Module II: Petrology

The Grand Canyon in Arizona, a layered bands of red rock, revealing

Faculty: Rajesh P. Shukla 1
millions of years of geological history in cross-section.
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Petrology (from the Greek word Petra means, “rock” and logos means “study”) is the
branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of
rocks.

Petrology is the study of the origin and composition of rocks, with particular emphasis on the
physical, chemical, and possibly biological processes that are involved in the formation of
rocks.

Petrology refers to the scientific study of rocks and the conditions which influence their
formation.

By incorporating various principles of geophysics and geochemistry, modern petrologists

can establish the origins of rocks and their chemical characteristics. 3
Branches

Igneous petrology: focuses on the composition and texture of igneous rocks.

Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary

rocks.

Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition and texture of metamorphic

rocks

Experimental petrology employs high-pressure, high-temperature apparatus to

investigate the geochemistry and phase relations of natural or synthetic materials at
elevated pressures and temperatures.

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Danxia Landform
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Fairy Chimneys rock formation in Love Valley, Cappadocia, Turkey
Monument Valley (border of Utah and Arizona)
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Shilin Stone Forest 8
The Chocolate Hills (Bohol in the Philippines) 9
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Arches National Park
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Taj Mahal in Agra

Redford, Delhi, made-up 13

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Carved from One Rock (756 to 773 CE)
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Ajanta cave, Aurangabad, India
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 https://www.touropia.com/natural-rock-formations/

https://www.backpackertravel.org/wanderlist/101-incredible-rock-formations-around-world/

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Definitions of Rock
Aggregates of mineral grains that are connected by strong and permanent forces and have
significant true cohesion and/or tensile strength .
A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, and certain non-mineral materials such
as fossils and glass.
In geology, ‘rock’ may be defined as a natural aggregate of minerals.
A natural aggregate of minerals that have significant true cohesion and/or tensile strength is
defined as rock rather than soil.
The geological materials in rocks may be inorganic, but they can also include organic
materials such as the partially decomposed plant matter preserved in coal.
A rock can be composed of only one type of geological material or mineral, but many are
composed of several types. 18
 Soils are aggregates of mineral grains that can be
separated by slight mechanical means such as agitation
in water. Soils are the end-products of the mechanical or
chemical weathering of rocks.

On the other hand, rocks are aggregates of mineral

grains that are connected by strong and permanent
forces.
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For a geologist, the term "rock" means all the material found
in the Earth's crust regardless of the degree of bonding
between the mineral grains,

whereas the term “soil” means for the upper part of the
ground surface that is supporting the vegetation.
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 The term "rock" refers to the intact material,

whereas "rock mass“ is used to describe the material in situ

which can be seen as an "assemblage" of blocks of intact
rock material separated by discontinuities, fractures, etc...

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Concrete and dry clay are hard as well; are they also
rock?
Answer: No, dry clay and concrete are not rock.
Although concrete is as hard as rock, it is artificial
material,

while clay becomes very soft when saturated.

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Rock as a Construction Material

• For laying structural foundations to support structures

• For constructing Underground openings

• For protecting slopes

• For supporting railway tracks –Ballasts

• As base and sub-base for roads and runways

• As aggregate in concrete

• Making facia for buildings

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 Surface structures
• Low rise (Housing)
• High rise (Tower blocks)

• High load (Dams, power plants, bridges)

Transportation routes
• Highways, railways
• Canals
• Pipelines

Shallow excavations
• Quarries

• Open pits, strip mines

• Trenches, cuttings 24
Energy development
• Petroleum
• Geothermal

• Nuclear (Power plants, Waste Disposal)

• Energy storage caverns

Deep excavations
• Mines (Temporary and Permanent)
• Tunnels (Roads)

• Underground chambers (Power stations, storage, recreational)

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Objectives of Rock behaviour study
For most engineering projects involving rocks, the objectives of rock mechanics are
essentially consist of three things:

• To determine the properties of the rock and the rock mass associated with the project of
interest. These properties may be physical, mechanical, hydraulic or thermal. In addition
to these properties, the in situ stress field needs to be measured as well.

• To model and predict the behaviour of the rock mass when subjected to the new loads
associated with the engineering structure to be built.

• Finally, once the engineering structure is built and upon its completion, the third
objective is to observe and monitor its response and behaviour with adequate
instrumentation.
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Rock Classification
A rock is a solid made up of a bunch of different minerals. Rocks are generally not uniform or

made up of exact structures that can be described by scientific formulas. Scientists generally

classify rocks by how they were made or formed.

