ANALOG AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Course Code: 18AUE211J

Unit 1: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Dr. CARUNAISELVANE.C
Assistant Professor
Automobile Engineering Department
SRM Institute of Science and Technology.
 Introduction
❖ Digital and Analog System: transmit signals from one place to
another like audio/video.
▪ Digital system uses binary format as 0 and 1
▪ Analog system uses electronic pulses with varying magnitude
to send data.
❖ Differences in Applications
❖ Digital technology has been most efficient in cellular phone
industry. Analog phones have become redundant even though
sound clarity and quality was good.

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 Analog Vs Digital
Key Digital System Analog System
Signal Type Digital System uses discrete signals as on/off Analog System uses continuous signals with
representing binary format. Off is 0, On is 1. varying magnitude.

Wave Type Digital System uses square waves. Analog system uses sine waves.
Technology Digital system first transform the analog waves Analog systems records the physical waveforms as
to limited set of numbers and then record them they are originally generated.
as digital square waves.
Transmission Digital transmission is easy and can be made Analog systems are affected badly by noise during
noise proof with no loss at all. transmission.
Flexibility Digital system hardware can be easily Analog system's hardwares are not flexible.
modulated as per the requirements.

Bandwidth Digital transmission needs more bandwidth to Analog transmission requires less bandwidth.
carry same information.
Memory Digital data is stored in form of bits. Analog data is stored in form of waveform signals.

Power Digital system needs low power as compare to Analog systems consume more power than digital
requirement its analog counterpart. systems.
Best suited Digital system are good for computing and Analog systems are good for audio/video
for digital electronics. recordings.
Cost Digital system are costly. Analog systems are cheap.
Example Digital system are: Computer, CD, DVD. Analog systems are: Analog electronics, voice
radio using AM frequency.

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 Bipolar (Junction) Transistor
❖ Bipolar junction transistor (BJT): three-terminal electronic
device constructed of doped semiconductor material and
may be used in amplifying or switching applications.
❖ Their operation involves both electrons and holes.
❖ Charge flow: due to directional diffusion of charge
carriers across a junction between two regions of different
charge concentrations.

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 BJT - Classification

A simplified structure of the npn transistor.

A simplified structure of the pnp transistor.

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 npn BJT

Cross-section of an npn BJT.

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 Current flow in NPN

Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

(Reverse current components due to drift of thermally generated minority
carriers are not shown.)
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 Current flow in PNP

Current flow in a pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

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 Circuit Symbols
❖ The arrow is at the emitter, and it points to the n-type
region. In the npn, the emitter is n type; in the pnp, the
base is n-type.

+ +
n
vCB
-
+ p vCE
vBE n -
-

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 Configurations
❖ There are three terminals; since we need two for input and
two for output, there are three possible combinations, with
one “common” terminal in each case.

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 Amplifier
❖ Amplifier: electronic circuit designed by using an active device like
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT), Field effect transistor (FET), that
changes, usually increases the amplitude of the input signal
(usually voltage and current).
❖ Small signal amplifier
❖ Large signal amplifier

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 BJT as amplifier
❖ Amplification is process through which weak input signal is
amplified to a larger level.
❖ Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier:
❖ AC voltage waveform which is applied at the base terminal will be
amplified and produced at the collector terminal.
❖ The characteristics of the CE amplifier are:
❖ Medium input resistance
❖ Medium output resistance
❖ Medium voltage gain.
❖ Medium current gain.

BJT as amplifier circuit

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 BJT as amplifier
❖ Gain: measure of the ability of a two-port circuit.
❖ The gain of an electronic device or circuit generally varies with the
frequency of the applied signal.

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 BJT as amplifier
❖ Current Gain
❖ The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and
output currents are observed, is called as Current gain.
❖ By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector current
(ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB).
❖ Current gain, β=ΔIC/ΔIB
❖ The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates
that input current becomes β times in the collector current.

❖ Voltage Gain
❖ The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and
output currents are observed, is called as Voltage gain.
❖ By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage
(ΔVCE) to the change in input voltage (ΔVBE).
❖ Voltage gain, AV=ΔVCE/ΔVBE.
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 BJT as amplifier
❖ Current Gain
❖ The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and
output currents are observed, is called as Current gain.
❖ By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector current
(ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB).
❖ Current gain, β=ΔIC/ΔIB
❖ The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates
that input current becomes β times in the collector current.

❖ Voltage Gain
❖ The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and
output currents are observed, is called as Voltage gain.
❖ By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage
(ΔVCE) to the change in input voltage (ΔVBE).
❖ Voltage gain, AV=ΔVCE/ΔVBE.
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 Field Effect Transistor
❖ Field effect transistor (FET): three-terminal electronic
device.
❖ Unipolar: operation involves either electrons or holes.
❖ Designed to overcome the drawbacks of the BJTs.
❖ It also consists of three terminals.
❖ Referred as - Source, Drain, and Gate.

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 Field Effect Transistor

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 MOSFET
❖ Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET):
voltage-controlled device.
❖ Applying a rated voltage to the gate pin - the MOSFET will
start conducting through the Drain and Source pin.
❖ Overcome the disadvantages in FETs: high drain resistance,
moderate input impedance, and slower operation.

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 Construction of MOSFET

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 CMOS
❖ CMOS - “Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor”.
❖ One of the most popular used today to form integrated circuits.
❖ The main advantage of CMOS over BIPOLAR technology is the
much smaller power dissipation.
❖ Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor transistor consists of
P-channel MOS (PMOS) and N-channel MOS (NMOS).

