GEOTECHNICAL COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT FOR LANDSLIDE

PREVENTION: ADAPTIVE MITIGATION MEASURES

FOR GEOLOGICAL FRAGILE ZONES IN SITIO
COROTE, BARANGAY MALAGUTAY

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Presented to
The Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering
Western Mindanao State University
Zamboanga City

In partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the Degree
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

AHMAD HUSIN T. ELDANI

AHMED-DEEN U. BANDAHALA
AL-SHAIBY S. NANONG
ARNADA M. HASAN
MUJAHID S. ANDAH
VIL PHILIPPE ELIZ A. BALANA

November 2024
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i
TABLE CONTENTS ii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 4

1.1 Background of the Study 4

1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 9
1.4 Significance of the Study 9
1.5 Conceptual Framework of the Study 10
1.6 Scope and Limitations 12
1.7 Definition of Terms 12

CHAPTER

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1.1 Mechanism of Riverbank Erosion 13

2.1.2 Geotechnical Aspects 13
2.1.3 Vegetation and Root System 13
2.1.4 Human Impacts 14
2.1.5 Integration and Remote Sensing and GIS 14
2.1.6 Landslide Prediction 16
2.1.7 Runoff and Soil Erosion Modelling 17

2.2.1 Analysis and Modelling Techniques 18

2.2.2 Geotechnical Analysis 18
2.2.3 Numerical Simulations 18
2.2.4 Integrated Approaches 22

2.3 Environmental Impact and Sustainability 23

2.4 Legislation and Regulatory Framework 24

2.5 Governance and Stakeholder Involvement 25

2.6 Best management and Adaptive Management 25

2.7 Features and Dimensions of Landslides 26

2.7.1 Factors Contributing to Slope Failures 26
2.7.2 Factors that Cause Increased Shear Strength in Slope 27
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2.7.3 Factors that Cause Reduced Shear Strength in Slope 27

2.8 Slope Protection Reinforced Structure 27

2.8.1 Gravity Walls 28
2.8.2 Sheet Pile Walls 28
2.8.3 Gabion Walls 28
2.8.4 Design Consideration for Landfill Slopes 29
2.8.5 Basic Concept of Embankments and Fills 29
2.8.6 Landfills 30

CHAPTER

3 METHODOLOGY 31

3.1 Project Design 31

3.2 Project Locale 31
3.3 Soil Morphological Characteristics 32
3.3.1 Soil Horizon 32
3.3.2 Depth 33
3.3.3 Horizon Boundary 33
3.3.4 Soil Color 33
3.3.5 Particle Size Distribution 34
3.3.6 Soil Classification 34
3.3.7 Soil Consistency 34
3.3.8 Roots 37
3.3.9 Unit Weight 39
3.3.10 Porosity
3.3.11 Hydraulic Conductivity 39
3.3.12 Degree of Saturation 42
3.4 Site Observation 43
3.4.1 Geographical Position 44
3.4.2 Topography and Slope 45
3.4.3 Proximity to Water Bodies 45
3.4.4 Vegetation and Land Cover 47
3.4.5 Historical and Geological Events 48
3.4.6 Human Impacts 48
3.5 Groundwater Data 49
3.5.1 Rainfall Data 49
3.5.2 Porched Groundwater caused by Manmade Runoff 49
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

This chapter will discuss the background of the study, statement of the
problem, objectives of the study, significance of the study, theoretical framework, and
scope and limitations.

1.1 Background of the Study

The Philippines is prone to many natural calamities that become the trigger of
many other disasters. One of those is landslides or the movement of rock, debris, or
earth down a slope, is one of these effects. These usually occur when the stability
conditions of a slope are disrupted. The Philippines is prone to many natural
calamities that become the trigger of many other disasters. One of those is landslides
or the movement of rock, debris, or earth down a slope, is one of these effects. A
landslide is the movement of rock, earth, or debris down a slope, often caused by
gravity, water, or earthquakes. Landslides can range from small, localized events to
massive, catastrophic disasters. Some common causes of landslide include heavy
rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, human activities (deforestation, mining), weak
geology (fractured rocks, clay soils), slope instability. Landslides are an important
factor in the evolution of landforms (Glade and Crozier, 2010), soil properties, and
biotic agents, including vegetation and fauna (Sidle and Ochiai, 2006). Landslides can
redistribute sediment material to areas with relatively less steep slopes. Landslides
impact soil deficit, sediment transportation and accumulation, soil material mixing,
and material enrichment in deposition zone. Changes in soil characteristics in the
sliding area can decrease soil organic matter and plant nutrition (Sparling et al., 2003).
The debris and pedoturbation of parent material in the landslide deposition areas can
re-supply nutrients to acidic soils that have undergone intense weathering (Schrumpf
et al., 2001; Sartohadi et al., 2018).

Primary investigation in determining the presence of possible landslide is done

by carefully inspecting the study area by utilizing common specific indicators,
specifically, the color of the soil, tilted trees and exposed roots. Soil color can be used
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to estimate the contents of soil pigments such as organic matter and iron (Fe) oxides.
It can be measured easily and rapidly with a Munsell color chart or by colorimeter.
The Munsell Color System consists of three components: hue (the specific color),
value (the lightness or darkness), and chroma (the intensity of the color). These are
organized in books containing color chips. To determine the soil color, it is compared
to these chips to find a visual match and is then given the corresponding Munsell
notation. Another feature that must be inspected are the presence of tilted trees. Trees
growing on landslide slopes have tilted and bent stem. As trees grow radially, their
stems form annual rings, which can serve as a year-by-year record of past
environmental events, including disturbances like landslides. Stem deformations
affects the structure of wood and tree-rings (Stefanini, 2004; Wistuba et al., 2013).
Previous studies have mainly focused on root plate sizes and soil tension properties
under external loads (wind force – Peltola, 2006; snow accretion – Kato and Nakatani,
2000; and rockfall – Stokes et al., 2005). Nevertheless, as noted above, tree tilt during
landslides is directly controlled by ground deformations resulting from landslide
movements (Harker, 1996, Lopez Saez et al., 2013). Exposed roots have also been
used as an important method in this field to determine the erosion rate (LaMarche,
1961). The research has calculated long-term soil erosion rates based on the vertical
distance between the root axis and the current soil surface and the tree age. Especially
for exposed living roots, the history of erosion can be determined by recording the
exact year of root exposure (Malik, 2010, Stoffel et al., 2013). Exposed roots have
played an important role in determining the erosion rate (Owczarek et al., 2022). The
distribution patterns of exposed roots include vertical distribution, oblique distribution
and horizontal distribution. Affected by soil erosion, the exposed length of plant roots
in the oblique and horizontal directions may reach 0.4–1.4 m (Malik and Matyja,
2008). Under the combined influence of the diversification of root distribution
patterns (Mawodza et al., 2020) and soil erosion, the exposed roots on the ground
surface may form different combination patterns with the soils during the growth
period. In addition, the exposed roots may further affect the rainfall redistribution and
soil erosion process on sloped land (Chirico et al., 2013).
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The classification of soil plays an important role in determining the key factors
that cause landslide. Each soil types has their unique properties that triggers them to
fail. Clay soils are prone to landslide due to their high plasticity, low permeability and
high-water absorption. Clay's high plasticity leads to reduced soil stability when
saturated (Holtz & Kovacs, 1981). Also, low permeability slows water drainage,
increasing pore water pressure (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Some tropical regions with
frequent rainfall are prone to landslide. High-intensity rainfall triggers landslides by
overwhelming soil’s infiltration capacity. Prolonged rainfall accumulates water in
soil, increasing landslide risk. Sands can weaken soil and contribute to landslide
susceptibility through several mechanisms like low cohesion, high permeability and
loss of strength. Sands can lose strength when saturated, leading to liquefaction and
landslide (Ishihara, 1993). Sands allow rapid water infiltration, increasing pore water
pressure and reducing soil strength (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Prolonged rainfall
saturates soil, leading to increased weight and reduced friction (Hungr & McDougall,
2009). Sand particles can be easily eroded, undermining slope stability (Hutchinson,
1988).

