A load cell converts a force such as tension, compression, pressure, or torque into a

signal (electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or mechanical displacement

indicator) that can be measured and standardized. It is a force transducer. As the force
applied to the load cell increases, the signal changes proportionally. The most common
types of load cells are pneumatic, hydraulic, and strain gauge types for industrial
applications. Typical non-electronic bathroom scales are a widespread example of a
mechanical displacement indicator where the applied weight (force) is indicated by
measuring the deflection of springs supporting the load platform, technically a "load
cell".

Strain gauge load cell

[edit]
Strain gauge load cells are the kind most often found in industrial settings. It is ideal as
it is highly accurate, versatile, and cost-effective. Structurally, a load cell has a metal
body to which strain gauges have been secured. The body is usually made of
aluminum, alloy steel, or stainless steel which makes it very sturdy but also minimally
elastic. This elasticity gives rise to the term "spring element", referring to the body of the
load cell. When force is exerted on the load cell, the spring element is slightly deformed,
and unless overloaded, always returns to its original shape. As the spring element
deforms, the strain gauges also change shape. The resulting alteration to the resistance
in the strain gauges can be measured as voltage. The change in voltage is proportional
to the amount of force applied to the cell, so the amount of force can be calculated from
the load cell's output.

Strain Gauges
[edit]

A strain gauge is constructed of very fine wire, or foil, set up in a grid pattern and
attached to a flexible backing. When the shape of the strain gauge is altered, a change
in its electrical resistance occurs. The wire or foil in the strain gauge is arranged in a
way that, when force is applied in one direction, a linear change in resistance results.
Tension force stretches a strain gauge, causing it to get thinner and longer, resulting in
an increase in resistance. Compression force does the opposite. The strain gauge
compresses, becomes thicker and shorter, and resistance decreases. The strain gauge
is attached to a flexible backing enabling it to be easily applied to a load cell, mirroring
the minute changes to be measured.

Since the change in resistance measured by a single strain gauge is extremely small, it
is difficult to accurately measure changes. Increasing the number of strain gauges
applied collectively magnifies these small changes into something more measurable. A
set of 4 strain gauges set in a specific circuit is an application of a Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone Bridge
[edit]
A Wheatstone bridge is a configuration of four balanced resistors with a known
excitation voltage applied as shown below:

Excitation voltage is a known constant and output voltage is variable depending on the
shape of the strain gauges. If all resistors are balanced, meaning then is zero. If the
resistance in even one of the resistors changes, then will likewise change. The change
in can be measured and interpreted using Ohm's law. Ohm's law states that the current
(, measured in amperes) running through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. Resistance (, measured in ohms) is
introduced as the constant in this relationship, independent of the current. Ohm's law is
expressed in the equation .

When applied to the 4 legs of the Wheatstone bridge circuit, the resulting equation is:
 Diagram of strain gauge load cell with force applied showing
location of strain gauges
In a load cell, the resistors are replaced with strain gauges and arranged in alternating
tension and compression formation. When force is exerted on the load cell, the structure
and resistance of the strain gauges changes and is measured. From the resulting
data, can be easily determined using the equation above.[1]

Common types of strain gauge load cells

[edit]
There are several types of strain gauge load cells:[2]

