Temperature Measurement

Understanding Different Temperature

Measurement Systems
Prof. S. P. Bijawe
 Introduction
• What is Temperature?
• Temperature is broadly defined as ‘degree of
hotness or coldness of a body or an environment’.
In a narrower sense, temperature is ‘the degree
of hotness or coldness referenced to a specific
scale’. It is a name for some condition in matter
which determines the direction and extent of
transfer of the kind of energy called ‘heat’.
Indicates how hot or cold an object is
Importance of Measuring Temperature

• Safety :- To ensure that process temperature remains

within the limits of plant design, so damage does not
occur to columns, separator, piping and rotating
equipment by exceeding their safety limits.

• Quality :- Providing a more uniform and predictable

product quality under steady process conditions.

• Control:- To achieve correct control of process where

temperature is a critical parameter.
 Units And Scales of Temperature
1. The lower fixed point or ice point – which is the
temperature of ice, prepared from distilled water,
when melting under a pressure of 760 mmHg (or 1
atm, or 101.325 kPa, or 14.67 psi). The pressure of
the atmosphere does not have a great influence on
the melting point, but the ice should be in the form of
fine shavings and mixed with ice-cold water. For the
ice point, is the temperature at which water and ice
can exist together.
2. The upper fixed point, or steam point – which is the
temperature of steam from pure distilled water
boiling point under a pressure of 760 mmHg in
latitude 45°.
3. Triple Point: The triple point of water, is simply a
temperature/pressure combination where the states of
ice, water, and water vapour can exist together. Both a
solid and a liquid phase usually exist together; with a
certain amount of vapour (may or may not be visible)
depending on the temperature and pressure. The triple
point of water occurs at 0.01°C at pressure of 4.6 mmHg
(or equivalent to 0.6132829 kPa, or 0.08894916 psi)
4. Absolute Zero temperature: Absolute zero temperature is
a state where all molecular activity has ceased, it is the
coldest state there is, at a temperature of –273.16°C, or 0
Kelvin. However, this temperature was determined by
calculation (theoretical), up until now this temperature
has not been attained.
 Celsius Scale
• Invented by: Anders Celsius in 1742

• Key Points:
• - Freezing point of water: 0°C
• - Boiling point of water: 100°C

• Usage:
• - Widely used worldwide
• - Standard in scientific contexts
 Fahrenheit Scale
• Invented by: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1724

• Key Points:
• - Freezing point of water: 32°F
• - Boiling point of water: 212°F

• Usage:
• - Commonly used in the United States
 Kelvin Scale
• Invented by: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
in 1848

• Key Points:
• - Absolute zero: 0 K (no negative temperatures)
• - Freezing point of water: 273.15 K
• - Boiling point of water: 373.15 K

• Usage:
• - Used in scientific research, especially in physics
Comparison of Temperature Scales
• Side-by-Side Comparison:
• - Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin

• Conversion Formulas:
• - Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = (9/5)C + 32
• - Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = (5/9)(F - 32)
• - Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15
• - Kelvin to Celsius: C = K - 273.15
 Temperature Standards
• Triple Point of Water
• Definition
– The temperature and pressure at which water can
coexist in solid, liquid, and gas phases
– Precisely 0.01°C (273.16 K)
• Significance
– Used as a fundamental calibration point for
thermometers
 Practical Applications
• Everyday Use:
• - Weather forecasts, cooking

• Scientific Research:
• - Chemistry, physics, meteorology

• Industrial Processes:
• - Manufacturing, quality control
 Classification of temperature sensors
Based on the Principle
1. Liquid and gas thermometer (change in volume
pressure, viscosity, density, etc.)
2. Bimetallic strip (principle of thermal expansion)
3. Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors:
change in the electrical resistance)
4. Thermocouple (the voltage created at the junction of
two dissimilar metals)
5. Junction semiconductor sensor (provide very adequate
results if constant and steady excitation current is
supplied to them)
6. Radiation pyrometer (detecting infrared (IR) radiation)
 Types of Thermometers

• Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
– Mercury Thermometers
– Alcohol Thermometers
• Digital Thermometers
– Electronic sensors measure temperature
– Displayed digitally
• Infrared Thermometers
– Measure temperature from a distance by sensing infrared
radiation
• Bimetallic Strip Thermometers
– Use two metals with different expansion rates
– Common in household thermostats
• Generally, temperature measuring methods can be
divided into 2 categories;
– Non-electrical systems
– Electrical or Radiation systems

• For expansion type of temperature sensor, observation

that in a container (close-system), pressure and volume
increase as temperature increase. The relationship
between temperature, T, pressure, P, and Volume, V,
can be expressed as;
• PV ∝ T
• PV = kT, where k is a constant.
 A. Non-electrical systems

• The non-electrical systems are based on one of

the following principles;
– change in volume of liquid when its temperature is
changed: Liquid-in-glass Thermometers
– change in pressure of a gas when its temperature is
changed: liquid vapour system/vapour-
pressure system
– change in vapour pressure when the temperature is
changed: gas filled
– change in dimensions of a solid when its temperature
is changed: Bimetallic Element
 B. Electrical or Radiation systems

