Haramaya University

College of Computing and Informatics

Department of Computer Science

Data Communication and Computer Networks

 CHAPTER 1
1. Data Communications
When we communicate, we are sharing information.

This sharing can be local or remote.

Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while

remote communication takes place over distance.

The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and

television, means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far").

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed

upon by the parties creating and using the data.
 Cont..
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a

communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs).

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four

fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 Cont..
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device
or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late
are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
 Cont..
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms.
If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
Components
A data communications system components

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information

include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,

telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,

telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from

sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media

Cont..
Data Representation Techniques
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text
 In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0’s or 1’s).

 Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols.

 Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.

 Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a
symbol or character used in any language in the world.
 Cont..
Numbers

Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent
numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations.

Images

Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the
resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case,
there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store
the image.
 Cont..
After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit
pattern.
The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image.
 For an image made of only black and- white dots (e.g., a
chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel.
 Cont..
Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images.
It is continuous, not discrete.
Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we
create a continuous signal.
In Chapters 4 and 5, we learn how to change sound or music to a digital or an analog
signal.
 Cont..
Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie.
Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a
TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a
discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.
Data Transmission Signals
When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first
converted into electromagnetic signals.
Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such
as file on the disk.
Both analog and digital data can be represented in digital or
analog signals.
 Cont..
1. Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage
pulses. Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
2. Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.
Digital Transmission
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital.
For a computer to use the data, it must be in discrete digital form.
Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital form.
To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital
form.
 Cont..
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done
in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is
necessary whereas block coding is optional.
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
Digital data is found in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series
of 1s and 0s.
Cont..
 Cont..
Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital
data.
At the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and at
the receiver side the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital
signal.
There are three types of line coding schemes available:
Line Coding
Uni-Polar
Polar
BiPolar
 Cont..
1. Unipolar Encoding
 Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data.
 In this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no
voltage is transmitted.
 It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it
either represents 1 or 0.
 Cont..
2. Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values.
Polar encodings is available in four types:
Polar Non Return to Zero (Polar NRZ) It uses two different voltage levels to represent
binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0.
Return to Zero (RZ): Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit
ended and when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not
synchronized.
 Manchester: This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two
halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
 Differential Manchester: This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transits at
the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
 Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium, they tend to deteriorate. This may have
many reasons as given:
Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently strong.
When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it covers
distance, it loses strength.
Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of
dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
 Cont..
Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the
signal speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that
signal reaches destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is
very critical that some bits reach earlier than the previously sent ones.
Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be
Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried.
Noise can be characterized in one of the following class:
 Cont..
Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce
noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.

Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause noise in the
medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two different frequencies are sharing a
medium and one of them has excessive strength or the component itself is not
functioning properly, then the resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected.
 Cont..
Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media.
This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second
medium.
Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as
lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is
mostly affected by this sort of noise.
Modes of Data transmission
It Shows direction of signal/data flow. Communication between
two devices can be simplex, half- duplex, or full-duplex.
 Cont..
Simplex
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
 The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
 Other example is TV transmission.
Half-Duplex
 In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
 When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time. Eg. Military personnel Radio
 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of
transmission can be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing
divides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which is then
shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media
(cable), and light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called
Multiplexer divides the physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other
end of communication, a De-multiplexer receives data from a single medium,
identifies each, and sends to different receivers.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used.
FDM is an analog technology.
FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical
channels and allocates one user to each channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has
exclusive access of it.
All channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap
with each other.
Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a
frequency which is not used by either channel.
Cont..
Time Division Multiplexing
TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied
on analog signals as well.
 In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means
of time slot.
Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot only.
Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot
i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given
time slot.
TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer
and De-multiplexer are timely synchronized, and both switch to
next channel simultaneously.
Cont..
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Light has different wavelength (colors).
In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths.
This is an analog multiplexing technique and is done
conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as
signals.
Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be
incorporated to accommodate more data signals.
Code Division Multiplexing
Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency
by using Code Division Multiplexing.
FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows
its users to full bandwidth and transmit signals all the time
using a unique code.
 CDM uses orthogonal codes to spread signals.
Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip.
Signals travel with these codes independently, inside the whole
bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the chip code signal
it has to receive.
Switching
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from
source towards destination which are not directly connected.

