one of Selene’s steeds, considered by many as
the finest example of a horse’s head in the world. Just beyond,
through the door at the end of the corridor, is seen in the west room
the figure of Heracles. It is interesting to note that in the report of
the artists who passed on the value of the Elgin marbles a statement
was incorporated to the effect that the back muscles of the Heracles
represented the finest example of physiological art known to the
world of that day. Another most interesting group of sculptures, the
three Fates, is seen near by in the west end of the east room. This
group, thought to be the work of Phidias, is generally regarded as
one of the most beautiful examples of sculptural art existing today.

The casts of the Elgin marbles in the Parthenon at Nashville, which


were made by the British Government, were not obtained primarily as
an exhibit but as a study for the reproduction of those sculptures now
on the building. However, it was not thought inappropriate to mount
the fragments and use them as an exhibit so as to permit visitors to
compare the completed figures with them. The comparison can only
cover approximately half the figures on the pediments as the
remainder have been lost beyond recovery. Quite naturally, the
question arises in the mind of the reader as to how it was possible for
the artists to reproduce all of them.

In 1674, just thirteen years before the explosion which destroyed the
Parthenon, young Jacques Carrey, a French artist attached to the
French embassay to Turkey, on a voyage from Paris to Constantinople
with the ambassador stopped off at Athens and sketched the temple
sculptures. These sketches are preserved in the National Library at
Paris and were made available for the artists. From a study of the
Elgin marbles and the Carrey drawings, supplemented by further
study of Greek contemporary art and Greek history, the artists at
Nashville succeeded in making a wonderful reproduction of the
Parthenon’s sculptures.

13
Figures from the Ionic Frieze
The Ionic and Doric Friezes

The inner or Ionic frieze, sometimes erroneously called the frieze,


was one of the most beautiful of the groups of sculptures on the
original Parthenon. It was almost unknown to distinctly Doric temples
and owes its place on the Parthenon to some one or more Ionic
temples from which the idea was without doubt copied.

In the Ionic frieze is found most of the atmosphere of ancient Assyria


that is associated with the Parthenon. This frieze was low in relief,
forty inches in height; and of necessity the figures of the men and
women and animals which went to make up the frieze were small,
typical of the Assyrian bas-relief.

The Ionic frieze was located along the outer walls of the Parthenon,
extending forty inches down from the top of the wall, and rested on a
blue fret running all around the building, a distance of five hundred
and twenty-four feet. It was a marvelous piece of sculptural art.
Although there were approximately six hundred figures in the frieze,
men, women, and animals, no two of them were alike—no two men,
no two women, and no two animals; yet all were graceful, dignified,
and beautiful.

The Ionic frieze of the Parthenon depicted the Panathenaic


Procession which occurred every four years in Athens. It was an
established part of the Panathenaic Festival and coincident also with
the athletic contests held in honor of Athena. On this occasion the
Greeks assembled in the downtown streets of Athens; men and
women of high and low degree with their slaves, various kinds of
animals, chariots with their horsemen, men at arms, wild horses led
by Barbarians, dignitaries of state, and maidens. These formed a
procession which wound its way up through the streets of Athens
leading to the Acropolis, on to that sacred hill, and into the
Parthenon, where they invested the figure of Athena with a peplos, or
robe, which had been woven by the women of Athens during the
previous four-year period. It was at once a gala and a solemn 14
occasion for the Greeks.

Unfortunately, for lack of funds the Ionic frieze has been left off the
Parthenon at Nashville, which lacks that much of being completed. It
is available, however, as the greater part of it is in the British
Museum, some in the Louvre, and the remainder, twenty-four feet in
all, is still on the ruin at Athens. There is no doubt that the Ionic
frieze will eventually find its place on the temple at Nashville.

The Doric, or outer frieze, is located on the outside of the Parthenon


above the architrave that rests on the great Doric columns of the
peristyle. It extends along both sides of the building and underneath
the pedimental sculptures at each end. It consists of a repeating
conventional design called a triglyph which divides the frieze into
ninety-two panels, each panel containing a group of sculptures. The
panels with their sculptures are known as the metopes and are
approximately four feet square.