• The electrical systems are based on one of the

following principles;
• The Seebeck Effect (thermocouples).
• Change in resistance of materials as their
temperature is changed: RTD
• The radiated energy emitted by an object is a
measure of its temperature Photovoltaic Cell
• The brightness of an object or the energy
radiated at a particular wavelength (in the visible
band) is a measure of its temperature Pyrometer
 Working Principle of Thermometers

• Basic Principle
– Measure temperature by sensing the heat
produced by an object or environment
– Conversion of thermal energy into a readable
value
1. liquid filled ( mercury excluded)
• These systems operate
on the principle that the
temperature signal is
generated by and
proportional to a
volume change in the
bulb. They often are
referred to as liquid
expansion type.
 2. liquid vapour system/vapour-
pressure system
• This systems utilises the vapour pressure of a
volatile fill liquid as a pressure source to
actuate the element. The system pressure will
always be that occurring at the liquid-vapour
interface. No compensation is necessary in
vapour-pressure type systems.
• This system designed
for bulb placement in a
process whose
temperature is always
below the case ambient
temperature.
 3. Gas filled type

• This system is defined by SAMA as "a thermal

system filled with a gas and operating on the
principle of pressure change with temperature
change". The system is usually compensated for
ambient temperature effects in one of the two
ways :
• Class IIIA: With a second thermal system minus
the bulb, or an equivalent means of
compensation.
• Class IIIB .With compensation means within the
case only
 4. Bimetallic Element

• The term “thermostatic bimetal” is defined as a

composite material, made up of 2 or more different
metals fastened together, which, because of the
different expansion rates of the components, tends to
change its curvature when subjected to change in
temperature.
•
• There are 3 types of most commonly used in
thermometers;
• flat spiral
• single helix
• multiple helix
flat spiral single helix multiple helix
• Bimetal strips are fabricated from 2 strips of
different metals with different coefficients of
thermal expansion, bonded together to form a
cantilever. Typical metals are Invar and brass.
See the following figure
 Contact Sensors
• Thermocouples
• - Made of two different metals joined at one end
• - Produce a voltage correlated to temperature difference

• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

• - Use the resistance of metals, usually platinum, to measure
temperature
• - Highly accurate and stable

• Thermistors
• - Made of ceramic or polymer materials
• - Resistance decreases with increasing temperature
• - Suitable for a wide range of temperatures
 Non-Contact Sensors
• Infrared Sensors
• - Measure the thermal radiation emitted by an
object
• - Ideal for measuring moving objects or in
hazardous environments

• Pyrometers
• - Measure high temperatures from a distance
• - Used in industries like metallurgy and glass
manufacturing
 Semiconductor Sensors
• Integrated Circuit (IC) Sensors
• - Small, low-cost, and easy to use
• - Often used in consumer electronics
 Applications of Temperature Sensors
• Industrial Applications
• - Process control, monitoring equipment

• Medical Applications
• - Patient monitoring, medical diagnostics

• Consumer Electronics
• - Overheat protection in appliances, temperature
regulation in HVAC systems
1. THERMOMETRY BASED ON THERMAL
EXPANSION
 1. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

• Mercury Thermometers
– Use mercury in a glass tube
– Mercury expands and contracts with temperature
changes
– Precise but potentially hazardous
• Basic Principle
– Regulate temperature by switching heating or
cooling devices on or off
– Maintain a desired setpoint temperature
• The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical
temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of
two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or
aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-
metallic strip. The different linear expansion rates of
the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical
bending movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
• The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical
switch or as a mechanical way of operating an
electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used
extensively to control hot water heating elements in
boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in
vehicle radiator cooling systems.
• The two metals typically used are steel and copper, but
steel and brass can also be used. Since their thermal
expansion is different, the length of these metals changes
at different rates for the same temperature. Due to this
property, when the temperature changes, the metal strip at
one side expands and the other does not, which creates a
bending effect.
• When the temperature rises, the strip will turn in the
direction of metal with the lower temperature coefficient.
When the temperature decreases, the strip bends in the
direction of metal having a higher temperature coefficient.
The deflection of the strip indicates the temperature
variation. This bending motion is connected to the dial on
the thermometer, outputting the media’s temperature.
Calibration is an important step to ensure the correct
temperature reading.
The Bi-metallic Thermostat
 Advantages of bimetallic
thermometers
• The advantages of bimetallic thermometers
include:
• Simple and robust design
• Less expensive than other thermometers
• They are fully mechanical and do not require any
power source to operate.
• Easy installation and maintenance
• Nearly linear response to temperature change
• Suitable for wide temperature ranges
 Disadvantages
• They are not advised to use for very high
temperatures.
• They may require frequent calibration.
• May not give an accurate reading for low
temperature.
• Calibration is disturbed if roughly handled
 Working Principle of RTDs

• Basic Principle
– RTDs operate on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal changes with temperature.
– Resistance increases with temperature in a
predictable manner.
 Basic Principle

• Temperature-Resistance Relationship
– The electrical resistance of a metal increases with temperature.
– RTDs use this predictable change in resistance to measure
temperature.