 Single Point load cells; used in small to medium platform scales with platform sizes
of 200x200mm up to 1200x1200 mm.
 Planar Beam load cells; used in low profile solutions where space is limited, like
medical scales and retail scales.
 Bending Beam load cells; used in pallet, platform and small hopper scales.
 Shear Beam load cells; used in low profile scale and process applications, available
in capacities from 100kg up to 50t.
 Dual Shear Beam load cells; used in truck scales, tank and hopper applications.
 S-type load cells; used in tension applications where you will find static and dynamic
loads.
 Compression load cells; used in truck scales, large platform scales, weighbridges
and hopper scales.
 Ring Torsion load cells; used in high accuracy hoppers, silos, platforms and pallet
scales.
 Spoke Type load cells; used in low profile, high precision application. High forces
varying from 1t-500t.
 Onboard load cells; used for onboard weighing systems on trucks, tractors and other
vehicles.
 Loadpins; used in applications for measuring dynamic, static or hoisting forces.
 Weighpads; portable weighpads for the weighing of cars and to measure the center
of gravity of planes.
 Specials; various types of special sensors.
Capacitive load cell
[edit]
The digital capacitive technology is based on a non-contacting ceramic sensor mounted
inside the load cell body. As the load cell contains no moving parts and the ceramic
sensor is not in contact with the load cell body, the load cell tolerates very high
overloads (up to 1000%), sideloads, torsion, and stray welding voltages.[3] This allows
for simple installation of the load cells without expensive and complicated mounting kits,
stay rods, or overload protection devices, which in turn eliminates the need for
maintenance.

The Basic Difference from Strain Gauge Load Cells

[edit]
Capacitive and strain gauge load cells both rely on an elastic element that is deformed
by the load to be measured. The material used for the elastic element is normally
aluminum or stainless steel for load cells used in corrosive industrial applications. A
strain gauge sensor measures the deformation of the elastic element, and the output of
the sensor is converted by an electronic circuit to a signal that represents the load.
Capacitive strain gauges measure the deformation of the elastic material using the
change in capacitance of two plates as the plates move closer to each other.

Capacitive sensors have a high sensitivity compared to strain gauges. Because of the
much higher sensitivity, a much lower deformation of the elastic element is needed, and
the elastic element of a capacitive load cell is therefore strained around 5 to 10 times
lower than the elastic element of a strain gauge load cell. The low strained element
combined with the fact that a capacitive sensor is non-contacting, provides the very high
shock resistance and overload capability of the capacitive load cell compared to the
strain gage load cell. This is an obvious advantage in industrial environments and
especially for the lower capacity load cells where the risk of damage because of shocks
and overloads is high.

Connectivity of capacitive load cells

[edit]
In a standard analog strain gauge load cell, the power supply and the low-level analog
signal are normally conducted through a rather expensive 6-wire cable to the
instrumentation where the analog signal is converted to a digital signal. Instead, digital
capacitive load cells transmit the digital signal back to the instrumentation which may be
placed several hundred meters away without influencing the reading.

Pneumatic load cell

[edit]
The pneumatic load cell is designed to automatically regulate the balancing pressure.
Air pressure is applied to one end of the diaphragm and it escapes through the nozzle
placed at the bottom of the load cell. A pressure gauge is attached to the load cell to
measure the pressure inside the cell. The deflection of the diaphragm affects the airflow
through the nozzle as well as the pressure inside the chamber.
Hydraulic load cell
[edit]
The hydraulic load cell uses a conventional piston and cylinder arrangement with the
piston placed in a thin elastic diaphragm. The piston doesn't actually come in contact
with the load cell. Mechanical stops are placed to prevent overstrain of the diaphragm
when the loads exceed a certain limit. The load cell is completely filled with oil. When
the load is applied on the piston, the movement of the piston and the diaphragm results
in an increase of oil pressure. This pressure is then transmitted to a hydraulic pressure
gauge via a high pressure hose.[4] The gauge's Bourdon tube senses the pressure and
registers it on the dial. Because this sensor has no electrical components, it is ideal for
use in hazardous areas.[5] Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin, and
hopper weighing.[6] By example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages
(lightning) so these type of load cells might be a more effective device in outdoor
environments. This technology is more expensive than other types of load cells. It is a
more costly technology and thus cannot effectively compete on a cost of purchase
basis.[7]

Other types
[edit]
Vibrating load cell
[edit]
Vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low
amounts of drift,

Capacitive load cell

[edit]
Capacitive load cells are load cells where the capacitance of a capacitor changes as the
load presses the two plates of a capacitor closer together. Capacitive load cells are
resistant to lateral forces when compared to strain gauge load cells.

