CE 314: Geotechnical Engineering

CE 314: Grading policy

Homework Assignments 20%

Lab 20%
Group Project 1 10%
Group Project 2 10%
Exam 1 20%
Exam 2 20%
*4 Assignments, 2 Group Projects and 9 Labs

Texts/References:

1) Ranjan, G. and Rao, A.S.R., 2005. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition,
New Age International (P) Ltd.
2) Das, B. M., 2007. Principles of Foundation Engineering, 6th Edition (Low price
edition), Cengage Learning.
3) Sivakugan, N., and Das, B.M., 2011. Geotechnical Engineering: A Practical
Problem Solving Approach, Cengage Learning.
4) Verghese, P. C., 2005. Foundation Engineering, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
CE 314: Course content

CE 314: 4 credits

❑ Geotechnical investigations, reconnaissance and

investigation plan, drilling, sampling, field-tests,
groundwater level, laboratory tests, etc.
❑ Stress-strain-strength behavior of soils, Triaxial
tests – UU, CU and CD tests, stress paths,
Skempton’s pore-pressure parameters, sample
disturbance
❑ Stability of slopes, Methods of slices and
 simplified Bishop method, factors of safety
CE 314: Course content…..continued

❑ Types of foundations - shallow/deep, isolated, combined,

mat, etc., contact pressure distributions, soil - foundation
interactions, basics of structural design
❑ Design of shallow foundation, bearing capacity, stress
distribution in soils, total and differential settlement, plate
load test, structural forces and design
❑ Retaining structures, gravity, cantilever, counterfort,
reinforced earth, etc., design and checks for stability
❑ Design of deep foundations, piles, pile groups, well
foundations, shaft and base resistances, downdrag, pile load
tests
 CE 314: Field Soil Testing
Typical Geotechnical Project
Geo-Laboratory ~ for testing
Design Office

~ for design & analysis soil

properties
 construction site
Soil Sampling
◼ Disturbed Samples: Natural soil structure is modified or
destroyed during sampling
◼ Representative Samples:
◼ Natural water content and mineral constituents of particular soil
layer are preserved
◼ Good for soil identification and water content

◼ Non-representative Samples:
◼ Water content altered and soil layers mixed up
◼ Of no use.
◼ Undisturbed Samples: Soil structure and the other
mineral properties are preserved to an extent. ◼ Some
disturbance is always there, e.g. due to stress release.
However it should be minimized in order to have suitable
sample for our analysis.
Standard Split Spoon Samplers

Thick wall (0.25in) cylinder

Sampling tube (dia 51 mm) is split along the
length Representative Disturbed soil samples

Shelby Tube
(Thin-wall) Sampler

Thin wall (1/16in = 0.0625 in)

sampling tube
Sampler pushed into the ground
hydraulically
Sample extruded from tube and
“Undisturbed” soil sample is
obtained
Sealing Sampling Tube
 Laboratory Test: Index Properties

◼ Basic soil properties such as

 (a) Specific gravity (Gs)
(b) Grain size distribution (dry/wet Sieve test, Hydrometer test),
(c) Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic limit (PL)
(d) OMC, Maximum Dry density(Compaction/Proctor test)
(e) Relative Density (Minimum & Maximum density for cohesionless soils)

◼ More tests for Problem soils:

(a) Shrinkage Limit, Free swell, Swell pressure for Expansive soils
(b) Pinhole test, Crumb test for Dispersive soils
(c) Chemical Test (PH, Sulphite, Chloride, Iron etc) for soils (may affected with
industrial waste or some other waste)
(d) Furnace test for Organic Soils (peats etc)

“Representative Disturbed “soil samples are used to perform these tests.