Landslides are controlled to some extent by mainly two factors: (1) the
groundwater and rugged topography with high slope angles (Regmi et al., 2013) and
(2) the presence of clay layers contributes to slope failure or instability (Sartohadi et
al., 2018). The level of soil movement is particularly determined by the value of the
safety factor and the shear zone of the clay layer on a slope. The physical and
mechanical properties of soil are influenced by the level of soil development through
the pedogenetic processes. Only few researches have attempted to provide
information regarding changes in soil characteristics after a landslide. Research on the
detail and local re-distribution of landslide sediment at the former landslide areas has
not been widely reported.

In Zamboanga City, Purok 5 of Sitio Corote of Barangay Upper Malagutay

was found unsafe for people to live in, after an August 15, 2023 landslide that buried
at least two houses in the area following days of heavy rains that triggered massive
soil erosion with several cracks and scarps as deep as 20 meters below ground
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(Alipala & Magbanua, 2023). Landslide therefore becomes a priority area for natural
disaster management. Various studies that have been carried out earlier have provided
information on landslide-prone areas maps, the application of landslide management
methods, and the identification of landslide mechanisms.

Figure 1.1 Photo of landslide at Malagutay, Zamboanga City

In June 29, 2016, landslide occured at the upland village of Barangay

Malagutay, Zamboanga City on tuesday night after continued rainshowers softened
the soil. The chief of city disaster risk reduction and management office (CDRRMO),
said that 13 families decided to vacate their homes for fear of their safety although no
one among the houses in the area was destroyed by the landslide and 12 of the 13
families have sought refuge with their families while the remaining one opted to stay
at the village hall of Malagutay. The CDRRMO has alerted the pubic as the city
continues to experience rainshowers and isolated thunderstorms due to an ITCZ
affecting Mindanao.

As landslides become frequent in Sitio Corote, Barangay Malagutay,

Zamboanga City, a comprehensive assessment is essential in determining factors that
cause these landslides, as well as the soil conditions and the factor of safety of the
embankment’s slope, to determine whether it is stable or unstable. Specifically, this
study aims to conduct geotechnical comprehensive assessment for landslide
prevention to develop adaptive mitigation measures for geologically fragile zones in
Sitio Corote, Brgy. Malagutay, Zamboanga City.
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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Zamboanga City is characterized by its coastal landscapes, hilly terrains, and
tropical climate, making it both a vibrant city and a region prone to natural challenges
which also means the city is exposed to environmental issues such as flooding,
landslides, and other natural disasters. One of the said ongoing issues affecting
various places in Zamboanga, including Sitio Corote in Barangay Malagutay, is the
occurrence of landslides. Due to frequent landslides, often triggered by heavy rains
and unstable terrain, which are negatively impacting both the local population and
infrastructure have damaged roads, making transportation difficult and unsafe for
residents. The blocked or eroded roads limit access to essential services creating a
public safety concern. Additionally, the risk to homes and properties increases with
each landslide, further threatening the well-being and livelihoods of the community.
Urgent interventions are needed to assess the causes of these landslides and
implement measures to mitigate their effects on both the people and infrastructure of
Sitio Corote.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of this study is to conduct comprehensive assessment
for landslide prevention and adaptive mitigation measures for geologically fragile
zones at Sitio Corote Malagutay, Zamboanga City. Specifically, this study aims to:
a. Investigate soil parameters such as soil morphological characteristics,
soil profile, strength parameters, and many more.
b. Conduct site observation and visual investigation in the study area located
at Sitio Corote, Malagutay, Zamboanga City.
c. Determine the factor of safety based on the soil condition and soil
classification on the study area.
d. Determine what type of earth retaining structures is required on the study
area.
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study is made to help determine landslide-prone areas and solve landslide
problem in Barangay Malagutay, Zamboanga City. Different places with the same soil
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parameters as Barangay Malagutay will also benefit from this study as the researchers
specifically studies the type of soil located on the study area. This study also explores
possible mitigation measures after the assessment of the landslide area for earth
retaining structures.

1.5 Conceptual Framework of the Study

First, a qualitative analysis is conducted to determine the soil morphological
characteristics, soil profile, soil classification and site observation. The soil
morphological characteristics is determined through soil color, soil type, soil density,
particle size distribution and bulk density. The soil profile is determined through
horizon thickness, horizon topography and horizon distinctness. Soil classification
follows the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) standard to classify the soil.
Site observation is utilized to determine the geographical position, altitude, slope and
vegetation.
Second, a quantitative analysis is conducted to analyze the disturbed and
undisturbed soils. Disturbed soils are used to determine the particle density using
pycnometer method, soil particle size criteria using USCS classification, soil porosity
and soil organic carbon. Undisturbed soils are used to determine the hydraulic
conductivity using permeameter method and bulk density using ring method.
Third, slope stability analysis is done by determining the factor of safety
against sliding and utilizing finite element analysis (FEA) for simulation. Factor of
safety against sliding involves soil strength parameters such as friction angle,
cohesion and bulk density. Finite element analysis is a numerical simulation method
to predict the behavior of the soil embankment on the study area. This involves
mathematical representation of the structure through modeling; loads, restraints and
environmental impact through boundary condition; interpreting results, visualizing
data, and optimizing designs.
Lastly, after the comprehensive assessment for slope stability analysis, the
necessary solutions can now be identified and tailored in accordance with the specific
requirements and needs.
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Figure 1.5. Conceptual Framework of the Study