RTD Sensing Element

• Materials
– Typically made of pure platinum (Pt100, Pt1000), nickel, or copper.
– Platinum is preferred for its stable and repeatable resistance-
temperature relationship.
• Characteristics
– Resistance increases linearly with temperature for most metals.
– Platinum RTDs have a highly accurate and consistent resistance-
temperature relationship.
Resistance-Temperature Relationship

• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)

– RTDs exhibit a PTC, meaning their resistance increases
with an increase in temperature.
• Equation
– For platinum RTDs:
R(T)=R0(1+αT)
– R(T) is the resistance at temperature T
– R0​ is the resistance at 0°C (e.g., 100 ohms for Pt100)
– α is the temperature coefficient of resistance
(approximately 0.00385/°C for platinum)
 Basic Components of RTDs

• Sensing Element
– Usually made of platinum, nickel, or copper
– Determines the RTD's resistance and temperature characteristics
• Lead Wires
– Connect the sensing element to the measurement device
– Made of high-conductivity materials like copper
• Protective Sheath
– Encases and protects the sensing element and lead wires
– Made of materials like stainless steel, glass, or ceramic
• Insulation
– Ensures electrical isolation between the sensing element and sheath
– Made of materials like mica, ceramic, or glass
 Types of RTDs

• Wire-Wound RTDs
– Constructed with a coil of fine wire
– Typically made of platinum, nickel, or copper
• Thin-Film RTDs
– Made by depositing a thin layer of metal onto a
ceramic substrate
– More compact and faster response time
 Thin-Film RTD Construction
• Substrate Material
– Usually ceramic for stability
and durability
• Metal Deposition
– Thin layer of platinum or
other metal deposited on
the substrate
– Laser trimming used to
achieve precise resistance
• Encapsulation
– Protects the thin film from
physical damage and
contamination
 Wire-Wound RTD Construction

• Core Material
– Ceramic or glass core
provides a stable base
• Wire Winding
– Fine wire (usually
platinum) wound around
the core
– Winding technique affects
accuracy and response
time
• Protective Coating
– Protects the wire and core
from environmental
damage
 Measuring Temperature with RTDs

• Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

– Often used to measure the small changes in
resistance.
– Balances the RTD's resistance against known
resistances to detect temperature changes.
• Constant Current Source
– Provides a constant current to the RTD.
– The voltage drop across the RTD is measured and
converted to temperature.
 Temperature Range of RTDs

• General Range
– Typically range from -200°C to +850°C.
– Specific range depends on the material and
construction of the RTD.
 Materials Used in RTDs

• Platinum
– Most common material used in RTDs
– High stability and linearity
– Wide temperature range (-200°C to +850°C)
• Nickel
– Less expensive than platinum
– Limited temperature range and stability
• Copper
– Excellent conductivity
– Limited to lower temperature ranges
 Temperature Range of RTDs

• General Range
– Typically range from -200°C to +850°C.
– Specific range depends on the material and
construction of the RTD.
Cable compensation arrangement in
RTD
 Principle of Operation

• When two dissimilar metals are connected together, a small voltage

called a thermo-junction voltage is generated at the junction. This is
called the Peltier effect.
• If the temperature of the junction changes, it causes voltage to
change too, which can be measured by the input circuits of an
electronic controller. The output is a voltage proportional to the
temperature difference between the junction and the free ends.
This is called the Thompson effect.
• Both of these effects can be combined to measure temperature. By
holding one junction at a known temperature (reference junction)
and measuring the voltage, the temperature at the sensing junction
can be deduced. The voltage generated is directly proportional to
the temperature difference. The combined effect is known as
the thermo-junction effect or the Seebeck effect.
 Working Principle of Thermocouples

• Seebeck Effect
– When two different metals are joined at two
junctions, an electromotive force (EMF) is
generated if there is a temperature difference
between the junctions.
– The generated EMF is proportional to the
temperature difference and can be measured to
determine temperature.
The principle of operation is on the Seebeck effect. A temperature
gradient along a conductor creates an EMF. If two conductors of
different materials are joined at one point, an EMF is created
between the open ends which is dependent upon the temperature of
the junction. As T1 increases, so does V. The EMF also depends on
the temperature of the open ends T2.

( is the Seebeck coefficient for small delta T)

The junction is placed in the process, the other end

is in iced water at 0C. This is called the reference
junction.
 Thermocouple construction
• A thermocouple construction consist of two
conductors, welded together at the
measuring point and insulated from each
other long the length. It will usually have an
outer protection sheath.
• Three basic type: J, K & T type
Laws of thermoelectric circuits
1. Law of homogeneous materials:
• Principle: A
thermoelectric current
cannot be sustained in a
circuit of a single
homogeneous material by
the application of heat
alone, irrespective of how
it varies in cross-section.
• Implication:
Thermocouples require
two different metals to
generate a thermoelectric
effect.
 2. Law of intermediate materials
• Principle: The algebraic sum
of the thermoelectric forces
in a circuit composed of any
number of dissimilar
materials is zero if all
junctions are at a uniform
temperature.
• Implication: Additional
materials can be introduced
into the circuit without
affecting the measurement,
provided they are at the
same temperature as the
junctions.
 3. Law of successive or intermediate
temperatures
• Principle: If a thermoelectric
circuit produces an EMF when
its junctions are at
temperatures T1 and T2, it will
produce the same EMF if one
of the junctions is at T3 and
the other is at (T1 + T2 - T3).
• Implication: Allows for
temperature measurement
over a range of temperatures
by comparing known and
unknown temperatures.
.
 Cold junction compensation for
thermocouples
• When accurate thermocouple measurements are
required, it is common practice to reference both
legs to copper lead wire at the ice point so that
copper leads may be connected to the emf
readout instrument due to the cold junction. This
procedure avoids the generation of thermal emfs
at the terminals of the readout instrument.
Changes in reference junction temperature
influence the output signal and practical
instruments must be provided with a means to
cancel this potential source of error.
 1. Cold junction in ice-bath