Piezoelectric load cell

[edit]
Piezoelectric load cells work on the same principle of deformation as the strain gauge
load cells, but a voltage output is generated by the basic piezoelectric material –
proportional to the deformation of load cell. Useful for dynamic/frequent measurements
of force. Most applications for piezo-based load cells are in the dynamic loading
conditions, where strain gauge load cells can fail with high dynamic loading cycles. The
piezoelectric effect is dynamic, that is, the electrical output of a gauge is an impulse
function and is not static. The voltage output is only useful when the strain is changing
and does not measure static values.
However, depending on conditioning system used, "quasi static" operation can be done.
Using a charge amplifier with a long time constant allows accurate measurement lasting
many minutes for small loads up to many hours for large loads. Another advantage of
Piezoelectric load cells conditioned with a charge amplifier is the wide measuring range
that can be achieved. Users can choose a load cell with a range of hundred of
kilonewtons and use it for measuring few newtons of force with the same signal-to-noise
ratio; again this is possible only with the use of a charge amplifier for conditioning.

Common issues
[edit]

 Mechanical mounting: the cells have to be properly mounted. All the load force has
to go through the part of the load cell where its deformation is sensed. Friction may
induce offset or hysteresis. Wrong mounting may result in the cell reporting forces
along undesired axis, which still may somewhat correlate to the sensed load,
confusing the technician.
 Overload: Within its rating, the load cell deforms elastically and returns to its shape
after being unloaded. If subjected to loads above its maximum rating, the material of
the load cell may plastically deform; this may result in a signal offset, loss of
linearity, difficulty with or impossibility of calibration, or even mechanical damage to
the sensing element (e.g. delamination, rupture). Capacitive load cells compared to
strain gauges are more resistant to overloads, due to their contactless measuring
principle.
 Wiring issues: the wires to the cell may develop high resistance, e.g. due to
corrosion. Alternatively, parallel current paths can be formed by ingress of moisture.
In both cases the signal develops offset (unless all wires are affected equally) and
accuracy is lost.
 Electrical damage: the load cells can be damaged by induced or conducted
current. Lightning hitting the construction, or arc welding performed near the cells,
[8]
can overstress the fine resistors of the strain gauges and cause their damage or
destruction. For welding nearby, it is suggested to disconnect the load cell and short
all its pins to the ground, nearby the cell itself. High voltages can break through the
insulation between the substrate and the strain gauges.
 Nonlinearity: at the low end of their scale, the load cells tend to be nonlinear. This
becomes important for cells sensing very large ranges, or with large surplus of load
capability to withstand temporary overloads or shocks (e.g. the rope clamps). More
points may be needed for the calibration curve.
 Particularity of application: A load cell that is not well suited to the specific
magnitude and type of pressure will have poor accuracy, resolution, and reliability.
Excitation and rated output
[edit]
The bridge is excited with stabilized voltage (usually 10V, but can be 20V, 5V, or less
for battery powered instrumentation). The difference voltage proportional to the load
then appears on the signal outputs. The cell output is rated in millivolts per volt (mV/V)
of the difference voltage at full rated mechanical load. So a 2.96 mV/V load cell will
provide 29.6 millivolt signal at full load when excited with 10 volts.

Typical sensitivity values are 1 to 3 mV/V. Typical maximum excitation voltage is around
15 volts.

Wiring
[edit]
The full-bridge cells come typically in four-wire configuration. The wires to the top and
bottom end of the bridge are the excitation (often labelled E+ and E−, or Ex+ and Ex−),
the wires to its sides are the signal (labelled S+ and S−). Ideally, the voltage difference
between S+ and S− is zero under zero load, and grows proportionally to the load cell's
mechanical load.

Sometimes a six-wire configuration is used. The two additional wires are "sense" (Sen+
and Sen−), and are connected to the bridge with the Ex+ and Ex- wires, in a fashion
similar to four-terminal sensing. With these additional signals, the controller can
compensate for the change in wire resistance due to external factors, e.g. temperature
fluctuations.

The individual resistors on the bridge usually have resistance of 350 Ω. Sometimes
other values (typically 120 Ω, 1,000 Ω) can be encountered.