Laboratory Test: Engineering Properties

◼ Consolidation Properties (Oedometer setup)

 (i) Must to perform for Clayey soils;
(ii) Soil parameters obtained: Cc,Cv,Cr, OCR

◼ Permeability

◼ Shear Strength Properties

(i) Direct Shear test (for cohesionless soil)
(ii) Unconfined Compression test (for cohesive soil)
(iii) Triaxial test (for all soil types; cohesive, cohesionless)

“Undisturbed” soil samples are used to perform these

tests.

Field Test: In-situ shear strength Testing

◼ In-situ shear strength tests
◼ Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
◼ Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

◼ Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

◼ Vane Shear Test (VST)

◼ Dilatometer Test (DMT)

◼ Pressure meter Test (PMT)

SPT
Shear strength In DMT VST CPT PMT DCPT
Situ Testing
holes
14

In bore
 IS: 2131-1981
Standard Penetration Test
 Standard Penetration Test IS: 2131-1981
◼ Components
◼ Drilling Equipment
◼ Inner diameter of hole → 100 to 150 mm
◼ Casing may be used in case of soft/non-cohesive soils

◼ Split spoon sampler → IS:9640-1980

◼ Drive weight assembly

◼ Falling Weight = 63.5 Kg

◼ Fall height = 75 cm

◼ Others → Lifting bail, Tongs, ropes, screw jack, etc.

◼ Procedure
◼ The bore hole is advanced to desired depth and bottom is cleaned.
◼ Split spoon sampler is attached to a drill rod and rested on bore

hole bottom.
◼ Driving mass is dropped onto the drill rod repeatedly and the

sampler is driven into soil for a distance of 450 mm. The number of
 blow for each 150 mm penetration are recorded.
Standard Penetration Test
◼ Procedure (Cont….)
◼ N-value
◼First 150 mm penetration is considered as seating penetration ◼
The number of blows for the last two 150 mm penetration are
added together and reported as N-value for the depth of bore
hole.
◼ The split spoon sampler is recovered, and sample is
collected from split barrel so as to preserve moisture
content and sent to the laboratory for further analysis.
◼ SPT is repeated at every 750 mm or 1500 mm interval

for larger depths.

◼ Under the following conditions the penetration is

referred to as Refusal/Rebound and test is halted a)

 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration
b)100 blows are required for last 300 mm penetration
c) 10 successive blows produce no advancement
Precautions during SPT

◼ The ht. of free fall Must be 750 mm

◼ The fall of hammer must be free, frictionless and vertical ◼

Cutting shoe of the sampler must be free from wear & tear ◼
The bottom of the bore hole must be cleaned to collect
undisturbed sample
◼ When SPT is done in a sandy soil below water table , the
water level in the bore hole MUST be maintained higher
than the ground water level.
Otherwise: QUICK condition!!
Very Low N value

SPT
 Corrections
➢ Overburden correction
➢ Dilatancy correction
➢ Hammer energy correction

Correction for Overburden Pressure

:' .NCN=
N
N' = Corrected value of
observed N
CN = Correction factor for
overburden pressure
SPT Corrections
Correction for Dilatancy :
If the stratum consists of fine sand and silt below water table, for N' > 15,
the dilatancy correction is applied as

[ ]
SPT Hammer Energy Correction
◼ Energy is dissipated in some fraction during the impact, and the
output energy is usually in the range of 50% to 80% of energy
input.
 E
out
60%
◼For rope pully hammer in

system with safety =

E

◼ The N-value is standardized for 60 % energy output. For other

hammers, the N-value may be corrected in ratio of their energy
input
()
out in
EE NN=
60
60
. %
◼ Although IS 2131-1981 is silent on this issue, the correction may be
applied as per the requirement of the project.
Interpretation from SPT
IS 6403-1981

SPT Test Data

No. of blows per 0.30m

Data from different bore holes

Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
IS: 4968 (Part – I,
II)
◼ Components:
Cone (dia = 50 mm)
~usually made of steel
 SPT
Driving rods/drill rods ~marked at every 100 mm

Hollow (split spoon)

 DCPT
Solid (∴no samples)

DCPT Procedure
❑ Cone – drill rod – driving head assembly is installed
vertically on the ground and hammer is dropped from
standard height repeatedly

❑ The blow counts are recorded for every 100 mm penetration. A

sum of three consecutive values i.e. 300 mm is noted as the
dynamic cone resistance, Ncd at that depth.