There were no repetitions in the sculptures of the Doric frieze. They


told legendary and mythological stories that were dear to the heart of
the Greeks. That part of the frieze on the eastern end of the building
pictured scenes from the struggle between the gods and the giants.
The war between the Greeks and the Amazons was shown by the
figures of the frieze on the western end. On the north side of the
building the figures depicted incidents of the Trojan War, while those
along the south side told the story of the Lapiths, a tribe of the
Greeks, and the Centaurs. The story is that of a princess of this tribe
who was to be married. She sent invitations to the Centaurs,
mythological creatures part man and part horse, to come to the
wedding feast. They came, drank wine, became drunken, and
insulted the bride, which brought on a war in which the Centaurs
were defeated.
The figures of the Doric frieze are archaic and stiff by comparison
with those of the pedimental sculptures or of the Ionic frieze and are
therefore thought not to be the work of Phidias and his associates
but rather a transfer from one of the earlier temples to the
Parthenon. They play their part well in the harmonious whole and
reflect the ability and genius of Phidias, who adapted them.

15

The West Pediment Showing Section of Doric Frieze


Underneath the Acroteria Above
The West Pediment

The figures of the west pediment were more easily reproduced than
those of the east pediment, as they were more completely
authenticated by the Elgin marbles and the Carrey drawings.

It should be understood that the explosion that destroyed the


Parthenon did its greatest damage to the figures themselves rather
than to the base on which they rested, and as a consequence less
difficulty was encountered by the artists in placing the sculptures in
their proper settings on the west than on the east pediment. In
considering the sculptures of the two pediments it must also be
borne in mind that the force of the explosion was greatest in the
eastern portion of the building, as evidenced by the condition of the
ruin, and for that reason also the greatest damage was to the east
pediment.

The sculptures of the west pediment tell the story of the struggle
between Poseidon, the powerful god of the sea, and his niece
Athena, the goddess of wisdom, for the possession of Attica, or
ancient Greece.

In the center of the pediment, to the right, is the heroic figure of


Poseidon with his three-pronged weapon or trident in his hand, his
friends and supporters to the right. Opposing him, and to the left, is
the equally heroic figure of Athena with her great spear in her hand,
her supporters to the left. Both of these gods coveted the fair land of
Attica and desired the worship of its people. They were unable to
agree and appealed to the gods for a decision. The gods held their
convocation on the Acropolis, the site of the Parthenon, and this
assembly is shown by the figures of the west pediment.
As a result of the convocation the gods decreed that the contestant
who should most bless Greece would be given the control of Athens
and have the worship of the Greeks. It was to be a battle of blessing,
rather than blood.

Poseidon, in granting his blessing, struck the solid rock of the


Acropolis with his trident, and as he was the god of the sea it obeyed
him and came up in a rushing, gushing spring of salt water, symbolic
of his promise that if the Greeks would make him their god he would
make of them a mighty maritime nation—their glory should be on the
sea. When it became Athena’s turn to grant her blessing, she struck
her great spear in the earth and withdrew it and from the place
sprang an olive tree, the parent of all those which have so greatly
blessed Greece from that day to this. The gods, acting wisely,
decreed that Athena’s gift was of far greater advantage to the Greeks
than any promise of the glory of war as made by Poseidon, and made
her the patron goddess of Athens.

16

The East Pediment with Section of the Doric Frieze


Underneath Showing Gryphon Monsters and Acroteria on
Roof
The East Pediment

It would be very difficult for a visitor to Nashville to decide which


group of sculptures on the Parthenon is the loveliest. Each general
group fits so harmoniously into its own particular place that a choice
of one could not avoid being unfair to the others. Viewing the west
pediment first, one essaying judgment might exclaim, “What could be
more beautiful!” Yet on leaving it and looking at the east pediment he
might easily be found saying, “Here is the answer.” The presence on
the east pediment of the three Fates, the Heracles, and the steeds of
Selene probably gives the east pediment the advantage over the
other groups, especially in the eyes of the artists.

The story of the east pediment is very beautiful and tells of the birth
of Athena and of her reign. In the beginning Zeus, the father of the
gods, the king of the gods, had a very severe headache and could
find no relief. He had long wanted a child born of the intellect. It is
said that he was so disappointed at having a son, Hephaestus, born
maimed that he threw him out of Heaven and it took a whole day for
him to fall to the earth. Hephaestus was the god of fire, the god of
metals, the blacksmith of the gods, and he forged the thunderbolts
that Zeus used in his battles of Heaven. Hephaestus sent word to his
father that if he would restore him to his rightful position among the
gods, he would cure him of his headache. Thereupon Zeus assembled
the gods on Mount Olympus and from somewhere, in a thundercloud,
came Hephaestus. He struck his father in the back of the head with
an axe and from the wound, giving Zeus his wish, sprang Athena,
fully grown, clothed, and armed. She was announced and crowned
goddess of wisdom by Nike, goddess of victory. It is said that at this
event the earth groaned, Mount Olympus trembled, and the gods
stood in amazement at the miracle that had been performed. These
four figures form the highest pinnacle of the east pediment of the
Parthenon.