Networks have interconnecting devices, which receives data

from directly connected sources, stores data, analyze it and
then forwards to the next interconnecting device closest to the
destination.
Data Transmission, Error Detection and
Correction
Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure
data bit streams are transmitted with certain level of accuracy.
But to understand how errors is controlled, it is essential to know
what types of errors may occur.
There may be three types of errors:
 Single bit error: In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.
 Multiple bits error: Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.
 Burst error: Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.
Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:
Error detection
Error correction
Error Detection
• Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity
Check and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check).
A. Parity Check
One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s
either even. The sender while creating a frame counts the number of 1s
in it.
B. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Is a different approach to detect if the frame received contains valid
data.
This technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent.
The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and
calculates the remainder
Error Correction
In digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:
Backward Error Correction: When the receiver detects an error in
the data received, it requests back the sender to retransmit the
data unit.
Forward Error Correction: When the receiver detects some error in
the data received, it uses an error-correcting code, which helps it
to auto-recover and correct some kinds of errors.
NB: Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently
used where retransmitting is not expensive, for example fiber optics.
But in case of wireless transmission retransmitting may cost too
much, in such case Forward Error Correction is used.
1.2 Computer Network
Network is a system of interconnected computers and
computerized peripherals such as printers is called computer
network.
This interconnection among computers facilitates information
sharing among them.
Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless
media.
Computer network is a system in which a number of independent
computers are linked together to share data and peripherals, such
as files and printers.
 In the modern world, computer networks have become almost
indispensable.
Computer Network and its Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a
network.
They provide numerous advantages:
Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
Information sharing by using Web or Internet
Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
IP phones
Video conferences
Parallel computing
Instant messaging
Classification of Computer Network
Computer networks are classified based on various factors.
They include:
Geographical Area
 PAN
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN
Architecture
 Peer-to-Peer
 Client/server
Geographical Area
Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span.
A network can be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its
Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the whole
geographical world.
Personal Area Network
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal
to a user.
This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless
computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless
printers, and TV remotes.
 Cont..
Local Area Network
A computer network spanned inside a building and operated
under single administrative system is generally termed as Local
Area Network (LAN).
Usually, LAN covers an organization offices, schools, colleges or
universities.
Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as
two to as much as 16 million.
LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end
users.
The resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet
are easily sharable among computers.
 Cont..
LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing
equipment. It may contains local servers serving file storage
and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on
private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN
works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is
most widely employed LAN technology and uses Star topology,
while Token-ring is rarely seen.
LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.
 Cont..
Metropolitan Area Network
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands
throughout a city such as cable TV network.
It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs.
This service enables its users to expand their Local Area Networks.
For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its
offices in a city.
Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics.
 MAN works in between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network.
MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.
 Cont..
Wide Area Network
As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a
wide area which may span across provinces and even a whole
country.
Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network.
These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs.
Since they are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs
use very expensive network equipment.
WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical
Network (SONET).
WAN may be managed by multiple administration.
Based Architecture
Peer-to-Peer
In a peer-to-peer network, computers on the network are equal, with
each workstation providing access to resources and data.
This is a simple type of network where computers are able to
communicate with one another and share what is on or attached to
their computer with other users.
Client-server
The client-server architecture refers to a system that hosts, delivers,
and manages most of the resources and services that the client
requests.
In this model, all requests and services are delivered over a network,
and it is also referred to as the networking computing model or client
server network.
 Network Components
Computer networks components are both hardware parts as
well as the software part.
Hardware Components:
Servers - computers that provide shared resources for network users.
Clients - computers that access shared resources provided by servers.
Media - the wires that make the physical connections.
Shared peripherals - additional hardware resources provided by servers.
a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Hubs
d. Repeaters
e. Gateways
f. Switches
Software Components
Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is
typically installed in the server and facilitate workstations in a
network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.
Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by
each computer for data communication.
Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for
computer networks.
The two popular protocol suites are −
a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
b. TCP / IP Model
Network Topology
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer
systems or network devices are connected to each other.
Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the
network.
A physical topology is how they are actually interconnected with
wires and cables
A logical topology is how devices appear connected to the user.
Types of Physical Topology
There are various types of physical topology.
(a)Star topology
(b)Bus topology
(c)Ring topology
(d)Mesh topology
Bus topology
A single communication
line or cable is shared among all devices
in this type of topology.
Both ends of this communication line have a terminator, which
removes the sent data once it reaches both terminal ends.
If a failure is encountered in the communication line, all devices
connected to it are affected and eventually stop functioning.
 Cont..
Star topology — A central device, known as a hub device, is
involved in a star topology.
All hosts or devices in this type of topology are connected to
the central device through a point-to-point connection.
The hub device can either be a layer-1 device (e.g., repeater,
hub), layer-2 device (e.g., switch, bridge), or layer-3 device (e.g.,
router, gateway).
 Cont..
Ring topology: In ring topology, each host machine connects to
exactly two other machines, creating a circular network structure.