❑ The cone is driven up to refusal or the project specified depth.

❑ In the end, the drill rod is withdrawn. The cone is left in the
 ground if unthreaded or recovered if threaded.
➢ No sample recovered
➢ Fast testing – less project cost / cover large area in due time
➢ Use of bentonite slurry is optional, which is used to reduce
friction on the driving rods.
• Modified cone is used in this case: diameter = 62.5 mm
DCPT – SPT Correlations for 50 mm dia. cone
Ncd = 1.5 N For depth < 3 m

Ncd = 1.75 N For depth 3 m to 6 m

Ncd = 2.0 N For depth > 6 m

DCPT – SPT Correlations for 62.5 mm dia cone

Without Ncbr = 1.5 N For depth < 4 m
bentonite slurry
 Ncbr = 1.75 N For depth 4 m to 9 m

Ncbr = 2.0 N For depth > 9 m

With Ncbr = N For all depths

circulating
bentonite
slurry

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

 IS: 4968 (Part –III)

Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

IS: 4968 (Part – III)
Components:

1. Steel cone and friction sleeve

2. Sounding rod 5. Measuring device: Pressure

◼ 15 mm diameter gauges to estimate load at the
◼ Attached to cone/sleeve tip
10 cm2 cross
3. Mantle tube: section
casing for sounding rod
sleeve friction
4. Driving mechanism: (fs)
Approximately 10 tonnes
capacity
 resistance (qT)

cone resistance (qc) or tip

CPT Procedure
◼ Push the sounding rod with cone into the ground for some specified
depth. Then push the cone with friction sleeve for another specified
depth (> 35 mm). Repeat the process with/without friction sleeve. ◼
Pushing rate = 1 cm/s
◼ Mantle tube is push simultaneously such that it is always above the
cone and friction sleeve.
◼ Tip Load, Qc = Load from pressure gauge reading + Wt. of cone +

Wt. of connecting sounding rods

q =x-sectional area off
◼ Tip resistance →
Q
 c c
cone = 10 cm2 A
c

◼ With friction sleeve → add its self weight as well → Qt = Qc + Qf

q
A−
◼ Frictional resistance → f surface area of friction
f
QQ sleeve
tc
=
q 10%
Cohesive
f f
◼
n
F
R
r
a
i
t
c
i
t
o
i
→
o r
 =Typical range →
q Granula
c 29 0%
r
Interpreted Soil Profile
CPT Cone Resistance, qc1 (MPa)

SPT Blow Count, N1(60) 0 1 0 2 0 3 0

Relative Density, Dr (%)
01
2
Fine Sand
w/ Shells (SP)
02468101214
(Blows/300 mm)
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 100

)
Depth Below Excavated Surface (m Interbedded
3 Fine Sand and Clay (CL) Sand (SP)
4
5 Silty Sand
6 (SP-SM)
7 Fine Silty Sand
8
(SM)
9
10 Gray Silty
 Mean-SD Mean+SD

Mean
From CPT From SPT

CPT Versus SPT

◼ CPT: Advantages over SPT

◼provides much better resolution, reliability ◼
versatility; pore water pressure, dynamic soil
 properties

◼ CPT: Disadvantages
◼ Does not give a sample
◼ Will not work with soil with gravel

◼ Need to mobilize a special rig

Typical
CPT
 Data

CPT Results
& Soil
Classification
Seismic
Cone
Penetration pore pressure
Test with measurement
s
(SCPTU)