1.6 Scope and Limitations

This study focuses on the comprehensive assessment of existing landslide area
at Sitio Corote, Malagutay, Zamboanga City where parts of the landslide are already
present which enables the proponents to determine what factors contribute to soil
failure. This study limits from assessing the whole landscape of Sitio Corote,
Malagutay, Zamboanga City.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Landslide - also known as landslips, or rockslides, are several forms of mass wasting
that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows,
shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows.
Granular soil - means gravel, sand, or silt, (coarse grained soil) with little or no clay
content. Granular soil has no cohesive strength. Some moist granular soils exhibit
apparent cohesion. Granular soil cannot be molded when moist and crumbles easily
when dry.
Morphological Characteristics - Properties such as structure, texture, consistence etc
influence the fertility status of soils. These properties determine the cation exchange
capacity, water holding capacity, aeration, porosity and temperature of the soil.
Crown - The undisturbed material uphill of the scarp. (i.e. the brown house at the top
of the hill).
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Main Scarp - Steep slope at the upper edge of the landslide (at the head), caused by
the movement of displaced material away from the undisturbed ground. The visible
part of the slide surface.
Main Body - Part of the landslide that overlies the rupture surface.
Foot - The part of the landslide that overlies the original ground surface (i.e. right
below the separation surface).
Toe - The downhill end of the slide. The most distant part of the slide from the main
scarp.
Escarpment - a long, steep slope, especially one at the edge of a plateau or separating
areas of land at different heights.
Pedogenic - relating to or denoting processes occurring in soil or leading to the
formation of soil.
Rainfall - is a measurement of how much water falls as rain in a certain period of
time.
Pedoturbation - involves mixing between soil horizons and is an important factor in
soil formation. Pedoturbation includes churning clays, cryoturbation, and
bioturbation.
Eluviation - Removal of dissolved or suspended material from a layer or layers of the
soil by the movement of water when rainfall exceeds evaporation.
Illuviation - the introduction of salts or colloids into one soil horizon from another by
percolating water.
Slope stability analysis - a static or dynamic, analytical or empirical method to
evaluate the stability of slopes of soil- and rock-fill dams, embankments, excavated
slopes, and natural slopes in soil and rock.
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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1.1 Mechanism of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion encompasses detachment, transport and deposition of soil

particles by raindrops and surface flow. These are fundamental concepts and the

foundation of soil erosion research. The articles in this theme cover new

developments in our understanding of the mechanics of soil detachment by raindrops,

sediment transport, flow hydraulics of eroding surface, infiltration processes, and

landform evolution (Zhang 2022).

2.1.2 Geotechnical Aspects

It is vital to identify and understand the factors causing landslides, and the

interactions between them to develop effective measures to stabilize the slope and

minimize the impacts of future occurrences (Ahmad, Et al. 2023)

2.1.3 Vegetation and Root System

The soil structure and soil hydraulic properties are influenced by many factors,

including the soil physical properties (e.g., mineral composition, GSD, organic matter

content, moisture content, dry density, etc.) (Dexter et al., 2008; Li et al., 2016; Xiao

et al., 2022a; Xiao et al., 2022b; Li et al., 2023) and environmental factors (e.g.,

temperature, freezing-thawing cycles, wetting-drying cycles, vegetation cover, human

activities, etc.) (Chahine, 1992; Rabot et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2021; Fei et al.,

2021a). Among these factors, vegetation, an important component of the Earth's

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surface, also plays a significant role in the water cycle, carbon cycle, and climate

change. Moreover, vegetation restoration, as a technology for negative carbon

emissions, has the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and extreme climate

events (e.g., extreme drought and extreme rainfall) (Löbmann et al., 2020; Wang et

al., 2021; Ng et al., 2022). As a result, it exerts a profound influence on the

occurrence and prevention of some geohazards (such as shallow landslides, slope

failure and soil erosion) (Stokes et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2017; Gonzalez-Ollauri and

Mickovski, 2017; Löbmann et al., 2020; Baets et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2022). In

general, vegetation roots can modify the soil structure and soil hydraulic properties

through root exudation, root penetration, root water uptake, and root decay, according

to current research (see Fig. 1c, d) (Lu et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2021; Ng et al., 2022).

2.1.4 Human Impacts

Some cases human activities can be a contributing factor in causing landslides.

Many human-caused landslides can be avoided or mitigated. They are commonly a

result of building roads and structures without adequate grading of slopes, poorly

planned alteration of drainage patterns, and disturbing old landslides.

2.1.5 Integration and Remote Sensing and GIS

The proper assessment of landslide susceptibility mapping in this area is

applied to minimize for the collapse of infrastructure and loss of the human life. For

this reason, the using of landslide susceptibility mapping is seen as the first step in

planning, assessment, and getting rid of landslides. Because of this, many authors

around the world have used this map (Binaghi et al., 1998; Dai et al., 2001;
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ErcanogluM et al., 2004; Lee, 2005; Nefeslioglu et al., 2008; Nefeslioglu et al., 2010;

Pradhan et al., 2010; Constantin et al., 2011; Pourghasemi et al., 2012a, 2012b; Dou

et al., 2015) to identify landslide susceptibility zonation (LSZ). Landslide

susceptibility zonation (LSZ) has been carried out widely to demarcate landslide

vulnerable areas using remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems.

In geographic information systems (GIS), it enables us to gather georeferenced

data from remote sensing and other resources for use in analysis, modelling,

simulations, and visualization, and it assists us in making knowledgeable results (Roy

and Saha, 2019; Li et al., 2021; Kothyari et al., 2021, 2022). Now, Remote sensing

and GIS are used to create a landslide inventory map as well as thematic maps

relating to landslide occurrences in the study region. The study area is in the

Himalayan region, where there are many places that are not physically accessible and

are prone to landslides. So remote sensing is the tool by which susceptible mapping of

landslide can be done easily (Yalcin et al., 2011; Anbalagan et al., 2015; Zhao and Lu,

2018; Gupta et al., 2022). High-resolution spatial data sets, GIS, remote sensing, and

advanced computing are making it feasible to automate some aspects of landslide

hazard and susceptibility mapping, reducing the need for manual fieldwork in

identifying vulnerable areas (Ilanloo, 2011; Kannaujiya et al., 2019; Velayudham et

al., 2021). Landslides are usually causes by two parameters: initiating parameters (due

to human caused and geological process of the earth) and conditioning parameters

(surface topographic or slope stability) (Sonker et al., 2021) and these parameters are

responsible for the occurrence of landslide events. These parameters contain different

factors such as geology, rainfall, geomorphology, soil, topographic roughness index,

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distance to roads, distance to faults, earthquake magnitude, gravity anomaly, LULC,

NDVI etc. These various factors cannot all play the same role in determining

landslides (Sujatha et al., 2012; Shahabi and Hashim, 2015).

2.1.6 Landslides Prediction

Several studies on the prediction of landslides and the associated damage are

available. Studies on landslide displacement prediction can roughly be partitioned

based on the duration and prediction method into three groups (Xu et al., 2011). The

empirical approach involving the landslide displacement rate was used to generate

initial prediction models, which were then improved by comparing the modeled to

field monitoring data (Sidle et al., 1985).

The statistical approach models, such as the Verhulst (Long et al., 2008),

Verhulst inverse function (Belle et al., 2014), golden section, Markov chain prediction

(Zhao et al., 2013), and time-series (Mazzanti et al., 2011) then improved landslide

deformation prediction.

The intelligent analysis and prediction approach, which emerged in the 1990s,

involves artificial intelligence-based nonlinear theories, which produce data-driven

models for systematic prediction of landslide deformation (Korup and Stolle, 2014).

2.1.8 Runoff and Soil Erosion Modelling

Runoff and erosion rates predicted from models are important quantitative

indicators for ecosystem health and a tool for assessing the effectiveness of
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conservation practices. The need for prediction technology is paralleled by the need

for decision tools and information delivery mechanisms.

2.2.1 Analysis and Modelling Techniques

Models produced using existing landslide displacement prediction methods are

based mainly on geological monitoring data (e.g., reservoir water level, rainfall, and

landslide displacement) to predict future displacement (Zhang et al., 2015). Models

including the Gray (GM) (Huang et al., 2017), extreme learning machine (ELM)

(Bernardie et al., 2014), and support vector machine (SVM) (Lian et al., 2014)

involve different neural networks (Bergstra and Bengio, 2012; Hochreiter and

Schmidhuber, 1997) (e.g., back propagation (BPNN), recurrent (RNN), etc.) and have

generated varying prediction results. In fact, different models are associated with

advantages and drawbacks. The GM, for example, involves a simple structure but the

prediction accuracy is unsatisfactory, while the ELM is fast and requires little training

data, and the BPNN commonly produces an unsatisfactory fitting performance for

complex nonlinear curves.