• Geological Classification

• Chemical classifications

• Physical classifications

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Primary rock types by geologic origin (Geological Classification)

Geologists classify rocks according to how they are formed. The geological classification is
therefore a genetic one. Rocks are usually separated into three groups:

Igneous rocks: rocks formed by the solidification of a hot molten rock called magma. They
consist of a complex crystalline assemblage of minerals such as quartz, feldspars, micas,
pyroxenes, amphibole and olivine;

Sedimentary rocks: Rocks formed by the accumulation, compaction and cementation of

pieces of other rocks and possible organic debris;

Metamorphic rocks: rocks that are formed by transformation of existing rocks by the action
of temperature and pressure. 28
 Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous

Composed of
fragments

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Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a series of
processes that create and
transform the types of rocks in
Earth's crust.

When magma pours out on

Earth's surface, it is called lava.

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Sediment is small pieces of rock, shell, and plant and animal matter that is moved and
deposited by water, wind, or ice.

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Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of magma above/below the earth’s surface. The
structure of igneous rocks varies according to the depth at which magma solidified.

a) If the magma hardens at a significant depth from the earth surface, then the rocks possess
coarsely grained crystalline structure and these rocks are known as plutonic rocks. Ex.
Granite

b) If magma hardens at shallow depth from the earth’s surface, the finely grained crystalline
structure of rock will be obtained. These rocks are called as hypabyssal rocks. Ex.: Dolerite

c) If the solidification of the rock occurs near to the earth surface, then the rocks obtained
are known as volcanic rocks. These rocks possess extremely fine-grained structure. Ex.
Basalt
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Granite rock
Dolerite rock 34
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Spain, Canary Islands
Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of sediments obtained by the

weathering of pre-existing rocks and these sediments are transported by various
agents such as water, wind, frost, gravity, etc. These transported sediments form
layered structures and give rise to the sedimentary deposits.

The process by which this otherwise unconsolidated material becomes solidified into
rock is variously referred to Lithification (literally turned into rock), Diagenesis or
Cementation.

Ex.: Sandstone, limestone, lignite, etc.

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Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico (Limestone)
 Gibraltar Rock

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Sandstone Outcrop Gibraltar
Germany

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Lignite

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Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed by great heat and pressure. They
slate
are generally found inside the Earth's crust where enough heat
and pressure exist to form the rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are often made from other types of rock.

For example, shale, a sedimentary rock, can be changed, or

metamorphosed, into a metamorphic rock such as slate or
gneiss, soapstone, and schist etc.
gneiss

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Physical classifications of rocks
Physical classification mainly depends upon the structure of the
rock. It may be classified into; Stratified Rocks; Unsatisfied Rock
or Massive Rocks; Foliated or Laminated Rocks

Stratified Rocks : These are the rocks which have distinct layer
in their structure i.e. these rocks show a layered structure.

Stratified rock possesses planes of stratification and can be

easily spilt up along these planes .

The planes are also known as cleavage planes or bedding planes.

Limestone , slate , shale , sandstone , marble are the examples
of stratified rocks. 42
Unstratisfied Rock or Massive Rocks : These are the rocks
which do not show distinct layers in their structure. They
have the compact massive structure. Unstratified rocks
cannot be separated in top layers. The examples of such
rocks are Quarzite ,Basalt etc.

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Foliated or Laminated Rocks : These are the rocks which have the tendency to spilt up in a
definite direction only. Foliated structure is quite common in metamorphic rocks.

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Critically differentiate between
Laminated and Foliated Rocks?

(Tomorrow Evening)

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Chemical classifications of rocks
Rocks are classified into three types based on their chemical composition and they are as
follows :

• Argillaceous rocks

• Calcareous rocks

• Siliceous rocks

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Argillaceous Rocks: The main constituent of these type of rocks is clay or alumina (Al2O3).
This clay or alumina remains mixed up with silicious , calcareous and carboneous matter in
varying proportion .In this type of rocks generally clay content is greater than 50%. Ex.:
Laterite, Slate , Shale etc.

Laterite Slate 47
 • Durable
Slate • Aesthetically Pleasing
• Fire Resistant
• Environmentally Friendly 48
Silicious Rocks : Silica (SiO2) is the predominant constituent in this type of rocks . Silica
content is more than 50% in this types of rocks.

Hardness and durability are main properties of silicious rocks. Ex.: sandstone , granite ,trap,
syenite etc.

Granite Sandstone
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Calcereous Rocks : The principle constituent of this type of rocks is calcium. Ex. Marble ,
Dolomite , Limestone etc

Dolomite
Marble Limestone

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Engineering classification of weathered rock

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Completely weathered (CW) Highly weathered (HW)

Moderately weathered (MW) Slightly weathered (SW)

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Engineering Classifications
“When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know

something about it, but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers,

your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge,

but you have scarcely in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science.” Lord Kelvin

The rating and ranking systems have become popular in every part of life in the twenty-first

century to classify the things.