At the extreme south end of the pediment, representing the


beginning of the reign of Athena, in the morning is seen Helios, the
god of the sun, the god of the morning, coming up out of the sea
driving his four steeds representing the four seasons. As the horses
come bounding out of the sea, Helios can scarcely restrain them, so
eager are they to mount the skies.

Heracles, the next figure on the pediment, is shown with his club on
his shoulder, nonchalantly looking at the horses, paying no attention
to what is taking place on Mount Olympus. He is looking at the sun
as it rises. Heracles was known as the favorite of the gods. In his
early manhood they had permitted him to choose between virtue on
the one hand, and vice on the other, both very attractively arrayed.
He chose virtue rather than vice, and thus became their 17
favorite. He did many heroic deeds in Grecian history, and was
the national hero of Greece. Heracles was himself made a god; Zeus
was his father, his mother was a mortal.

Next, on the pediment, may be seen the figures of Demeter, the


sister of Zeus, and her daughter Persephone. Demeter was the
goddess of the seasons. Ceres was her Roman name, and her
daughter, Persephone, was the goddess of the underworld. She
became the goddess of the underworld in this wise: One day when
Persephone was in the fields plucking violets with her maidens,
suddenly the earth opened and through it, in a chariot, came Pluto,
the god of Hades. He saw her, fell in love with her, seized her, took
her back to Hades, and made her his queen. Her mother grieved
sorely and would not be comforted. She had powerful influence with
the gods. She sent plagues on the earth and worried the gods, until
Zeus was forced to compel Pluto to bring Persephone back to her
mother. Thereafter, it is said, under a compromise agreement,
Persephone spent six months of each year with her mother among
the gods, and six months with her husband, Pluto, in Hades.
The next figure on the pediment is that of Iris, the female messenger
of the gods, the rainbow goddess. She is represented on the
pediment as being poised, ready to go at a moment’s notice, to tell
the story of the birth of Athena to the world. This is the first figure
seen among the fragments as the visitor enters the Parthenon door,
and is often confused with the Winged Victory of Samothrace. The
confusion arises from the fact that in the fragment of the Parthenon
figure of Iris, located in the west room, she is holding her scarf at
arm’s length in her hands and the fragment is broken through the
scarf and through the arms, causing it to look as if it might be a
wing, when, as a matter of fact, it is the fragment of a scarf and not
a wing; and the figure is not the Winged Victory, but is Iris, the
female messenger of the gods, the rainbow goddess.

Next is seen on the pediment the figure of Poseidon, the god of the
sea; Neptune was his Roman name. Poseidon was the brother of
Zeus, one of the chief deities of the Greeks, and is represented on
the east pediment as sitting calmly by, looking on at what is taking
place.

The next figure beyond Poseidon is that of Aphrodite, or Venus, the


goddess of beauty, the goddess of love. She seems shocked at what
she sees, and shrinks a little; but is comforting Hebe, the goddess of
youth, who is reclining at her feet, by placing her hand on her head.

Then comes the central group, Hephaestus, Zeus, Nike, and Athena,
or Minerva as the Romans called her, illustrating the story of the birth
of Athena.

Next is seen Ares, or Mars, the god of war. He is represented on the


pediment as looking rather sternly past Athena as though he does
not welcome this additional warlike member to the family of the
gods.

The next figure is that of Artemis, the twin sister of Apollo. Artemis is
the goddess of the fields, the goddess of hunting; Diana is her
Roman name. She is represented on the pediment as shading her
eyes with her hand from the resplendent glory of the newborn
goddess.

Just beyond Artemis is seen Hera, queen of Heaven, also known as


Juno, the jealous wife of Zeus. In addition to her jealousy, it is said
that she was vain and the peacock, seen near by, was sacred to her.
Hera was also the goddess of maternity, and very fittingly was
present at the birth of Athena.