The support vector regression (SVR) model is based on the machine learning

theory, and it involves a few training samples and a simple structure. Its prediction

performance is better than that of a conventional neural network model, and thus, it is

suitable for landslide displacement prediction involving a short monitoring period.

SVR parameter search methods include the following: particle swarm optimization

(PSO), genetic algorithm (GA), grid search (GS), and random search (RS). The GA

and PSO are heuristic algorithms involving complex operations, while the GS

algorithm encompasses all possible solutions for a given parameter range, and thus, it
 17

exhibits a higher classification accuracy. Compared to other methods, the RS

algorithm is associated with a comparable prediction performance, and it is

computationally inexpensive (Wen et al., 2017).

The evolution of landslide displacement is influenced by many factors

involving complex relationships that are difficult to characterize accurately.

Therefore, in data-driven multivariate prediction models, time series decomposition

methods are commonly introduced to simplify the problem (Xu et al., 2011). The

displacement time series is decomposed into parts associated with varying data

characteristics such as, the trend, periodic, and random terms, and varied models serve

in forecasting the decomposition terms. The prediction accuracy of a model increases

as the factors considered are increased. The moving average method (Huang et al.,

1998; Xu et al., 2011) and the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) (Liu et al.,

2020) are methods commonly employed for decomposition in hydrodynamic

landslide displacement prediction studies that produce satisfactory results. However,

controlling the decomposition terms obtained by these methods is challenging, and

therefore, correlations between different factors and the displacement decomposition

terms are poor. In addition, the physical meaning of each decomposition term is

inadequately explained using these methods (Dragomiretskiy and Zosso, 2014). The

variational mode decomposition (VMD) method (Wang and Min, 2014) employed in

the present study resolves these shortcomings. Similar to the EMD, the VMD is a

signal processing method suitable for handling non-smooth and non-linear signals. It

was recently applied at the displacement decomposition stage of landslide

deformation prediction (Dragomiretskiy and Zosso, 2014) and produced good results.
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2.2.2 Geotechnical Analysis

The rock mass attributes were assessed using field and laboratory experiments,

and the slope stability in the Cham-Shir Dam Power Plant pit was analyzed using the

limit equilibrium method and a numerical model. (Faramarzi et al. 2017)

The study by (Mehta Et.al 2020) analyzed the reasons and factors contributing

to landslides across NH-205 in Himachal Pradesh, India. The researchers advised

appropriate strategies for stabilizing the slopes. The methodology employed in this

study included geotechnical examinations, field observations, and laboratory testing

of soil samples. Integrating (L. Holcombe, 2014) into a landslip early warning system

involved incorporating it with the limit-equilibrium model.

2.2.3 Numerical Simulations

Analytical models employing concept of Finite Element Methods (FEM) have

emerged as significant tools to carry out the prediction on the geogrid reinforced soil

systems. They allow the calculation of interactions and response prediction under

different loading situations, including the rainfall-related increase in pore water

pressure, which is an important landslide factor (Gamze, Leandro, 2016). Research

has demonstrated time and again the capabilities of numerical models in optimizing

geogrids whereby the effectiveness of assorted material characteristics and diverse

loads can be established, thereby increasing the safety of applications (Gholizadeh et

al., 2016).
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2.2.4 Integrated Approaches

Despite the increasing landslide frequency and associated damages that are

exacerbated by climate change, an integrated risk assessment is lacking for the region.

The aim of the present study is to utilize the freely available geospatial and extensive

field data and integrate these data in a semi-quantitative approach for landslide risk

assessment. The proposed study is initiated with quantitative data for hazard and

vulnerability assessments, and the derived risk is classified into relative classes from

very high to very low risk levels. The developed methodology can be replicated in

other landslide-prone regions to assist in risk reduction.(Maqsoom, A. 2022).

2.3 Environmental Impact and Sustainability

Landslides occur throughout the world, and espe-cially in certain hotspots

(Nadim et al., 2006). Muchhas been written about landslide impacts on humanlives,

and on infrastructure. Little attention, how-ever, has been paid to landslide impacts on

thenatural environment (Schuster and Highland,2007). Even less consideration has

been given tothe role that landslides play in disturbance ecology (Geertsema and

Pojar, 2007).

2.4 Legislation and Regulatory Framework

In general, landslide hazard assessment aims at answering to four questions:

what, where, when, and how does the phenomenon occur? Thus, the hazard may be
 20

expressed as the occurrence of a particular type of landslide, including its volume,

runout, velocity (varying with the distance from the source area) and intensity for a

given time period (i.e., temporal frequency; (V. Catenacci, 1992).

2.5 Governance and Stakeholder Involvement

To address this natural hazard, global documents such as the IPCC

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) reports, the Paris Agreement, the

United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, the Sendai Framework for Disaster

Risk Reduction 2015-203, and the Kyoto 2020 Commitment for Global Promotion of

Understanding and Reducing Landslide Disaster Risk emphasize multi-level and

comprehensive risk reduction measures (Aitsi-Selmi et al. 2016; Handmer et al. 2019;

Alcántara-Ayala and Sassa 2021; IPCC 2021). The key principle highlighted in these

measures is the inclusion of all levels of society to build resilience (Samuel and

Cornforth 2019). However, developing these joint societal efforts is not

straightforward. The commitment, intention, knowledge, experience, and resources of

all stakeholders are crucial (Matsuoka and Gonzales Rocha 2020). There is also a

need to elevate the role of local and scientific knowledge for disaster risk reduction

(DRR) as well as disaster risk management through enhanced communication and the

appropriate use of participatory methods. Effective landslide mitigation strategies,

such as modifying slope geometry, using chemical or biochemical agents to reinforce

slope material, installing structures, such as anchors, piles, and retaining walls,

grouting rock joints and fissures, diverting debris pathways, and rerouting surface and

underwater drainage (Dnr 2019; Mertens et al. 2016; Perera et al. 2018; Ferreira et al.
 21

2022, Sharma et al. 2024) require a strong understanding of both local geography and

local risk (Ndlela 2019; Shayan et al. 2022). Community representatives play a

particularly crucial role in hazard reduction through the preparation of risk maps and

the monitoring of landslide movement (Klimeš et al. 2019a, b). To enhance resilience,

a comprehensive understanding of local perceptions, alongside a scientific and

accurate understanding of risk, is vital for integrated planning and public awareness

(Alrawad et al. 2023; Keating 2020).

2.6 Best management and Adaptive Management

Data in respect of known landslide hazards and potential hazards: Spatial

distribution data in respect of landslide hazards

(http://www.resdc.cn/data.aspx?DATAID=290 (accessed on 20 December 2022)),

published by the Resource and Environment Science and Data Center, Institute of

Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research of the Chinese Academy of

Sciences [45], were used. A total of 124 known landslide hazards in the study area

were identified, and 102 of them were retained after screening. These were used to

train the deep learning model for adaptive identification of potential landslide hazards.