Mesh Topology: This type of topology involves one host

getting connected to several other hosts,
Network Models
Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all
communication systems.
OSI model is established by International Standard Organization
(ISO).
OSI Reference Model has seven layers:
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol and is a suite of communication protocols used to
interconnect network devices on the internet.
TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private
computer network (an intranet or extranet).
The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a
physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optics
Unguided
Wireless LAN
 Radio Communication
Microwave Communication
Infrared Communication
Wi-Fi
Bluetooth Technology
Satellite communication
Guided Transmission Media
Twisted Pair Cable: it is made of two plastic insulated copper
wires twisted together to form a single media.
Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and
another is used for ground reference.
The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-
magnetic interference) and crosstalk.
 Cont..
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use.
 In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6 cables are mostly used.
UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper.
The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid conductor.
The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.
The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that
too in turn encased by insulator sheath.
This all is covered by plastic cover.
 Cont..
Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying
high frequency signals than that of twisted pair cable.
The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise
and cross talk.
Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable
TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet), and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet).
RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T.
BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far ends.
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light.
When light ray hits at critical angle, it tends to refracts at 90
degree.
This property has been used in fiber optic.
The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or
plastic.
From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at
the other end light detector detects light stream and converts it
to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed.
Unguided Transmission Media
Wireless LAN: Wireless transmission is a form of unguided
media.
Wireless communication involves no physical link established
between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and
interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer
or wireless device, it converts the digital data into wireless
signals and spread all over within its frequency range.
The receptor on the other end receives these signals and
converts them back to digital data.
 Cont..
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large
wavelength it can penetrate through walls and structures alike.
Radio waves can have wavelength from 1mm – 100,000km and
have frequency ranging from 3Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to
300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency).
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls
whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and bounce back.
The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance.
High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the
ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s surface.
 Cont..
Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100MHz tend to travel in a straight
line and signals over them can be sent by beaming those waves
towards one particular station.
Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and
receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1mm – 1meter
and frequency ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it.
As shown in picture above, multiple antennas can be aligned to
reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not
penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather
conditions and the frequency it is using.
 Cont..
Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and
microwaves. It has wavelength of 700nm to 1mm and
frequency ranges from 300GHz to 430THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication
purposes such as television and its remote.
Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature.
Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like
obstacles.
 Cont..
Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for
data transmission is light or optical signaling.
This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in
straight line.
Hence the sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight.
Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of
communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be
installed.
Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of
precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers
source.
END