By its nature, a thermocouple

junction does not generate any
thermovoltage when it is in
0°C (32°F) temperature. So,
make the cold junction at that
temperature, for example in an
ice-bath or an accurate
temperature block.
Connect the thermocouple
wires into copper wires in the ice
bath, and there is no
thermovoltage generated in that
connection.
 2. Cold junction in a known, fixed
temperature
Since the ice-bath was found
to be impractical, the cold
junction connection in some
other known, fixed
temperature. One can use
small connection box that has a
temperature control keeping the
box always at a certain
temperature. Typically, the
temperature is higher than
environment temperature, so the
box needs only heating, not
cooling.
 3. Measure the temperature of the
cold junction
One can measure the
temperature of the cold
junction with a temperature
probe. But in this case to
measure the cold junction
temperature all the time,
and knowing thermocouple
type, make calculations to
know the effect of the cold
junction.
4. Automatic on-line compensation in
the measuring device
The temperature of the cold
junction all the time and
automatically perform an
on-line compensation of the
cold junction error. Since the
measuring device also
knows the thermocouple
type it can make the
compensation automatically
and continuously.
 Standard Thermocouple Types
1. Iron-Constantan: Iron-Constantan (Type J,
color coded white and red) generates about
50 µV/°C (28 µV/°F). The Iron wire is
magnetic. Junctions can be made by welding
or soldering, using commonly available
solders and fluxes. Iron-Constantan
thermocouples can generate a galvanic EMF
between the two wires and should not be
used in applications where they might get
wet.
2. Chromel Alumel: Chromel-Alumel (Type K, color
coded yellow and red) generates about 40
µV/°C (22 µV/°F). The Alumel wire is magnetic.
Junctions can be made by welding or soldering,
but high temperature silver-solders and special
fluxes must be used. Chromel-Alumel
thermocouples generate electrical signals,
while the wires are being bent, and should not
be used on vibrating systems, unless strain
relief loops can be provided.
3. Copper-Constantan: Copper-Constantan (Type
T, color coded blue and red) generates about
40 µV/°C (22 µV/°F). Neither wire is magnetic.
Junctions can be made by welding or soldering
with commonly available solders and fluxes.
Copper-Constantan thermocouples are very
susceptible to conduction error, due to the high
thermal conductivity of the copper, and should
not be used unless long runs of wire (100 to 200
wire diameters) can be laid along an isotherm.
Temperature Range
Temperature material Vs output
voltage
 Selection criteria of Thermocouple
1. Temperature-emf relationship
2. Temperature range of use
3. Diameters of wires available,
4. Melting point Effects of environment on thermoelectric and
mechanical properties
5. Chemical properties and behavior Mechanical properties
6. Specific heat
7. Density
8. Thermal conductivity
9. Thermal coefficient of expansion Emissivity, spectral and total, of
bright and oxidized surfaces
10. Electrical resistivity
11. Temperature coefficient of resistance and magnetic properties.
 Why do thermocouples need to be
calibrated?
• It is important to note that the thermocouple voltage is not generated at the
“hot junction” where the two metals are joined (T1), but rather along the
entire length (from T1 to T2) that the wires are exposed to in a temperature
gradient. The temperature difference of the junctions and the measurement
voltage is only correct if each wire of the thermocouple is homogeneous
(uniform in composition).
• As a thermocouple is used in an industrial setting, the conductor wires can lose
homogeneity through heat, chemical exposure, or mechanical damage
• If the inhomogeneous section of a thermocouple circuit is exposed to a
temperature gradient, the measured voltage will differ, resulting in error.
Therefore, thermocouples should be checked periodically and calibrated to
ensure they are measuring correctly.
• Base metal thermocouples (types E, J, K, N, and T) often
develop “inhomogeneities” when used above 200 ºC.
Heating these thermo couples in a furnace will further alter
the wire, or moving them will change the temperature
gradient. Both will lead to calibration errors. In these cases,
“in situ” (on-site) calibration is required. This is done by
inserting a reference thermometer alongside the
thermocouple being calibrated and comparing the
readings.
• Noble metal thermocouples (types B, R, and S) can also
suffer from inhomogeneities, but the effects are small
(about 0.3 ºC) so they can be effectively calibrated.
• Base metal thermocouples used only at temperatures
below 200 °C (Type K below 120 °C)
 TYPE K VS TYPE R OR S
THERMOCOUPLE
Throughout history, a Type K thermocouple has been used in an area which was thought of as being “non critical”. The
Type R or S thermocouples (platinum-rhodium) have been used in the past in “control” areas.
The reasons for these uses include: Type K thermocouples,
1. Are less stable and less accurate. (The reasons for the instability in Type K thermocouples are due to some
inherent properties in the chromel/alumel material. )
2. They easily attainable, however, and widely accepted in all industries.
3. Range ordering: It occurs in a temperature range of about 500°F to 1020°F when nickel and chromium atoms in
the chromel leg tend to form an ordered crystalline structure. The ordering produces a different metallurgical
structure and if a temperature gradient exists, an erroneous EMF is produced.(false reading at high
temperature)
4. The hysteresis effect that occurs when a Type K thermocouple is cycled up and down in temperatures above
and below 1800°F.
5. A cumulative drift after a period of time at temperatures above 1650°F.
6. This thermocouple experiences a physical defect called “green rot” which is caused due to preferential
oxidation of the chromel leg.
7. Type K thermocouples, they are widely used and accepted in the brick industry as well as other industries. This
is due to the fact that they are inexpensive.
8. The platinum-rhodium thermocouples (Type R and S) on the other hand have been used as control
thermocouples in the past. They are much more stable than the Type K thermocouples, but much more
expensive also.
9. They can be ten times the expense of a Type K thermocouple.
10. Type R or S thermocouples do, however, after a period of time at elevated temperatures, experience a drift due
to platinum migration. In essence, for temperature measurement in a brick kiln, we have a fairly accurate option
at a high cost versus an unstable and “short life” option at a reasonable cost.
Difference Between Thermostat and
Thermocouple
 Thermistor