In addition, 56 potential landslide hazards (with obvious deformation) in the study

area were identified from the field investigation data provided by Shandong GEO

Surveying and Mapping Institute. These were used to test the identification effect of

the deep learning model. (Singh, A, 2021).

 22

2.7 Features and Dimensions of Landslides

New remote sensing techniques have enabled the improvement in the

investigation of the Earth’s surface processes. Among these techniques, airborne laser

scanning (ALS) is characterized by its usefulness and effectiveness in providing

detailed information about surface topography (Tarolli 2014). ALS is now widely

applied in landslide studies globally and is undergoing rapid developments. In the

literature, there are many examples of using ALS data for various landslide

applications covering landslide detection (Chen et al. 2013; Pawluszek and

Borkowski 2016; Van Den Eeckhaut et al. 2012; Pawluszek et al. 2018), landslide

characterisation (Glenn et al. 2006; Goetz et al. 2014; McKean and Roering 2004;

Sato et al. 2007) and landslide susceptibility mapping (Ayalew et al. 2005; Bai et al.

2010; Chalkias et al. 2014; Ermini et al. 2005; Jebur et al. 2014; Mashari et al. 2012;

Pawluszek and Borkowski 2017; Pourghasemi et al. 2012).

2.7.1 Factors Contributing to Slope Failures

According to Cruden (2003), “Landslide is defined as rock or debris

movement or slope earth down”. Ground characteristics, sub surface soil

properties, quick variations in ground water table along the slope easily trigger the

landslides. The causes of slope failure belong to three main groups: Sub soil

strength: Steep and high slopes require more strength to uphold as compared to low or

medium height slopes. With the passage of time, sometimes, the soil becomes weak

and this also gives rise to instability. Pore water pressure: In peak monsoon
 23

seasons effective stress decreases, which lowers down the shearing resistance at

the slip surface. That is why slope fails after heavy downpour. External impacts:

Earthquake forces, scouring, and wrong cutting at the toe put the slope at the verge of

failure. These categorizations are in actual the work of Bromhead (1998).

Regarding construction failures, Gue and Cheah (2008) reported that either

the workmanship, materials and/or short of supervision contributed to 8% of the

total cases of landslides. About 20% of the landslides investigated are caused by a

combination of design and construction errors. For landslides in residual soil slopes,

the slope failures caused by geological features only account for 6% which is same as

the percentage contributed by a lack of maintenance. It is also mentioned by Gue and

Cheah that the geological features, such as discontinuities in residual soils particularly

sedimentary formations are not easy to identify. Most of these geological features can

only be noticed after exposing the slopes during excavation. In this context, it is

suitable to take out confirmatory geological slope mapping of the exposed slopes

after excavation by an experienced engineering geologist or geotechnical

engineer to spot any geological discontinuities that may contribute to potential

failure mechanisms, namely planar sliding, anticline sliding, active-passive wedges,

etc. (Gue and Cheah, 2008).

2.7.2 Factors that Cause Increased Shear Strength in Slope

Xiong et al. (2011) found that the influence of peak strength of coal-bearing

soil on confining pressure in saturated state is greater than that in natural state. Hu et
 24

al. (2010), Li et al. (2006b), Cao et al. (2008) studied the influence of water content

on the shear strength of coal measure soil and the rheological characteristics of weak

structural plane in coal measures. There are many factors that cause slope instability,

mainly including rainfall, earthquake and human activities (Chen, 2005; Wang et al.,

2013). Especially in rainfall, the weak interlayer is easy to form a sliding surface,

which will lead to slope deformation (Li et al., 2018).

2.7.3 Factors that Cause Reduced Shear Strength in Slope

There are many factors that affect the stability of slope, which can be divided

into internal factors and external factors. From the internal, there are factors of

geology: rock genetic types, the mineral component composition, geotechnical and

structural strength. The slope is composed of hard rock and soil compaction, mineral

stability, good weathering resistance, high strength, its stability is generally good, and

poor. The structure type of rock mass, the shape of the structure surface and the

relationship with the slope surface are the controlling factors of rock slope stability,

and sometimes there are discontinuities in the rock mass, which is easy to improve the

stability of the slope. From the environmental aspects to consider there will be

weathering, rain, earthquakes and other effects. Shear strength of rock are weakened

by weathering, fractured increased, expanded, affected the shape and sloped gradient,

and water permeability increases, so easy to surface water intrusion changing the

dynamics of groundwater. Rainfall is the main factor that causes the slope to be

destroyed. It is easy to soften the soil, reduce the intensity, increase the surface

porosity, and reduce the stability of the slope. Earthquake leads to decrease of the
 25

slope stability is mainly the additional horizontal earthquake force generated by the

earthquake, when the direction of action of the additional horizontal earthquake force

is adverse, slope sliding force increase, sliding surface antislide force decreases.

Meanwhile, the hydrological conditions also have impact on the geology,

groundwater mainly by actingon the vertical fracture, producing horizontal thrust, the

rockslope to the bottom, buoyancy also causes reduced stability,reduce friction, rocky

are deteriorated, and decreasing the stability. (Linlin Sha 2016).

2.8 Slope Protection Reinforced Structures

Slope protection reinforced structures are used to increase the strength and

stability of slopes to prevent erosion, landslides, and other slope failures. They can be

used in a variety of settings, such as road embankments, retaining walls, and earth

dams. Traditional slope protection can effectively reduce the instability and erosion of

the slope surface. However, the protective effect will be significantly weakened as the

strength of the material structure decreases (Yu-Liang et al., 2020; Liu and Han, 2021;

Zhang et al., 2022a). Traditional slope protection offers numerous advantages over

vegetation protection technologies. Widespread use of environmental protection

technologies can lessen the environmental effect of highway building (Bai et al.,

2017; Yanguang and Xiaoxia, 2018; De Yong et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2020) and

improve the ecological environment (Yi, 2012; Saifuddin and Normaniza, 2016; Yan

et al., 2021). The soil structure is loose and broken in loess regions, and water loss is

significant. In the loess region, it is vital to restore the natural environment, avoid

landslides and debris flows, and regulate soil erosion.

 26

2.8.1 Gravity Walls

A retaining wall that relies solely on its own weight to stand up is called a

gravity wall. Allan Block combines the basic engineering principles of setback,

leverage and total unit mass with simple mechanics to make highly stable gravity

walls. Gravity walls are widely used as earth retaining systems supporting fill slopes

adjacent to roads and residential areas built on reclaimed land (Trandafir, Kamai &

Sidle, 2009).

2.8.1 Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet piles in comparison with massive type of walls (concrete or stone) are

considered as flexible structures, in which bending moments are developed by the

produced lateral loads. Therefore they should be designed so that, they are able to

resist the maximum bending moments.Sheet pile walls consist of continuously

interlocked pile segments embedded in soils to resist horizontal pressures. Classified

as a flexible retaining system, sheet pile walls can tolerate relatively large

deformations. (Stanislav, 2006)

2.8.2 Gabion Walls

The design of the retaining walls which focuses on keeping ground level at

two different levels, is one of the main research topics of Geotechnical

Engineering. Gabion wall have been used widely in the world and more than a
 27

century in numerous erosion control projects, soil reclamation work, stream channels

construction and retaining structures (Giani,1992 and Kandaris, 1999). Gabion walls

can be designed as rigid, semi-rigid and flexible depending on construction

area, groundwater status, cost and purpose of use

2.8.3 Design Consideration for Landfill Slopes

Sanitary landfills are increasingly becoming popular for waste management in

developing countries. Proper waste management initiatives are required to ensure that

the amount of waste that ends up at the landfill is minimized (Acosta et al., 2012). In

essence the public is not allowed to enter the landfill site due to the risk of disease and

danger from operating machinery. Thus the landfill site is supposed to be fenced to

prevent people and animals from entering the premises. This also ensures that animals

and people do not salvage the valuables and edibles from the landfill site.