Electric cone
is
required

34
Cone Tip

CPT Profile for

Relative

Piezocone
Depth (m)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15
Interpreted Soil Profile
EQ Drain Test Area 1 Sand
Silty sand/sand
Silt and Sandy
Silt

Sand to
Silty Sand
Resistance, qc (MPa)

0 2 4 6 8 1012
Fricton Ratio, Fr (%)

0123456
Pore Pressure, u (kPa)
-100 0 100 200
Density, Dr
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Seismic Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)

Seismic Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
 Vane Shear Test (VST)
into soft clay.
measuring (torque)
head

bore hole
◼ For clays, and mainly for soft
clays. ◼ Measure torque required to
quickly shear the vane pushed ∴ undrained

vaneh≈2d

soft clay
torque ➔ undrained shear strength cu ◼ Typical d = 20-100 mm.
 38
vane
Vane Shear Test
Interpretation:
Undrained shear
strength -
c

u
=
2. 2
T

πλ...
DH
 D 3.
λ 1 H
=+

For H = 2.D
0.2 T
c 73 u
3
= D

Test in Progress Failure surface

Dilatometer Test (DMT)
◼ Insert DMT using SPT
drilling equipment to the
desired depth and pressure
the cell
◼ Measure pressure when the membrane is flushed with
plate and when it enters
ground by 1.1 mm.
◼ Decrease the pressure &
measure the pressure when
membrane is again flushed
with plate.

◼ Determined:
◻ Elastic Modulus
◻ Soil Type and state
60 mm dia. Flexible

membrane
40
Pressure
meter
Test
(PMT)
Determined:
Elastic Young Mod, E
Shear Mod, G
Undrained shear strength, Su
Pressure meter Test (PMT)

Measurements:
 1. Fluid Pressure

2. Fluid volume change

42

Exploration Techniques

◼ Test Pits: Unlike boring, soil can be visually observed from the sides of
 the test pit. Pit is made by excavating ground (typical size =1.2mx1.2m)
considering sufficient working space.

◼ Trenches: Trenches are long shallow pits. They are more suitable for
exploration on slopes than pits.

◼ Suggestions:

◼ Test pits suggested if required exploration depth = 2-4m ◼

Trenches suggested for slopes (small)

◼ Boring suggested for exploration depth > 4m

Boring Techniques
◼ Wash Boring
◼ Auger Boring ◼ Rotary Boring ◼
 Percussion Boring ✓ Sample Disturbance
Use depends on ✓ Accuracy of soil exploration
✓ Nature of soil
✓ Water table Depth

Auger Boring for soils which can stay open without casing or drilling
mud. It is not possible for sands below water table.
Good for Highways, railways projects where small depth of soil
exploration is needed.
Auger
◼Push and rotate the
Boring auger until annular space
Procedure of auger fills up ◼
Withdraw the auger and
clean it ◼ Repeat the – Heavy duty pipe with
process cutting edge
– Lifted and then left to fall
freely

3. Sand Bailer
1. Hand Auger
– for shallow depth (3 - 5 m)

2. Power Driven Auger

– for larger depth
under self weight. Additional weight (sinker) may be added for ease of
sinking
 45

Auger Boring4.
Hollow Stem Auger
 46

Wash
 Boring
◼ A casing pipe of 2-3 m
length is driven into the
soil by a heavy drop
hammer.
◼ The soil inside the
casing is removed by
means of a chopping bit
attached to a drill rod
which forces water at
high pressure.
◼ Soil mixed with water
moves up in annular
gap between drill rod
and casing.
◼ Samples are obtained at
certain depth by
removing drill rod and
 pushing a sampler
instead.
47

Rotary Boring
❑ Design similar to wash boring
❑ Useful when soil is resistant to auguring
or wash boring
◼ Boring is done by rapidly
rotating drilling bits attached
to bottom of drilling rod.
◼ Soil/rock cuttings removed by
circulating drilling fluid
◼Samples are taken a certain
depths by removing drill rod
 and placing
sampler.
◼ Mud Rotary Drilling: Hollow drilling
rods are used to flow mud slurry
(Bentonite) to check caving in of the
material (soil) at bottom.
◼ Core Drilling: Core barrels with
diamond bit are used.
Percussion Boring