Different types of thermistor

 Working Principle of Thermistors

• Basic Principle
– Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors
whose resistance changes with temperature.
– Two main types: NTC (Negative Temperature
Coefficient) and PTC (Positive Temperature
Coefficient).
 Types of Thermistors

• NTC Thermistors
– Resistance decreases as temperature increases.
– Commonly used for temperature sensing and
control.
• PTC Thermistors
– Resistance increases as temperature increases.
– Often used for overcurrent protection and self-
regulating heating elements.
 NTC Thermistors

• Characteristics
– High sensitivity to temperature changes.
– Typically made from ceramic materials like metal
oxides.
• Applications
– Temperature measurement and control in HVAC
systems, automotive, and consumer electronics.
– Inrush current limiting in power supplies.
 PTC Thermistors

• Characteristics
– Low resistance at room temperature, increasing
sharply at a certain threshold temperature.
– Made from polymer materials or doped ceramics.
• Applications
– Overcurrent protection in circuits.
– Self-regulating heating elements in de-icing and
anti-condensation devices.
 Materials Used in Thermistors

• NTC Materials
– Metal oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
and copper oxides.
• PTC Materials
– Polymer-based materials and doped ceramics like
barium titanate.
• Thermistors are extremely sensitive but over a
narrow range of temperatures. The resistance
temperature relation is known to follow the
exponential law. This equation is based on
physics of the solid state of semi-conductors.

• Here β is a constant (very nearly so, but, in

general a function of T) and all temperatures are
in Kelvin, T0 is the ice point temperature and R0
the corresponding resistance of the thermistor.
 Sensitivity of RTD & Thermister
As usual the subscript on R represents the temperature in ◦C.

This thermistor has β = 3917 K and a resistance of 6656 Ω at 0◦C.

On comparing the corresponding numbers for a standard
Platinum resistance element.
For PT100,

• For PT100
• This clearly shows that the thermistor is extremely sensitive in
comparison with a RTD. However the highly non-linear
response of the thermistor is an undesirable quality and
makes it useful over small ranges.
 Temperature measurement using
Thermistor
Thermistor temperature sensing involves essentially the
measurement of the resistance of the thermistor at its
temperature. This is invariably done by converting
the resistance to a voltage and measuring it.
• The first one is a full bridge
circuit shown in Figure (a). The
bridge consists of three equal
resistances R1 − R3 in the
three arms of the bridge and
the thermistor (Rt) in the
fourth arm (note the symbol
used for a thermistor). The
bridge is in balance at a
particular temperature when
Rt = R3. This is usually chosen
as the mid value such as
t=25◦C. At any other
temperature the bridge goes
out of balance, develops a
voltage which is measured by
the voltmeter connected as
shown in thefigure.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages
– High sensitivity and precision.
– Small size and rapid response time.
– Cost-effective.
• Disadvantages
– Non-linear response.
– Limited temperature range compared to other
sensors like RTDs and thermocouples.
 Comparison RTD & Thermocouple
RTD Thermocouple
Cost Although cost of RTDs is thermocouples generally continue
trending downward, to be less expensive.
Accuracy Better , No reference junction Moderate, the measuring junction
is required and the cold or reference junction
Ruggedness Less More
temperature −200 to 650◦C Extends to about 1150◦C
range
Repeatability Higher with platinum Comparatively less
Stability High Less than for the RTD
Output Voltage 1-6 V in mv
Calibration Frequently not required Frequently required
Mounting cost less high
Compensation Not required Required
Linearity Higher lower
Compare RTD & Thermistor
 Compare Thermocouple and
Thermistor
Property Thermocouple Thermistor
Type Active Transducer Passive Transducer
Temperature Range -185 to 1500 c -100 to 360 c
Sources of errors Stray voltage pick ups High excitation current resulting in
self heating
Temperature Variation in High resistance resulting in noise
extension leads pick ups
Precautions Cold Junction Compensation Low Excitation Currents
is needed
Amplification of signals are Need of Shielded power line,
mandatory filters
Located away from frame Restricted temperature range
path excellence
Sensitivity Excellent Good
Applications Wide range of application In process Instrumentation
industries.
 Types of Pyrometers