2.8.4 Basic Concept of Embankments and Fills

A fill refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and compacted for

the purpose of filling in a hole or depression. Embankments or fills are constructed of

materials that usually consist of soil, but may also include aggregate, rock, or crushed

paving material. In recent years, intelligent compaction methods combined with

modern computing technology have achieved intelligent compaction control to a

certain extent. The method to strengthen on-site construction management and control
 28

through intelligent and informational means. By collecting data such as roller

position and rolling times in real time, the rolling quality is monitored in real

time through the terminal. In addition, many scholars have used numerical

simulation software to calculate and analyze high fill embankments from various

aspects such as filling, load, vibration compaction, and different structural forms [8-

10]. These conclusions indicate that there are various factors affecting the

settlement and stability of high embankments (Cheng Shangfeng et al, 2023).

2.8.5 Landfills

Filling is defined as the disposal, compression and embankment fill of waste at

appropriate sites. Landfill for the moment is easy, adjustable with lower cost than the

rest of disposal methods and stands alone as the only all waste material disposal

method. Although the disposal of MSW in landfills has decreased, landfills are likely

to remain an important part of integrated solid waste management systems all over the

world. Comparative studies of various waste management (WM) methods (landfilling,

incineration, composting etc.) show that among the MSW treatment and disposal

technological options, sanitary landfilling or open dumping is popular in most

countries because of the relative low cost and low-technical requirement (Vaverkova

2019).
 29

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Project Design

The study mainly focuses on the analysis of the soil stability in Sitio Corote,
Brgy. Malagutay, an area prone to landslides and erosion. The method used for slope
stability analysis follows the steps illustrated in the flowchart shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Project Methodology Flow Diagram

The process of slope stability analysis involves the systematic collection and
evaluation of various data types essential for accurately assessing potential risks and
failure mechanisms. Key factors include the geomorphological properties of the soil,
which provide insights into the soil condition, layering, and overall structure.
Additionally, the strength parameters of the soil, such as shear strength and cohesion,
play a critical role in determining how well the slope can resist movement under
different loading conditions. Groundwater conditions, including the depth and
pressure of water within the soil, are also crucial as they significantly affect pore
pressure and, consequently, slope stability.
To obtain comprehensive and reliable data, a detailed soil investigation is to be
conducted. This investigation involves the collection of soil samples and the analysis
of their geomorphological characteristics, which includes studying factors such as soil
type and grain size distribution through sieve analysis, soil color, soil texture and soil
density. The findings from this investigation provide a solid foundation for the slope
 30

stability analysis by offering essential data needed to evaluate potential failure

scenarios and develop appropriate mitigation strategies.
3.2 Project Locale
The research site is located at Sitio Corote Bypass Road, Brgy. Malagutay,
Zamboanga City as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Project Locale (Retrieved from Google Maps)

3.3 Soil Morphological Characteristics

3.3.1 Soil Horizon

Identifying soil horizons is essential for understanding the physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil, which directly influence its
behavior. To do this, soil layers must be classified based on color, texture,
structure and organic content using USCS. The key horizons are:
• O - Horizon: Organic-rich top layer (if present).
• A - Horizon: Topsoil with mixed organic material.
• B - Horizon: Subsoil, typically denser and more clay-rich.
• C -Horizon: Weathered parent material.
• R - Horizon: Unweathered rock or bedrock.
 31

3.3.2 Depth
The depth of soil layers directly impacts the factor of safety (FS)
against landslides. If a slope contains more than one soil layer, it may be
necessary to calculate the factor of safety for circles at more than one depth. If
the underlying soil layer is weaker than the layer above it, the critical circle
will extend into the lower layer, and either a toe circle or a deep circle within
this layer will be critical. If the underlying soil layer is stronger than the layer
above it, the critical circle may or may not extend into the lower layer,
depending on the relative strengths of the two layers. Both possibilities should
be examined (Duncan and Wright, 2005).
To accurately determine the depth of each soil layer, a core sampler, as
shown in Figure 3.3.2, is commonly used. This device allows for the
extraction of continuous, undisturbed soil samples from various depths,
providing a clear profile of the soil layers which can be inspected visually by
measuring each stratum with a measuring tape.

Figure 3.2.2 Core Sampler

3.3.3 Horizon Boundary

The horizon boundary of the soil’s strata plays a crucial role in
understanding soil stability, drainage, and erosion potential. The smoothness
or irregularity of these boundaries can influence how water, air, and forces like
pressure or shear affect soil behavior. This can be determined through visual
inspection and be classified according to its variation provided by USDA, as
shown in Figure 3.3.3: smooth, wavy, broken, and irregular.
 32

3.3.4 Soil Color

Soil color plays a critical role in soil stability analysis because it often
reflects key properties such as organic content, moisture content, and the
presence of certain minerals, all of which affect the physical behavior of the
soil. This can be classified using the Munsell Color Chart as shown in Figure
3.3.4. The Munsell Color Chart is a tool used for precise soil color
identification. It provides a standardized method for determining the color of
soil based on three components: hue, value, and chroma.

Figure 3.3.3 Soil Horizon Boundary Diagram Figure 3.3.4 Munsell Color Chart

3.3.5 Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution is the measure of the proportion of different-
sized soil particles (gravel, sand, silt, and clay) within a sample. It is analyzed
using sieve analysis for coarse-grained soils and hydrometer analysis for fine-
grained soils.

3.3.6 Soil Classification

Soil classification is conducted using the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS) to categorize soils based on properties such as grain size and
plasticity. This process follows established protocols set by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), specifically, ASTM procedures
 33

such as ASTM D2487 (Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for

Engineering Purposes) and ASTM D2488 (Standard Practice for Description
and Identification of Soils) which provide a comprehensive framework for
identifying and classifying soils in accordance with USCS criteria as shown in
Figure 3.3.6.

3.3.7 Soil Consistency

Soil consistency refers to the soil’s ability to resist deformation and
maintain its shape under different moisture conditions. It influences the soil's
load-bearing capacity,

Figure 3.3.6 Unified Soil Classification System Criteria

 34

compaction behavior, and overall stability. Soil consistency is evaluated using

the Atterberg limits as defined by ASTM standards such as ASTM D4318-
17e1, which consists of the Casagrande Method (liquid limit), as shown in
Figure 3.3.7a, and the Pin Rolling Method (plastic limit), as shown in Figure
3.3.7b, and ASTM D4943-08 also known as the Wax Method (shrinkage
limit), as shown in Figure 3.3.7c.