◼ Dry boring or water circulated to remove

loose soil
◼ Heavy drilling bit or chisel is dropped while

inside the casing to chop the hard soil. ◼

Percussion drilling rods may be replaced by
cables.
Bore Hole Stabilization
Drilling Mud Use of Casing
 50

Ground Water Observation

◼ High Permeability Soils
◼ Bore hole/Observation wells
(Observation time = 24 to 48 Hrs)

◼ Low Permeability Soils

◼ Casagrande Piezometer
(when water level in bore hole does not get stabilize in
Piezometer is recommended)

◼ Piezometers may be installed in bore hole for seasonal

variations in High permeability soils. Chemical analysis of
ground water may be performed if its constituents can be
damaging to foundation.
 Other Field Soil Testing
Field Test: other tests

◼ Other Field Soil Tests

1. Plate Load Test
2. California Bearing Ratio (CBR test)
Plate Load Test
This test is used to estimate the
Modulus of subgrade reaction and
Bearing Capacity Estimation: The
Bearing Capacity of soils. load is applied such that the rate of
penetration remains constant. A
load-settlement curve is produced.
Equations have been developed to
obtain undrained shear strength Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
from ultimate bearing capacity. Estimation: The load is applied to the
plate in increments of one fifth of the
design load. Time-settlement and load
settlement curves are then produced to
estimate the
 IITGN Plate
load test
Plate Load Test – IS:1888-1982

Bearing Plate:
◼ Rough mild steel bearing plate in circular or square shape
◼ Dimension: 30 cm, 45 cm, 60 cm, or 75 cm.
Thickness > 25 mm
◼ Smaller size for stiff or dense soil. Larger size for soft or loose soil ◼
Bottom of the plate is grooved for increased roughness. ◼ Concrete
blocks may be used to replace bearing plates.
 Plate Load Test – IS:1888-1982
Test Pit:
◼ Usually to the depth of foundation level.
◼ Width equal to five times the test plate
◼ Carefully leveled and cleaned bottom.
◼ Protected against disturbance or change in natural formation

Plan
 Section
Plate Load Test – IS:1888-1982
Procedure:

◼ Selection of Location
◼ Based on the exploratory boring.

◼ Test is carried out at the level of proposed foundation. If water table is

below the foundation level but the depth is less than width of plate
then the test is carried out at the level of water table. If the water table
is above the foundation level then the water level is reduced to
proposed foundation level by pumping out the water during the test;
however, in case of high permeability material perform the test at the
level of water table.
◼ In case the soil is expected to have significant capillary action and the
water table is within 1 m below the foundation, it becomes necessary
to perform the test at the level of water table in order to avoid the
effect of higher effective stresses due to capillary action resulting in
lower values of interpreted settlements.
◼ Reaction supports should be at least (3.5 x width of plate) away from the
test plate location, and loading arrangement should provide sufficient
working space.
◼ Test plate should be placed over a 5 mm thick sand layer and it should be
centered with the loading arrangement.
Plate Load Test – IS:1888-1982
Procedure: (Contd.)