The bridge is typically electrically insulated from the substrate. The sensing elements
are in close proximity and in good mutual thermal contact, to avoid differential signals
caused by temperature differences.

Using multiple cells

[edit]
One or more load cells can be used for sensing a single load.

If the force can be concentrated to a single point (small scale sensing, ropes, tensile
loads, point loads), a single cell can be used. For long beams, two cells at the end are
used. Vertical cylinders can be measured at three points, rectangular objects usually
require four sensors. More sensors are used for large containers or platforms, or very
high loads.

If the loads are guaranteed to be symmetrical, some of the load cells can be substituted
with pivots. This saves the cost of the load cell but can significantly decrease accuracy.

Load cells can be connected in parallel; in that case, all the corresponding signals are
connected together (Ex+ to Ex+, S+ to S+, ...), and the resulting signal is the average of
the signals from all the sensing elements. This is often used in e.g. personal scales, or
other multipoint weight sensors.
The most common color assignment is red for Ex+, black for Ex−, green for S+, and
white for S−.

Less common assignments are red for Ex+, white for Ex−, green for S+, and blue for
S−, or red for Ex+, blue for Ex−, green for S+, and yellow for S−. [9] Other values are also
possible, e.g. red for Ex+, green for Ex−, yellow for S+ and blue for S−. [10]

Ringing
[edit]
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This
stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they
have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior,
exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result
of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means.
Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a
load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in
complexity.

Uses
[edit]
Load cells are used in several types of measuring instruments such as laboratory
balances, industrial scales, platform scales[11] and universal testing machines.[12] From
1993 the British Antarctic Survey installed load cells in glass fibre nests to
weigh albatross chicks.[13] Load cells are used in a wide variety of items such as
the seven-post shaker which is often used to set up race cars. Another common use is
within sim racing, where the advantage of a load cell over a potentiometer is that
simulated braking force is based on the user’s force on the pedal, rather than the
position of the pedal.

Load cells weighing performances

[edit]
Load cells are commonly used to measure weight in an industrial environment. They
can be installed on hoppers, reactors, etc., to control their weight capacity, which is
often of critical importance for an industrial process. Some performance characteristics
of the load cells must be defined and specified to make sure they will cope with the
expected service. Among those design characteristics are:

 Combined error
 Minimum verification interval
 Resolution
 Load cell in the process of being fitted under tank leg

A load cell fitted under a chemical tank

Tank fitted with load cells

Load cell specifications
[edit]
The electrical, physical, and environmental specifications of a load cell help to
determine which applications it is appropriate for. Common specifications include:[14]