3.3.8 Roots
Vegetation helps stabilize forested slopes by providing root strength
and by changing the saturated soil water regime. Plant roots can anchor
through the soil mass into fractures in bedrock, cross zones of weakness to
more stable soil, and provide interlocking

Figure 3.3.7a Liquid Limit Device Figure 3.3.7b Plastic Limit Rolling
Device
 35

Figure 3.3.7c Shrinkage Limit Test Set

long fibrous binders within a weak soil mass, Ziemer (1981). When there are
few roots, it suggests a lack of vegetation, leading to several potential risks for
slope stability. Many roots generally provide a reinforcing effect, contributing
to greater stability. This can be determined through visual inspection.

3.3.9 Unit Weight

Unit weight refers to the mass of soil per unit volume, typically
expressed in terms of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilonewtons per
cubic meter (kN/m³). To determine the unit weight of soil the ring method is to
be used as defined by ASTM C29/C29M-07.
Unit weight can be calculated by using the formula:

γ = W/V = ρ/g
where:
γ = unit weight of soil (kN/m³)
W = weight of soil (kN)
V = volume of soil (m³)
ρ = density of soil (kg/m³)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)

3.3.10 Porosity
 36

It refers to the percentage of the total volume of soil that is occupied by

voids or pores (spaces between soil particles), which can contain air or water.
Porosity is a measure of how much air and water the soil can hold, and it has
direct implications for various aspects of soil behavior. This is expressed in
percentage and can be calculated by the formula:

where:
Φ = porosity of soil (%)
VV = volume of voids (m³)
VT = total volume of the soil sample (m³)

3.3.11 Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (often referred to as permeability) is a measure
of a soil's ability to transmit water through its pores. It is a critical factor in
soil stability analysis because it influences how water moves through the soil,
which in turn affects the soil's behavior under various environmental
conditions, such as during rainfall, flooding, or changes in groundwater levels.
Hydraulic conductivity can be measured in the laboratory or in the
field:
• In the laboratory, it is typically measured by using a permeameter,
as shown in Figure 3.3.11a, and conducting tests such as the
constant head permeability test for granular soils or the falling head
permeability test for fine-grained soils.
o For constant head permeability test, we can calculate the
hydraulic conductivity by using the formula:

where:
k = coefficient of permeability (mm/s)
Q = total volume of water (mm3)
L = length of specimen (mm)
A = cross-sectional area of specimen (mm2)
 37

h = head causing flow (mm)

t = time period (s)

o For falling head permeability test, we can calculate the

hydraulic conductivity by using the formula:

where:
k = coefficient of permeability (mm/s)
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
L = length of specimen (mm)
A = cross-sectional area of specimen (mm2)
t = time period (s)
h1 = the elevation of water in the standpipe at time t=0
(mm)
h2 = the elevation of water in the standpipe at time equal to
t (mm)

Figure 3.3.11a Permeameter

 38

3.3.12 Degree of Saturation

The Degree of Saturation refers to the percentage of the total pore
space in the soil that is filled with water, as opposed to air. The degree of
saturation can significantly affect the soil's behavior under different
environmental and loading conditions. This be calculated by the formula:
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑤/𝑉𝑣
where:
S = degree of saturation
VW = volume of water (m³)
VV = volume of voids (m³)

or:
𝑆 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠/𝑒
where:
S = degree of saturation
w = moisture content (%)
Gs = specific gravity
e = void ratio

3.4 Site Observation

3.4.1 Geographical Position

The geographical position of a site is a critical factor in soil stability
analysis because it determines the environmental and geological conditions
that affect the soil's behavior under various forces. Factors like topography,
proximity to water bodies, climate, seismic activity, and human influence all
contribute to how the soil will respond to stresses such as rainfall, earthquakes,
or construction loads. Understanding the geographical position helps in
assessing potential risks of soil failure, erosion, and instability, and is essential
for designing safe and sustainable structures and land use practices.
 39

3.4.2 Topography and Slope

The slope of the land is one of the most important factors in soil
stability. Steep slopes are more prone to landslides, erosion, and slope failure,
especially when the soil becomes saturated from heavy rainfall or irrigation.
The degree of inclination is determined by the geographical position of the
area (e.g., hilltops, valleys, or mountains).
On sloping terrain, soil may be subject to gravitational forces that can
lead to mass movement, such as slumps, creep, or landslides. Understanding
the topography helps in assessing the risk of such movements and planning for
soil stabilization measures.
This can be measured with the use of:
a.) On-Site Surveying
The traditional method of gathering accurate measurements and
data directly from a small area. There are three types of On-Site
Surveying:
i. Leveling: uses an auto level, as shown in Figure 3.4.2a, to
measure elevation differences between points to create a
contour map.
ii. Total Station Surveying: uses a total station, as shown in
Figure 3.4.2b, to measure horizontal and vertical angles
along with distances to generate 3D coordinates of points.
iii. Theodolite Surveying: uses a theodolite, as shown in
Figure 3.4.2c, to measure horizontal and vertical angles to
determine topography

b.) LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

The process of utilizing laser pulses from an aircraft or drone,
as shown in Figure 3.4.2d, to measure distances and create a 3D
elevation model. This method is ideal for large areas and detailed
topography, including vegetation cover.
 40

Figure 3.4.2 a) Leveling Machine b) Total Station c) Theodolite

Figure 3.4.2d LiDAR drone

3.4.3 Proximity to Water Bodies

Water level fluctuations from nearby rivers, lakes, or coastlines can
affect soil stability. Coastal areas or regions near rivers may experience
erosion or submersion, while flooding can lead to soil saturation, increasing
the risk of liquefaction (in sandy soils) or slope failure.
The proximity to water bodies also determines the type of soil (e.g.,
floodplain deposits) and its behavior under wet conditions. Alluvial soils
(deposited by rivers) can be highly variable in terms of stability due to
changes in water flow and sediment deposition over time.
 41

3.4.4 Vegetation and Land Cover

The presence of vegetation can help stabilize soil by reducing erosion
and increasing soil cohesion through plant root systems. Areas with dense
forests or grasslands are less prone to erosion and slope failure compared to
areas with little or no vegetation (such as bare hillsides or desert regions).
Vegetation and land cover significantly contribute to soil stability by reducing
erosion, regulating water content, and providing mechanical support through
root systems. In areas with potential landslide risks, a strategic combination of
deep-rooted plants, grasses, and shrubs can enhance stability and protect
against soil loss. Proper vegetation management, aligned with the local climate
and soil type, is essential for long-term stability.
Geographical location determines the type of vegetation cover, which
in turn affects the soil’s resistance to wind and water erosion and its ability to
hold together during heavy rainfall or seismic activity.

3.4.5 Historical and Geological Events

The history of the land, such as its landslide activity, plays a role in
determining the current stability of the soil. Understanding the geological
history of an area is important for predicting soil behavior in response to
natural events, such as landslides, subsidence, or erosion. Previous landslides
indicate zones of weakness and instability. Areas that have experienced
landslides are likely to have fractured rock, loose soil, and high porewater
pressures, making them susceptible to future movements.