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Engineering rock mass classification systems have been widely used with great
success for the following reasons:
• They provide better communication between planners, geologists, designers, contractors,
and engineers.
• An engineer’s observations, experience, and judgment are correlated and consolidated
more effectively by an engineering (quantitative) classification system.
• Engineers prefer numbers in place of descriptions; hence, an engineering classification
system has considerable application in an overall assessment of the rock quality.
• The classification approach helps in the organization of knowledge and is amazingly
successful.
• An ideal application of engineering rock mass classification occurs in the planning of
hydroelectric projects, tunnels, caverns, bridges, silos, building complexes, hill roads, rail
tunnels, and so forth. 54
The purpose of an engineering classification of rocks is to group rocks and rock masses with similar
engineering properties

**When designing a project, the

average of rock mass ratings
(RMR) and geological strength
index (GSI)
should be considered in the
design of support systems.**

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Classification of Bieniawski
The classification of Bieniawski, also known as the Geomechanics Classification system.

The geomechanics classification or the rock mass rating (RMR) system was initially
developed at the South African Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) on the
basis of experiences in shallow tunnels in sedimentary rocks.

In recent years, it has been applied to the preliminary design of rock slopes and foundations
as well as to the estimation of the in-situ deformation modulus and strength of rock masses.

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The geomechanics Classification system consists of rating the importance of several intact
and rock mass properties, separately. A Rock Mass Rating coefficient called RMR is
introduced and consists of the sum of six separate ratings.

1. Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock material; 2. Rock quality designation (RQD).

3. Spacing of discontinuities. 4. Groundwater conditions.

5. Condition of discontinuities, given as

5a Length, persistence; 5b Separation

5c Smoothness; 5d Infilling

5e Alteration / weathering

6. Orientation of discontinuities.
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6. Guidelines for classification of discontinuity conditions

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Weathering of Rock
• Weathering is the process of disintegration of rock from physical, chemical, and
biological stresses. Weathering is influenced by temperature and moisture (climate).
• As rock disintegrates, it becomes more susceptible to further physical, chemical, and
biological weathering due to the increase in exposed surface area.
• Soils are formed over thousands of years through the weathering of parent rocks.

There are three main types of weathering;

• Physical,

• Chemical and

• Biological.
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 Weathering – Erosion - Deposition
Weathering - Breakdown of rock in place.
Erosion - Removal of that weathered material.
Deposition - End of sediment transport and accumulation of transported sediment.
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 Transported Soil
Residual Soil
(deposited closed to (Transported and finally
parent rock)
deposited in another location)

Geological Cycle 62
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Physical weathering:

It is caused by the breaking down of rocks by physical force (mechanical force) without any change
in the chemical nature of the rocks.

Physical weathering is the influence of processes such as freezing and thawing, wetting and drying,
and shrinking and swelling on rocks and other sediments, leading to their breakdown into finer and
finer particles.

No change in chemical
composition.

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The breaking of rock through the action of ice is a form of physical weathering. 73
Transported/Sedimentary Soil: Created at one location, transported
and finally deposited in another location.

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https://www.slideshare.net/mrcoyleteach/weathering-and-erosion-introduction 77
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Residual soil: is the material resulting from the in situ weathering of the
parent rock. Remains near to parent rock without getting transported.
Black cotton soil, Laterite soil

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Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rocks through a series of chemical processes
such as acidification, dissolution and oxidation.

Some minerals, while stable within solid rock, become less stable on being more exposed to
the atmosphere and so begin to alter in the rocks near the surface, destabilising the rocks.

Temperature and, especially, moisture are critical for chemical weathering; chemical
weathering of rock minerals generally occurs more quickly in hot, humid climatic regions.

Conversion of original
rock minerals to new
soil minerals.
Results in Fine grain
soil.

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Fine Grained Soil
Particle diameter < 0.075 mm

Coarse Grained Soil

Particle diameter > 0.075 mm
Coarse grained soil)
Fine grained soil

Chemical

Physical
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 Carbonation: When water reacts with carbon dioxide, it creates carbonic acid, which can
dissolve softer rocks.

Dissolution: Limestone and rocks high in salt dissolve when exposed to water. The water
carries away the ions.

Hydrolysis: Minerals in the rock react with water and surrounding acids. The hydrogen
atoms replace other cations. Feldspar hydrate to clay.

Oxidation-Reduction: Water and rock particles react with oxygen. This causes the minerals
and materials to rust and turn red.

If the area is hot and humid, chemical weathering is more prevalent. If it is drier, physical
weathering is more predominant.
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https://www.worldofchemicals.com/443/chemistry-articles/mechanism-of-chemical-weathering.html
"Feldspar" is the name of a large group of rock-forming silicate minerals that make up over 50% of Earth's crust.
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https://www.slideshare.net/mrcoyleteach/weathering-and-erosion-introduction 86
Dissolution

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Biological weathering is the effect of living organisms on the break down of rock.

This involves, for example, the effects of plant roots and soil organisms. Respiration of
carbon dioxide by plant roots can lead to the formation of carbonic acid which can
chemically attack rocks and sediments and help to turn them into soils.

Plants and animals release acid forming chemicals that cause weathering and also
contribute to the breaking down of rocks and landforms.

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Plant Wedging 89