 Full-scale output (FSO): Electronic output expressed in mV/V. Measured at full

scale.
 Combined error: percent of the full scale output that represents the maximum
deviation from the straight line drawn between no load and load at rated capacity.
Often measured during decreasing and increasing loads.
 Non-linearity: The maximum deviation of the calibration curve from a straight line
drawn between the rated capacity and zero load. Measured on increasing load and
expressed as percent of full scale output.
 Hysteresis: Maximum difference between load cell output signals for the same
applied load. The first measurement can be obtained by decreasing the load from
rated output and the second by increasing the load from zero.
 Repeatability: Maximum difference between output measurements for repeated
loads under identical conditions. Measured in percent of rated output.
 Zero balance (offset): Output reading of the load cell with rated excitation under no
load. The deviation in output between a true zero measurement and a real load cell
under zero load expressed as a percentage of full scale output.
 Compensated temperate range: The temperature range over which a load cell is
compensated so that it can ensure zero balance & rated output within specified
limits. Expressed as °F or °C.
 Operating temperature range: Temperature range extremes in which a load cell can
operate without permanent, adverse effects on any of its performance
characteristics. Expressed as °F or °C.
 Temperature effect on output: Modification of output readings caused by load cell
temperature. Expressed as percent of full scale output per degree of °F or °C.
 Temperature effect on zero: Change in zero balance caused by ambient
temperature changes. Expressed as percent of full scale output per degree of °F or
°C.
 Input resistance: Input resistance of the load cell's bridge circuit. Measured at the
positive & negative excitation leads with no load applied. Measured in ohms.
 Output resistance: Output resistance of the load cell's bridge circuit. Measured at the
positive & negative excitation leads with no load applied. Measured in ohms.
 Insulation resistance: The resistance measured along pathways between the: bridge
circuit and transducer element, bridge circuit and the cable shield, and the
transducer element and the cable shield. Typically measured at fifty volts under
standard test conditions.
 Recommended excitation: Maximum recommended excitation voltage of the
transducer for it to operate within its specifications. Expressed in VDC.
 Cable length: Length of the standard cable for which the load cell is calibrated.
Cable length affects how the load cell is calibrated.
 Safe overload: The maximum load that can be applied to a load cell without causing
permanent effects to its performance specifications. Measured as a percent of full
scale output.
 Ultimate overload: Maximum load that can be withstood without causing structural
failure.
 Material: Substance that comprises the spring element of the load cell.
Load cell calibration
[edit]
Load cells are an integral part of most weighing systems in industrial, aerospace and
automotive industries, enduring rigorous daily use. Over time, load cells will drift, age
and misalign; therefore, they will need to be calibrated regularly to ensure accurate
results are maintained.[15] ISO9000 and most other standards specify a maximum period
of around 18 months to 2 years between re-calibration procedures, dependent on the
level of load cell deterioration. Annual re-calibration is considered best practice by many
load cell users for ensuring the most accurate measurements.

Standard calibration tests will use linearity and repeatability as a calibration guideline as
these are both used to determine accuracy. Calibration is conducted incrementally
starting working in ascending or descending order. For example, in the case of a 60
tonne load cell, then specific test weights that measure in 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60 tonne
increments may be used; a five step calibration process is usually sufficient for ensuring
a device is accurately calibrated. Repeating this five-step calibration procedure 2-3
times is recommended for consistent results.[16]

See also
[edit]

 Spring scale
 Stretch sensor
References
[edit]

1. ^ "Load Cell and Strain Gauge Basics | Load Cell Central". www.800loadcel.com.
Retrieved 2019-07-29.
2. ^ Full information about types of loadcells available
on https://www.zemiceurope.com/loadcell
3. ^ "Capacitive Load Cell and Strain Gauge Compared | Eilersen
Electric". www.eilersen.com. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
4. ^ DeGlandon, Kathy. "Selectring the Best Hydraulic Pressure Sensor". Drilling
Instruments. Drilling Instruments. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
5. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-02-19.
Retrieved 2015-06-10.
6. ^ "Load Cells – Hydraulic". www.centralcarolinascale.com. Retrieved 2018-03-15.
7. ^ "Emery Winslow Scale Company – Industrial Scales – Hydrostatic Load Cells For
Harsh Environments". www.emerywinslow.com. Retrieved 2018-03-15.
8. ^ https://powderprocess.net/Equipments[permanent dead link] html/Load_cells.html
9. ^ "Load cell system fault finding guide (Application Note: Number
AN1)" (PDF). aicpl.com.
10. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04.
Retrieved 2015-11-29.
11. ^ "2. Where are load cells used? 【Introduction to Load Cells】 A&D". www.aandd.jp.
Retrieved 2018-03-15.
12. ^ "Load cell testing gets straight to the point". Maritime Journal. Mercator Media. 20
December 2010. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011.
13. ^ Highfield, Roger. Antarctic's birds thrive on warmth, The Daily Telegraph 18 August
1993
14. ^ "Understanding Load Cell Specifications". www.800loadcel.com. Retrieved 2019-08-
06.
15. ^ "Control of Monitoring & Measuring Equipment". www.iso-9001-checklist.co.uk.
Retrieved 2018-07-17.
16. ^ "Load Cells: A Beginner's Guide – Measurement Shop
UK". www.measurementshop.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-07-17.