◼ A seating pressure of 7 kPa is applied and then released after some time
before the test.
◼ Loads are applied in the increments of approximately 1/5th of the
estimated ultimate safe load. (Or, one may choose to increase the load at
an increment of 0.5 kN.)
◼ At each load settlement is recorded at time intervals of 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 16, 25
min and thereafter at intervals of one hour.
◼ For clayey soil, the load is increased when time settlement curve shows
that the settlement has exceeded 70-80% of the probable ultimate
settlement or a duration of 24 Hrs.
◼ For the other soils, the load is increased when the settlement rate drops
below 0.02 mm/min.
◼ The minimum duration for any load should, however, be at least 60 min.
◼ Dial gauges used for testing should have at least 25 mm travel and 0.01
mm accuracy.
◼ The load settlement curve can then be platted from settlement data.
Plate Load Test – Load-Settlement Curve
 Zero
Correction:
The intersection of the early straight line or nearly straight line with zero load
line shall be determined and subtracted from the settlement readings to allow
for the perfect seating of the bearing plate.
 Plate Load Test – Load-Settlement Curve
()
Terzaghi and Peck (1948): 2
⎤ S =Settlement of a foundation of f
⎡ +
SBB 30 width Bf(cm)
fp
f
S =Settlement of the test plate of
=⎢⎥()
SBB
⎢⎥+
ppf
30
⎣⎦ width Bp(cm) at the same load
p intensity as on the foundation
⎡⎤
Bond (1961): Soil Index
n
 Clay Loose sand Dense sand 1.40 t
Sandy clay Medium sand

S B ff
=⎢⎥⎢⎥
⎣⎦
S B pp
Plate Load Test: Bearing Capacity
◼ In case of dense cohesionless soil and highly cohesive soils ultimate bearing
capacity may be estimated from the peak load in load-settlement curve.
◼ In case of partially cohesive soils and loose to medium dense soils the ultimate
bearing capacity load may be estimated by assuming the load settlement curve
so as to be a bilinear relationship.
 63

Plate Load Test – Modulus of Subgrade reaction

(K)
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

IS : 2720 (Part 16)

▪ The ratio expressed in percentage of

force per unit area required to
penetrate a soil mass with a circular
plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate
of 1.25 mm/min to that required for.
corresponding penetration in a
standard material.
▪ Tests are performed out on natural or
compacted soils in water soaked or un
soaked conditions and the results so
obtained are compared with the curves
of standard test.
 Test for
swelling
Procedure

◼ Take the weight of empty mould

◼ Add water to the first specimen and compact it in accordance to Standard
proctor test or modified proctor test .
◼ After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface. ◼

Take sample for determination of moisture content.

◼ Take the weight of mould + compacted specimen.
◼ Place filter paper at top and bottom of the soil .

◼ Fix adjustable stem and perforated plate on the compacted soil specimen
in the mould along with 2.5kg surcharge load
◼ Place the above set up in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step
in case of unsoaked CBR).
◼ After four days, measure the swell reading and find % swell with the help
of dial gauge reading.
Procedure :Cont.…..

◼ Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain. ◼ Then place
the specimen under the penetration piston and place total surcharge load
of 4kg (2.5kg during soaking + 1.5 kg during testing) ◼ The load and
deformation gauges shall then be set to zero ◼ Load shall be applied to the
plunger into the soil at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute.
◼ Reading of the load shall be taken at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5,
4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm
◼ Remove the plunger and determine the water content of the soil. ◼

Repeat the test on the rear end of the specimen

◼ Plot load versus deformation curve

Note :
The maximum load and penetration shall be recorded if it occurs for
 a penetration of less than 12.5 mm
Calculation

◼ The expansion ratio :

Where,
df=final dial gauge reading in mm(after 96 hrs),
ds=initial dial gauge reading in mm, and
h=initial height of the specimen in mm.

◼ California bearing Ratio (CBR):

Where,
◼ PT=corrected unit ( or total ) test load corresponding to the chosen penetration
from the load penetration curve
◼ PS=unit ( or total ) standard load for the same depth of penetration as for PT
taken from the table given in Fig.

Standard values IS : 2720 (Part 16)

• Generally, the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration will be greater than

that at 5 mm penetration and in such a case, the former shall be
taken as the CBR value for design purposes.

• If the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5 mm exceeds

that for 2.5 mm, the test shall be repeated. If identical results follow,
the CBR corresponding to 5 mm penetration shall be taken for
design.
Thank You