3.4.6 Human Impact

Urbanization and land use changes influenced by geographical position
(e.g., development on hillsides, floodplains, or wetlands) can impact soil
stability. Human activities like construction, deforestation, or mining can lead
to soil disturbance or overloading, increasing the risk of instability.
The population density and lifestyle patterns of residents must be
thoroughly examined, as human activities can significantly impact soil
stability from poor infrastructure management, excavation, and inadequate
drainage. They can significantly influence soil stability, often exacerbating the
risk of landslides. Improperly managed utilities, such as leaking underground
pipes or malfunctioning septic systems, can contribute to soil instability by
altering groundwater conditions and weakening soil structures.
 42

3.5 Soil Sampling

The determination of observation points and soil sampling is to be carried out
in a transect line, which crosses the landslide slope from the crown to the toe parts.
Each part of the landslide zones is to be taken as a representative profile for observing
the morphology of the soil (Figure 3.5). It is used to determine changes due to the
slides and the pedoturbation of the soil. Results found in each soil observation at a
given point are compared with the original soil in the landslide crown. The changes in
soil morphological characteristics are analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively.

3.6 Groundwater Data

3.6.1 Rainfall Data
The annual rainfall data within 10–15 years can be acquired from the
DOST-PAGASA since the amount, intensity, and duration of rainfall directly
affect soil strength, drainage conditions, and the potential for landslides or soil
erosion. When rainfall infiltrates the soil, it increases pore water pressure,
which reduces the effective stress holding the soil particles together. High
rainfall intensity can increase surface runoff, which

Figure 3.5 Illustration of site sampling and design at five landslide parts
https://geoenvironmental-disasters.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40677-020-
00158-8
 43

erodes the topsoil, especially in areas with little vegetation or inadequate

ground cover. This erosion removes the topsoil layer, destabilizing the soil and
weakening the slope's integrity.
Rainfall is a primary trigger for many landslides, particularly in steep
or unstable areas. The combination of heavy rain and already saturated soils
can reduce the shear strength of the soil, causing it to slide down slopes.
Understanding rainfall patterns is essential in predicting soil behavior under
various weather conditions and designing effective mitigation strategies for
slope stabilization.

3.6.2 Perched Groundwater caused by Manmade Runoff

Perched groundwater refers to a localized zone of groundwater that is
held above the main water table due to an impermeable layer, such as clay or
rock, beneath it. When manmade runoff from damaged and leaking
underground pipes, especially from residents residing upslope, accumulates
and infiltrates the soil, it can cause the formation of perched groundwater. This
condition can significantly influence soil stability, especially in landslide-
prone areas, where the soil type and slope geometry may already be
predisposed to failure. As runoff from leaking pipes moves downslope, it can
accumulate in layers of soil, contributing to the development of perched
groundwater. This excess water, trapped in the soil, creates weak zones within
the slope structure, especially where water is retained above a relatively
impermeable layer. By installing piezometers, as shown in Figure 3.6.2a, to
measure the water table and the formation of perched groundwater in specific
soil layers, this will determine groundwater levels and fluctuations caused by
rainfall or pipe leakage. To track groundwater movement over time and
identify areas where perched groundwater may develop, monitoring walls, as
shown in Figure 3.6.2b, can be installed.

Figure 3.6.2a Piezomete Figure 3.6.2b Monitoring Well

 44

3.7 Strength Parameters

3.7.1 Cohesion
Cohesion contributes to the soil’s shear strength, helping resist sliding
and deformation. It plays a critical role in maintaining slope stability by
holding soil particles together, particularly in fine-grained soils like clays.
Cohesive soils are also more resistant to erosion and can support greater loads,
making them crucial in foundation design and construction. In slope stability
assessments, higher cohesion reduces the risk of failure, especially under
saturated conditions, highlighting its importance in designing effective
reinforcement strategies.
Cohesion in soil can be obtained through various methods, typically
involving laboratory and field tests. The most common methods include:

• Direct Shear Test: A soil sample is placed in a shear box and

subjected to controlled normal and shear forces. The cohesion is
determined from the shear stress at failure as defined by ASTM
standards such as ASTM D3080 – 04 (Figure 3.7.1a).
• Triaxial Compression Test: This test subjects a cylindrical soil
sample to axial and confining pressures, measuring shear strength
parameters, including cohesion as defined by ASTM standards such as
ASTM D2850 – 23 (Unconsolidated-Undrained Test), ASTM D7181 –
20 (Consolidated Drained Test), and ASTM D4767 – 11 (Consolidated
Undrained Test) [Figure 3.7.1b].
• Unconfined Compression Test (for cohesive soils): The soil sample
is loaded axially until failure, providing an estimate of cohesion from
the maximum compressive strength as defined by ASTM standards
such as ASTM D2166 − 06 (Figure 3.7.1c).
• Field Vane Shear Test: A vane is inserted into the ground and rotated
to measure the soil’s shear resistance, from which cohesion can be
derived as defined by ASTM standards such as ASTM D2573/D2573M
− 18 (Figure 3.7.1d).
 45

Figure 3.7.1a Direct Shear Test

3.7.2 Friction Angle
Friction angle represents the soil's ability to resist shear stress through
internal friction between particles. It influences the shear strength, which
governs the soil’s capacity to withstand sliding or failure. Soils with higher
friction angles, like dense sands and gravels, have greater stability, making
them less prone to failure under load. The friction angle is also essential in
designing slopes, retaining walls, and foundations, as it helps determine safe
angles of repose and the forces acting on structural elements. Friction angle
can be determined by the same ASTM standards used for the determination of
cohesion such as ASTM D3080 – 04, ASTM D2850 – 23, ASTM D7181 – 20,
ASTM D4767 – 11, ASTM D2166 – 06, and ASTM D2573/D2573M – 18.

3.8 Factor of Safety (Coulomb Stress)

A slope that extends for a relatively long distance and has a consistent subsoil
profile may be analyzed as an infinite slope. For simplicity, the proponents utilized the
formula for factor of safety for both sand and clay with partial seepage.

3.8.1 Factor of Safety for Sand

The Factor of Safety (FoS) for infinite slopes with sand and partial
seepage is crucial in evaluating slope stability, landslide risk
assessment, design of coastal structures, and riverbank erosion
analysis (Lambe & Whitman, 2008; Hungr et al., 2014).
 46

Figure 3.7.1b Triaxial Compression Test

Figure 3.7.1 a)Unconfined Compressive Strength Test b) Field Vane Shear Test
 47

3.8.2 Factor of Safety for Clay

The Factor of Safety (FoS) for infinite slopes with clay soils and
partial seepage is essential in evaluating slope stability, landslide risk
assessment, and design of embankments, particularly considering clay's
low permeability and potential for pore pressure buildup (Terzaghi, 1925;
Bishop, 1955; Lambe & Whitman, 2008).

3.9 Finite Element Method (FEM)

The limit equilibrium method allows engineers to evaluate the stability of
slopes quickly. However, these procedures are the same whether the analysis
considers (1) slope of newly constructed embankment, (2) slope of a recent
excavation, or (3) an existing natural slope. The stresses within these slopes are
strongly influenced by 𝐾0 , the ratio of lateral to vertical normal effective stresses, but
conventional limit equilibrium procedures ignore this important feature (Chowdhury,
1981). In reality, the stress distributions within these three slopes would be different
and hence significantly influence their stability. The finite element method (FEM)
bypasses many of the deficiencies that are inherent with the limit equilibrium
methods.
The Finite Element Method (FEM) facilitates landslide analysis by simulating
stress distributions, deformations, pore pressure, and dynamic loads, enabling
accurate prediction of slope stability and landslide susceptibility (Griffiths & Lane,
1999; Huang & Qi, 2017). It evaluates landslide triggering mechanisms, including
rainfall, earthquakes, and human activities (Qi & Huang, 2018).

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52