• Optical Pyrometers:
– Measure temperature by comparing the radiation from an
object to a reference source.
– Examples: Radiation pyrometers, optical digital
pyrometers.
• Infrared Pyrometers:
– Measure temperature based on the infrared radiation
emitted by the object.
– Examples: Non-contact infrared thermometers.
• Thermoelectric Pyrometers:
– Use thermoelectric sensors to measure temperature by
generating a voltage proportional to temperature.
 Optical pyrometer( Disappearing
filament Type)
• Basic Principle of optical pyrometer:
The principle of temperature measurement by brightness
comparision is used in optical pyrometer. A colour variation
with the growth in temperature is taken as an index of
temperature.

• This optical pyrometer compares the brightness of image

produced by temperature source with that of reference
temperature lamp. The current in the lamp is adjusted until
the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of the
image produced by the temperature source. Since the
intensity of light of any wave length depends on the
temperature of the radiating object, the current passing
through the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature
of the temperature source when calibrated.
1. An eye piece at one end and an objective lens at the other
end.
2. A power source (battery), rheostat and millivoltmeter (to
measure current) connected to a reference temperature
bulb.
3. An absorption screen is placed in between the objective
lens and reference temperature lamp.
4. The absorption screen is used to increase the range of the
temperature which can be measured by the instrument.
5. The red filter between the eye piece and the lamp allows
only a narrow band of wavelength of around 0.65µ
Disappearing Filament pyrometer
• The pyrometer consists of collection optics (basically a
telescope) to gather radiation coming from the target
whose temperature is to be estimated.
• The radiation then passes through an aperture (to
reduce the effect of stray radiation), a neutral density
or gray filter (to adjust the range of temperature) and is
brought to focus in a plane that also contains a source
(tungsten filament standard) whose temperature may
be varied by varying the current through it.
• The radiation from the target and the reference then
passes through a red filter and is viewed by an
observer
• If the adjustment is such that the filament temperature is greater than the
target brightness temperature the setting is referred to as “high”. The
filament appears as a bright object in a dull background (“High”).
• If the adjustment is such that the filament temperature is lower than the
target brightness temperature the setting is referred to as “Low”. The
filament appears as a dull object in a bright background (“Low”).
• If the adjustment is such that the filament temperature is equal to the
target brightness temperature the setting is referred to as “Correct”. The
filament and the target are indistinguishable (“Correct”).
• Thus the adjustment is a null adjustment. The filament vanishes from the
view! The temperature of the filament is in deed the brightness
temperature of the object.
• Hence the observer should control the lamp
current until the filament and the temperature
source have the same brightness which will be
noticed when the filament disappears as in
figure (c) in the superimposed image of the
temperature source [ that is the brightness of
the lamp and the temperature source are same].
At the instance, the current flowing through
the lamp which is indicated by the millivoltmeter
connected to the lamp becomes a measure
of the temperature of the temperature source
when calibrated.
 Applications of optical pyrometer:
1. Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of molten metals or
heated materials.
2. Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of furnace and hot bodies.

Advantages of optical pyrometer:

1. Physical contact of the instrument is not required to measure temperature of the

temperature source.
2. Accuracy is high + or – 5’C.
3. Provided a proper sized image of the temperature source is obtained in the
instrument, the distance between the instrument and the temperature source
doesnot matter.
4. The instrument is easy to operate.

Limitations of the Optical pyrometer:

Temperature of more than 700’C can only be measured since illumination of the
temperature source is a must for measurement.
Since it is manually operated, it cannot be used for the continuous monitoring and
controlling purpose
Principle of Operation
Photoelectric Pyrometer
• Majorly photoelectric pyrometer based on
photovoltaic effect same as in solar cell.
• In simple term quantum of light striking on the
surface of a semiconductor excites an electron in
the material from a valence band to conduction
band
• Normally excited electron and positive holes will
recombine within a short time and the energy
comes out as heat
• Silicon is universally used material for
photovoltaic parameters
IC temperature Sensor
• Semiconductor temperature sensors are
the devices which come in the form of
integrated circuits i.e. ICs hence,
popularly known as IC temperature
sensors. These are the electronic devices
manufactured in an identical fashion to
present-day electronic semiconductor
devices like microprocessors.
• More than thousands of devices can be
fabricated upon thin silicon wafers. A
whole new range of semiconductor
temperature sensors is arriving from
different manufacturers. However, the
most popular ones include AD590 and
the LM35
IC Temperature Sensor
• Integrated chip temperature sensors are available to cover
a range of temperatures from -55 to +150 ◦C. They are fairly
linear with a response of 1 μA/K, for a typical
• IC AD 590 series available from Analog Devices. Alternately
LM 135 series of IC temperature sensor from National
Semiconductors may be used.
• This IC operates as a two terminal Zener with breakdown
voltage directly proportional to absolute temperature of
+10 mV/K. When calibrated at 25 ◦C it has less than 1◦C
error over a 100◦C range. The output voltage of the sensor
may be represented by
VT = VT0*T/To
• The output of the IC sensor is represented as V
and the subscript represents the temperature.
The reference temperature is usually taken as
25◦C. Calibration of the sensor is done by
connecting a 10 kΩ potentiometer and with the
arm tied to the adjustment terminal of the IC.
• The calibration is done at the single temperature
of 25◦C at which the output should be
2.982 V (= 298.2 K ×10mV/K)
 Principle
• “Their design results from the fact that
semiconductor diodes have temperature-
sensitive voltage vs. current characteristics.
When two identical transistors are operated at
a constant ratio of collector current densities,
the difference in base-emitter voltages is
directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.”
Major characteristics of semiconductor
thermometers
• They provide reasonably linear output.
• They are available in moderately small sizes
• They are not capable enough to measure high
temperatures. Their temperature range is typically
limited between -40 to +120°C.
• They give fairly accurate temperature readings if
properly calibrated.
• They offer very small interchangeability.
• Semiconductor temperature sensors are not suitably
designed for making well thermal contact with
external surfaces.
• Use of these temperature sensors enables simple
interfacing with other electronic devices like
amplifiers, regulators, Digital signal processors, and
microcontrollers etc.
• These types of temperature sensors are considered
ideal for embedded applications where they are
installed within the equipment itself.
• Unlike other temperature sensors like thermocouples
and RTDs, their electrical and mechanical
performance is not very robust.
 Types of Semiconductor Sensors
1. Voltage Output Temperature Sensors
2. Current Output Temperature Sensors
3. Digital Output Temperature Sensors
4. Resistance Output Silicon Temperature
Sensors
5. Diode Temperature Sensors
• Voltage Output Temperature Sensors : These
types of sensors usually need a source of
power supply for excitation. They give an
effective linear output in the form of voltage
signals. Besides, they offer quite low output
impedance.
• Current Output Temperature Sensors : As
opposed to voltage output temperature
sensors, the output impedance of these
sensors is very high. They usually function as
constant current regulators which are
designed to pass 1 micro-amp per degree
Kelvin. They also need an input voltage which
can vary between 4 and 30 V.
• Digital Output Temperature Sensors : These
are the foremost sensors designed for the
integration of a sensor and an analog to digital
converter on an IC chip. These sensors don’t
provide standard digital interfaces. Hence,
they can not be employed for measurement
with standard measuring devices. Some of
them are specially fabricated to enable their
use with microprocessors for thermal
management
• Resistance Output Silicon Temperature
Sensors : These are the foremost sensors
designed for the integration of a sensor and
an analog to digital converter on an IC chip.
These sensors don’t provide standard digital
interfaces. Hence, they can not be employed
for measurement with standard measuring
devices. Some of them are specially fabricated
to enable their use with microprocessors for
thermal management
• Diode Temperature Sensors : These sensors are
made up by using regular PN junction diodes. These
are the most inexpensive type of temperature
sensors which are competent enough to provide
very adequate results if constant and steady
excitation current is supplied to them. Also, they
need a two point calibration for satisfactory
operation. An ordinary semiconductor diode
provides a sensibly linear forward biased voltage
whose temperature coefficient is around 2.3mV/°C.
A typical diode temperature sensor is shown in the
figure below.
 Selection Criteria While selecting a
semiconductor temperature sensor
• 1. Select the level of accuracy needed
• 2. Choose the desired range of temperature
• 3. Consider the costing requirements
• 4. Identify the input capabilities of the
measuring devices
 LM35
• The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit
temperature devices with an output voltage linearly
proportional to the Centigrade temperature.
• The LM35 device has an advantage over linear
temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is
not required to subtract a large constant voltage from
the output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling.
• The LM35 device does not require any external
calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of
±¼°C at room temperature and ±¾°C over a full −55°C
to 150°C temperature range.
• Lower cost is assured by trimming and calibration
at the wafer level.
• The low-output impedance, linear output, and
precise inherent calibration of the LM35 device
makes interfacing to readout or control circuitry
especially easy.
• The device is used with single power supplies, or
with plus and minus supplies.
• As the LM35 device draws only 60 μA from the
supply, it has very low self-heating of less than
0.1°C in still air.
• The LM35 device is rated to operate over a −55°C
to 150°C temperature range, while the LM35C
device is rated for a −40°C to 110°C range (−10°
with improved accuracy).
• The LM35-series devices are available packaged
in hermetic TO transistor packages, while the
LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D devices are
available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package.
• The LM35D device is available in an 8-lead
surface-mount small-outline package and a
plastic TO-220 package
 Features
• Calibrated Directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
• Linear + 10-mV/°C Scale Factor • 0.5°C Ensured
Accuracy (at 25°C)
• Rated for Full −55°C to 150°C Range
• Suitable for Remote Applications
• Low-Cost Due to Wafer-Level Trimming • Operates
From 4 V to 30 V
• Less Than 60-μA Current Drain
• Low Self-Heating, 0.08°C in Still Air
• Non-Linearity Only ±¼°C Typical
• Low-Impedance Output, 0.1 Ω for 1-mA Load
 Applications of LM35
• Power Supplies
• Battery Management
• HVAC
• Appliances
• The AD590 is a 2-terminal integrated circuit
temperature trans-ducer that produces an output
current proportional to absolute temperature.
• For supply voltages between 4 V and 30 V, the
device acts as a high impedance, constant current
regulator passing 1 μA/K.
• Laser trimming of the chip’s thin-film resistors is
used to calibrate the device to 298.2 μA output at
298.2 K (25°C).
 Applications
1. temperature measurement,
2. temperature compensation or correction of
discrete components,
3. biasing proportional to absolute
temperature, flow rate measure-ment,
4. level detection of fluids and anemometry
5. in remote sensing applications.
 Thermowell
• Definition: A thermowell is a cylindrical fitting used to
protect temperature sensors from harsh environments. OR
• A thermowell is a pressure-tight vessel that safeguards and
increases the lifespan of temperature sensors in processing
plants in cases where a measuring sensor is not otherwise
mechanically or chemically useful in the process
environment. A thermowell is installed directly into piping
systems. Thermowells help in high-pressure pipelines'
sensor replacement by avoiding the need to avoid
disturbing the process flow, or draining the processing
system, for sensor maintenance functions. In addition, the
use of standardized thermowells allows the simple removal
of sensors throughout a plant.
 Why Use Thermowells?

