Physic- Chapter 1 summay

Scope of Physics
Physics, which comes from the Greek phusis, meaning “nature,” is concerned with describing the
interactions of energy, matter, space, and time to uncover the fundamental mechanisms that underlie
every phenomenon. This concern for describing the basic phenomena in nature essentially defines the
scope of physics.

Physics aims to understand the world around us at the most basic level. It emphasizes the use of a
small
number of quantitative laws to do this.

The Scale of Physics

Order of magnitude
The order of magnitude of a number is the power of 10 that most closely approximates it. Thus, the
order of
magnitude refers to the scale (or size) of a value.

To find the order of magnitude of a number, take the base-10 logarithm of the number and round it to
the nearest integer, then the order of magnitude of the number is simply the resulting power of 10. For
example, the order of magnitude of 800 is 103 because Log10 800 is 2.903 rounds to 3.

Calculate is Log10 (insert #) = answer 10 or use scientific notation.

Known ranges of length, mass, and time

Building Models
What we refer to as the laws of nature are concise descriptions of the universe around us. They are
human statements of the underlying laws or rules that all natural processes follow.
A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly.
Although
a model is justified by experimental tests, it is only accurate in describing certain aspects of a physical
system.

To a scientist, a theory is a testable explanation for patterns in nature supported by scientific

evidence and verified multiple times by various groups of researchers.
A law uses concise language to describe a generalized pattern in nature supported by scientific
evidence and repeated experiments. Laws and theories are similar in that they are both scientific
statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence.
A theory, in contrast, is a less concise statement of observed behavior. The biggest difference
between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic. A law describes a
single action whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. Less broadly applicable
statements are usually called principles

1.2 Units and Standards

All Physical Quantities Can Be Expressed As Combinations Of Only Seven Base Physical Quantities.

We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by stating how it is

calculated from
other measurements. Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which are
standardized values.
In any system of units, the units for some physical quantities must be defined through a measurement
process.
These are called the base quantities for that system and their units are the system’s base units. All
other
physical quantities can then be expressed as algebraic combinations of the base quantities. Each of
these physical quantities is then known as a derived quantity and each unit is called a derived unit.

Units of Time, Length, and Mass: The Second, Meter, and

Kilogram

The second
The SI unit for time, the second (abbreviated s),
The meter
The SI unit for length is the meter (abbreviated m). The length of the meter will change if the speed of
light is someday measured with greater accuracy.
The kilogram
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (abbreviated kg); The kilogram is measured on a Kibble balance

Metric Prefixes
SI units are part of the metric system, which is convenient for scientific and engineering calculations
because
the units are categorized by factors of 10.
Incidentally, 103 kg is also called a metric ton, abbreviated t. This is one of the units outside the
SI system
considered acceptable for use with SI units.

1.3 Unit Conversion

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Use conversion factors to express the value of a given quantity in different units.

A conversion factor is a ratio that expresses how many of one unit are equal to another unit.
1.4 Dimensional Analysis
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Find the dimensions of a mathematical expression involving physical quantities.
• Determine whether an equation involving physical quantities is dimensionally consistent.

The dimension of any physical quantity expresses its dependence on the base quantities as a product
of
symbols (or powers of symbols) representing the base quantities. Dimensional analysis is the use of
base units to establish the form of an equation, or more often, to check that the answer to a
calculation as a guard against many simple errors

The importance of the concept of dimension arises from the fact that any mathematical equation
relating
physical quantities must be dimensionally consistent, which means the equation must obey the
following
rules:
• Every term in an expression must have the same dimensions; it does not make sense to add or
subtract
quantities of differing dimension (think of the old saying: “You can’t add apples and oranges”).
• The arguments of any of the standard mathematical functions such as trigonometric functions (such
as
sine and cosine), logarithms, or exponential functions that appear in the equation must be
dimensionless.
These functions require pure numbers as inputs and give pure numbers as outputs.

If either of these rules is violated, an equation is not dimensionally consistent and cannot
possibly be a correct statement of physical law.
1.5 Estimates and Fermi Calculations
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Estimate the values of physical quantities.

Strategies in estimating:
 Get big lengths from smaller lengths.
  Get areas and volumes from lengths.
 Get masses from volumes and densities.
 If all else fails, bound it.

Rather, estimation means using prior experience and sound physical reasoning to arrive at a rough
idea of a quantity’s value

Building Models
A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly. Although
a model is justified by experimental tests, it is only accurate in describing certain aspects of a physical system. To a
scientist, a theory is a testable explanation for patterns in nature supported by scientific evidence and verified
multiple times by various groups of researchers.