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

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 CMOS
❖ NMOS: p-type substrate with n-type source and drain diffused on it.
❖ PMOS: P-type Source and Drain diffused on an N-type substrate.

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 Biasing
❖ Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC
operating voltage or current conditions to the correct level so that
any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the transistor.
❖ Steady state operation of a BJT depends on: base current, collector
voltage, and collector current values.
❖ Establishing the correct operating point requires: selection of bias
resistors and load resistors to provide the appropriate input current
and collector voltage conditions.
❖ Central operating point is called the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or
Q-point for short.

BJT Base Collector Emitter

MOSFET Gate Drain Source

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 Biasing
❖ The correct biasing of the transistor is achieved using a process
known commonly as Base Bias.

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 Amplifier Classes
❖ Amplifiers are classified into classes according to their construction
and operating characteristics.
❖ The main operating characteristics of an ideal amplifier: linearity,
signal gain, efficiency and power output.
❖ Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the output signal which
varies within the amplifier circuit over one cycle of operation when
excited by a sinusoidal input signal.

❖ Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups.

❖ The first are the classically controlled conduction angle amplifiers
forming the more common amplifier classes of A, B, AB and C.
❖ The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-called “switching”
amplifier classes of D, E, F, G, S, T etc, which use digital circuits
and pulse width modulation (PWM)

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 Amplifier Classes
Class A Amplifier

Class B Amplifier

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 Amplifier Classes
Class AB Amplifier

Class C Amplifier
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 Amplifier Classes Summary

Amplifier Class Description Conduction Angle

Class-A Full cycle 360o of Conduction θ = 2π
Class-B Half cycle 180o of Conduction θ=π
Class-AB Slightly more than 180o of conduction π < θ < 2π
Class-C Slightly less than 180o of conduction θ<π
Class-D to T ON-OFF non-linear switching θ=0
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 Frequency response
❖ For any electronic circuit, the behavior of amplifiers is affected by
the frequency of the signal on their input terminal. This
characteristic is known as the frequency response.
▪ most important property of amplifiers.
▪ frequency range that amplifiers have been designed for, they
must deliver a constant and acceptable level of gain.
▪ depends directly on the components and the architecture
chosen for the design of the amplifier.

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 Effect of capacitor
❖ Capacitors have a property called reactance that is an equivalent
of the resistance.
❖ The reactance (XC) of capacitors depends on the frequency and
the value of the capacitor, it satisfies the following formula :

❖ Coupling capacitors: allow AC

components to pass while blocking DC
components.
❖ Decoupling capacitors: energy reservoirs
to prevent quick voltage changes.
❖ Bypassing capacitors: clean DC signals
by shunting unwanted AC components to
ground.
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 Differential amplifier
❖ Differential amplifier: also known as a difference amplifier or
op-amp subtractor
❖ Amplifies the difference between two input voltages but
suppresses any voltage common to the two inputs.
❖ Analog circuit with two inputs (V1 and V2) and one output (V0)
❖ V0 proportional to the difference between the two voltages.

Where
▪ V0 is the output voltage
▪ V1 and V2 are the input voltages
▪ Ad is the gain of the amplifier (i.e.
the differential amplifier gain)

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 Differential amplifier circuit
❖ There are two different types of differential amplifier circuits:
▪ BJT Differential Amplifier: built using transistors, either Bipolar
Junction Transistors (BJTs) or Field Effect Transistors (FETs)
▪ Opamp Differential amplifiers (IC 741): built using Operational
Amplifiers.

Using BJT Using OpAmp

Differential amplifier circuit

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 Differential amplifier circuit
❖ The main difference between differential amplifier and
operational amplifier is
▪ differential amplifier: amplifies a voltage difference between
its inputs,
▪ operational amplifier: type of differential amplifier with a large
open-loop gain, a high input impedance and a low output
impedance.

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 Differential amplifier applications
❖ motor and/or servo controllers,
❖ signal amplifiers,
❖ analog multipliers,
❖ switches,
❖ volume controllers,
❖ automatic gain controllers,
❖ amplitude modulators, etc., and

❖ cover a wide range of applications including those in

instrumentation systems, microphones, analog to digital
converters and myriad applications.

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 Dr. CARUNAISELVANE.C
Assistant Professor
Automobile Engineering Department
SRM Institute of Science and Technology.
[email protected]
+91 8265804594

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Thank you all for your attention

Carunaiselvane Carounagarane (S’16) received the B.Tech. degree in electrical and electronics engineering
and the M.Tech. degree in electrical drive and control from Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry
University, Puducherry, India, in 2008 and 2012, respectively. He has received the Ph.D. degree from
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India in 2020 under the title “Analysis of Large Hydrogenerators
Operating at Continuous Overloads”. He is currently working as Assistant Professor with Automobile
Engineering Department at SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India. From 2008 to 2010, he
was an officer grade Electrical Engineer with Larsen and Toubro Pvt. Ltd., India. From 2012 to 2014, he
has been an Assistant Professor with the Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Sri Manakula
Vinayagar Engineering College, Pondicherry University. His research interests include electrical
machines, power electronics, machine design, electric vehicle drives and controls, and renewable and
sustainable energy. Dr. Carunaiselvane has presented many research papers in various national and
international conferences and journals.