The next figure is that of Hermes, the male messenger of the gods,
corresponding to Iris, the female messenger. Iris usually executed the
commands and carried the messages for Hera, while Hermes
performed a like office for Zeus. He is always represented with a
magic wand, or caduceus, in his hand, which was given to him by
Apollo. One day, when Hermes was a mere child, almost a baby, he
was playing in the fields and captured a tortoise. He placed strings
across the shell of the tortoise and made a musical instrument (we
call it the lyre), and presented it to his brother Apollo. Apollo, who
was the god of music, was so delighted with the precociousness of
his baby brother that he gave him the magic wand, which had the
power of putting gods and mortals to sleep at his will. Hermes is also
shown with wings on his ankles and wings on his cap. He was god of
business, and also the god of transportation. His figure adorns many
of the railway stations of the world. His Roman name is Mercury.

Beyond Hermes, on the pediment, is seen Apollo, the god of 18


music, with his harp. He was also the god of manly youth and
the god of healing. Esculapius, his son, was the first doctor of
Greece, the father of all the physicians. Apollo was regarded as the
most beautiful of the gods. Reclining on him is seen Ganymede, the
cupbearer of the gods.

These were the chief deities of the Greeks. There were others which
they worshiped also. They were as sacred to the ancient Greek as
Jehovah is to us, and it is pertinent to say that they worshiped the
beautiful—and the beautiful is the spiritual.
We are not so much interested in the gods of the Greeks in this
twentieth century, however, as we are in human life; and the next
group of figures to Apollo and Ganymede, the three Fates, brings the
Whole matter closer to us, because it represents the Greek idea of
life. The first figure in the group is Clotho, who is represented as
spinning the thread of life; and as she spins, the second figure,
Lachesis, winds it on a spool, and the third figure, Atropos, clips it at
will, typifying the beginning, the span, and the end of life—the
destiny of us all.

Last, in the extreme north angle of the pediment, in the evening, is


seen the gentle Selene, the goddess of the moon, the goddess of the
evening, guiding her tired steeds, so different from those seen
coming out of the sea in the morning, down into the cool, quiet
waters of the deep, typifying not alone the close of the day but the
close of the reign of Athena and the end of time.

The gods of the Greeks are no more. They have no single worshiper
left on all the face of the earth today to pay them homage, yet their
deeds are told in song and story, and their memory is green in the
hearts of those who love the beautiful.

19
Conclusion

And now, we come to the close of the story of the Parthenon.

The period of Pericles marked one of the high points in the history of
the world. A comparison of its characteristics serves to emphasize its
superiority over other epochs in many ways. The Parthenon at Athens
was not merely a wonderful building, but was an expression of Greek
mind and heart. It did not spring up in a day as did Athena from the
head of Zeus but found its roots in the prehistoric altars of their
goddess. It was not built to please individuals but to honor their
gods. It is no wonder, then, that when the Parthenon came into full
flower in the “Age of Pericles” it should have reached that state which
the judgment of succeeding generations has pronounced perfection.

The Parthenon at Nashville stands alone as a portrayal of the


Parthenon of Pericles. It would be too much of a challenge to the
antiquity of the Parthenon to say that every statement made about it
in these pages bears the stamp of absolute authenticity. It can be
said, however, that because of the many facts obtained from the
research and the records of earlier days and because of the eleven
years of research and study in our own times, the Parthenon at
Nashville will stand as the last word.

It is difficult to estimate the influence of the Parthenon at Nashville


on the world of today. To those who love the beautiful, either by
instinct or cultivation, the Parthenon is a thing to be revered; to
others it is just another building. To understand and appreciate the
Parthenon it must be studied. We may glance at some buildings and
pass on, but not so with the Parthenon. It is compelling. A revelation
of its balanced lines and its harmony of proportions, its simplicity
both delicate and strong, its subtleties, some bordering on the
mystical, marks the Parthenon as a thing by itself.
The Naos or East Room as Seen Through the Eastern Doors
The Parthenon is used only for educational and cultural purposes.
Over four hundred college, high school, and primary school groups
visit the Parthenon each year.

This, then, may be said of the Parthenon: As in the earlier days, even
so now, young and old, rich and poor, alike are made happy by its
sheer beauty and inspired by its history to reach for a higher and
better life.
Transcriber’s Notes
Retained publication information from the printed edition: this
eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.
Corrected a few palpable typos.
In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
_underscores_.
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