1.6 Significant Figures

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Determine the correct number of significant figures for the result of a computation.
• Describe the relationship between the concepts of accuracy, precision, uncertainty, and discrepancy.
• Calculate the percent uncertainty of a measurement, given its value and its uncertainty.
• Determine the uncertainty of the result of a computation involving quantities with given
uncertainties.

Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the accepted reference value for that measurement.
The precision of measurements refers to how close the agreement is between repeated independent
measurements (which are repeated under the same conditions).

The precision of a measuring system is related to the uncertainty in the measurements whereas the
accuracy
is related to the discrepancy from the accepted reference value. Discrepancy (or “measurement
error”) is the difference between the measured value and a given standard or expected value.

Some factors that contribute to uncertainty in a measurement include the following:

• Limitations of the measuring device
• The skill of the person taking the measurement
• Irregularities in the object being measured
• Any other factors that affect the outcome (highly dependent on the situation)

Using the method of significant figures, the rule is that the last digit written down in a measurement
is the first digit with some uncertainty.

To determine the number of significant digits in a value, start with the first measured value at the left
and count the number of digits through the last digit written on the right. For example, the measured
value 36.7 cm has three digits, or three significant figures. Significant figures indicate the precision of
the measuring tool used to measure a value.

Zeros
Special consideration is given to zeros when counting significant figures. The zeros in 0.053 are not
significant
because they are placeholders that locate the decimal point. There are two significant figures in 0.053.
The
zeros in 10.053 are not placeholders; they are significant. This number has five significant figures. The
zeros in
1300 may or may not be significant, To avoid this ambiguity, we should write 1300 in scientific
notation as or
depending on whether it has two, three, or four significant figures. Zeros are significant except when
they serve only as placeholders.
Percent uncertainty
Another method of expressing uncertainty is as a percent of the measured value. If a measurement A
is
expressed with uncertainty δA, the percent uncertainty is defined as

Percent uncertainty = δA/A * 100

If the
measurements going into the calculation have small uncertainties (a few percent or less), then the
method of
adding percents can be used for multiplication or division. This method states the percent
uncertainty in a
quantity calculated by multiplication or division is the sum of the percent uncertainties in the items
used to
make the calculation. For example, if a floor has a length of 4.00 m and a width of 3.00 m, with
uncertainties of
2% and 1%, respectively, then the area of the floor is 12.0 m2 and has an uncertainty of 3%.
(Expressed as an
area, this is 0.36 m2 [12.0m2 x 0.03 ], which we round to 0.4 m2 since the area of the floor is given to a
tenth of
a square meter.)
Significant figures in calculations
When combining measurements with different degrees of precision, the number of significant digits in
the
final answer can be no greater than the number of significant digits in the least-precise measured
value

 For multiplication and division, the result should have the same number of significant figures
as the
quantity with the least number of significant figures entering the calculation.

 For addition and subtraction, the answer can contain no more decimal places than the least-
precise
measurement. Eg 7.2334 + 56.3 i.e use 3 sig fig

1.7 Solving Problems in Physics

Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the process for developing a problem-solving strategy.
• Explain how to find the numerical solution to a problem.
• Summarize the process for assessing the significance of the numerical solution to a problem

The three stages of the process for solving physics problems used in this book are as follows:
• Strategy: Determine which physical principles are involved and develop a strategy for using them to
solve the problem.
• Solution: Do the math necessary to obtain a numerical solution complete with units.
• Significance: Check the solution to make sure it makes sense (correct units, reasonable magnitude
and sign) and assess its significance.

Strategy
1. Examine the situation to determine which physical principles are involved. It often helps to
draw a simple sketch at the outset.
2. Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the
“knowns”). Look for key terms eg. the word stopped means the velocity is zero at that
instant.
3. Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns).
4. Determine which physical principles can help you solve the problem.
Solution
 The solution stage is when you do math. Substitute the knowns (along with their units) into the
appropriate equation and obtain numerical solutions complete with units. That is, do the
algebra, calculus, geometry, or arithmetic necessary to find the unknown from the knowns,
being sure to carry the units through the calculations.

Significance

After having done the math in the solution stage of problem solving, it is tempting to think you are
done. But,
always remember that physics is not math. Rather, in doing physics, we use mathematics as a tool
to help us understand nature. So, after you obtain a numerical answer, you should always assess its
significance:
1. Check your units. If the units of the answer are incorrect, then an error has been made and
you should go back over your previous steps to find it.
2. Check the answer to see whether it is reasonable. Does it make sense?
3. Check to see whether the answer tells you something interesting. What does it mean?
4.