• Protection: Shields sensors from corrosive,

abrasive, and high-pressure environments.
• Ease of Maintenance: Allows for sensor
replacement without halting operations.
• Accuracy: Ensures accurate temperature
measurement by minimizing sensor exposure
to the environment.
• Thermowells safeguard sensors from corrosive
forces.
Insertion of thermowell
 Components of a Thermowell

• Stem: The long tube

inserted into the process
fluid.
• Shank: The transition
between the stem and the
flange or threaded fitting.
• Process Connection: The
point of attachment to the
process equipment, often
threaded or flanged.
• Bore: The hollow interior
where the temperature
sensor is placed.
 Thermowell Types

1. Threaded Thermowells: Screwed into the

process equipment.
2. Flanged Thermowells: Attached to the
process equipment using a flange.
3. Weld-in Thermowells: Welded directly to the
process vessel or pipe.
 Thermowell Applications

1. The petrochemical, food processing, refinery,

cosmetics, chemicals, power generation,
pharmaceutical industries are only a few of the
industrial fields where thermowells are used.
2. Thermowells protect their equipment from
external forces and disturbances, including
pressure, abrasion, vibration, and corrosion, that
the medium being processed may bring. In
addition, thermowell-protected sensors can be
taken out and replaced without damaging the
manufacturing environment in any other way.
 Advantages of Thermowells

1. Thermowells provide an invaluable service by enhancing the process of

measuring temperature in several ways.
2. Longevity: The temperature sensor will live significantly longer with thermowells
than without them since they bear the brunt of these deteriorating impacts.
3. Sensor Replacement Cost Analysis: The protection provided by a thermowell
would obviously be more beneficial if the sensors are pricey or their procedure
of use is demanding.
4. Labor Costs: It will cost labor to replace temperature sensors continually.
Remember that the sensors will ultimately need to be replaced. Sensor
replacement is easy when thermocouples and RTDs are inserted into a
thermowell.
5. No Shut-Downs: The operational advantage of having the temperature-
monitoring process entirely independent from the temperature sensor is one of
the thermowells' benefits that is hard to ignore. A temperature sensor will
eventually need to be taken out and replaced. The thermowell will contain the
process if this occurs. Therefore, other than a process temperature not being
detected during the swap, removing the sensor has no impact on an operation.
 Disadvantages of Thermowells
1. Thermowells require precise engineering to work and that is one of
thermowells' most notable and costliest drawbacks.
2. Thermowells are employed in processes that use aggressive media and
this material is potentially harmful to both person and product if there is
a leak or if anything escapes a pipe.
3. Thermowells are designed following acknowledged standards that
correspond to established process conditions.
4. When working with gas or oil, for example, assumptions are made about
what, exactly, is coming from the source material. However, these
assumptions might alter over time owing to various external
circumstances. For example, organizations might need to be made aware
that sand is being accidentally taken into a piping system, which would
begin degrading the thermowell because it's happening beneath the
surface of the pipe.
5. The sensor being housed by a thermowell can’t always determine or
measure “what” material is flowing through. This might lead to
catastrophic collapse.
6. The other disadvantage of thermowells is that certain types of
thermowells only pair with certain sensors.
 Questions :

1. What are the types of thermowell? Explain in brief

2. What are the basic components of thermowell? Explain with its
schematic
3. Why to use thermowell
4. What are the compensation techniques in thermocouple?
5. Compare RTD and Thermocouple on various parameters.
6. Explain the noncontact temperature measurement device based
on change in colors
7. Suggest the conditions for use of noncontact temperature
measurement
8. List out the types of thermocouple based on temp[erature ranges,
material and applications
9. Explain the use of LM35 in diy applications
10. What are the different type of semiconductor sensors?